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REPORTS 


OF  THE 


UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS 


TO  THE 


PARTS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION,  1867. 


PUBLISHED 


UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE  BY  AUTHORITY 
OF  THE  SENATE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


EDITED  BY 

WILLIAM  P.  BLAKE, 

COMMISSIONER  ©F  THE  STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


VOLUME  I. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1870. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction,  with  Selections  prom  the  Correspondence  of 
Commissioner  General  N.  M.  Beckwith  and  others. 

General  Survey  of  the  Exposition,  with  a  Report  on  the 
Character  and  Condition  of  the  United  States  Section. 

Report  on  the  Fine  Arts.  By  Frank  Leslie. 

The  Fine  Arts  applied  to  the  Useful  Arts. 

Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  International  Committee 
on  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins. 

Bibliography  of  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867. 


General  Alphabetical  Index  to  the  Reports. 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION,  1867. 
REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


INTRODUCTION, 

WITH 

SELECTIONS  FROM  THE  CORRESPONDENCE 

OF 

COMMISSIONER  GENERAL  BECKWITH  AND  OTHERS, 

SHOWING  THE 

ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1870. 


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INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  REPORTS  OF  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


Among  the  most  instructive  developments  of  modern  civilization 
are  those  international  exhibitions  which,  commencing  in  London  in 
1851,  under  the  inspiration  and  auspices  of  the  late  sagacious  and  public- 
spirited  Prince  Albert,  have  been  succeeded  by  more  and  more  extended 
and  comprehensive  ones,  closing  in  the  Universal  Exposition  held  at 
Paris  during  the  summer  of  1867.  The  projectors  of  this  great  interna¬ 
tional  reunion,  after  mature  study  of  preceding  exhibitions,  evolved  a 
programme  which  embraced  in  its  scope  the  productions  and  results  of 
every  industry,  art,  and  science,  as  well  as  their  processes  and  methods 
of  operation.  This  was  done  not  merely  for  purposes  of  competition 
and  the  distribution  of  prizes,  but  also,  and  more  especially,  with  the 
object  of  passing  in  review,  under  the  scrutiny  of  the  most  accomplished 
experts  and  men  of  science,  all  of  the  fruits  of  the  skill,  industry,  and 
inventive  and  artistic  genius  of  every  nation,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
exact  condition  and  the  comparative  merits  or  defects  of  the  industrial 
development  of  each  nation  and  of  each  description  of  article  or  process 
could  be  set  forth  ;  the  progress  which  such  examination  indicated, 
measured,  and  explained ;  and  the  highest  standards  of  excellence  be 
placed  within  the  reach  of  all  by  means  of  carefully  prepared  reports. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  industrial  epoch  which  dates  from 
the  London  Exhibition  of  1851  the  profound  significance  and  value  of 
sitch  exhibitions  have  been  realized  by  the  people  and  governments  of 
the  civilized  nations.  Their  beneficent  influences  are  many  and  wide¬ 
spread  ;  they  advance  human  knowledge  in  all  directions.  Through  the 
universal  language  of  the  products  of  labor  the  artisans  of  all  countries 
hold  communication ;  ancient  prejudices  are  broken  down  ;  nations  are 
fraternized;  generous  rivalries  in  the  peaceful  fields  of  industry  are 
excited ;  the  tendencies  to  war  are  lessened ;  and  a  better  understanding 
between  labor  and  capital  is  fostered.  It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  these 
great  exhibitions  are  planned  and  execute  !  in  the  interests  of  the  mass 
of  the  people.  In  this  last  instance  those  industries,  products,  and 
organizations  designed  to  promote  the  material  and  moral  well-being  of 
the  people  were  made  prominent,  and  the  underlying  animating  spirit 
and  impulse  of  the  whole  plan  were  for  the  advancement,  prosperity,  and 
happiness  of  the  people  of  all  nations.  One  of  their  most  salutary 
results  is  the  promotion  of  an  appreciation  of  the  true  dignity  of  labor, 
and  its  paramount  claims  to  consideration  as  the  basis  of  national  wealth 
and  power. 

Such  exhibitions  have  become  national  necessities  and  duties,  and  as 


4 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


such  it  may  be  expected  that  they  will  be  repeated  again  and  again 
hereafter. 

The  programme  laid  down  by  the  French  Imperial  Commission  under 
the  presidency  of  Prince  Napoleon,  charged  with  the  preparation  and 
management  of  the  Exposition,  made  it  an  absolute  condition  for  the 
admission  of  exhibitors  from  any  country  that  the  government  of  such 
country  should  first  accept  the  invitation  and  assume  the  responsibility 
of  forming  the  exhibition  of  its  section ;  and  in  that  event,  suggested 
the  appointment  of  some  competent  person  to  be  intrusted  with  the 
general  supervision  of  the  business  on  its  behalf,  and  to  communicate 
with  the  Imperial  Commission. 

On  the  27th  of  March,  1865,  the  government  of  France,  through  M. 
de  Geofroy,  their  charge  d’affaires  residing  at  this  capital,  invited  this 
government  to  participate,  upon  the  terms  above  indicated,  in  the  Expo¬ 
sition.  The  considerations  which  have  been  hereinbefore  mentioned,  and 
their  special  application  to  this  country  at  a  period  when  it  was  con¬ 
cluding  its  repression  of  a  formidable  rebellion,  made  it  peculiarly 
desirable  that  the  United  States  should  not  hold  aloof  from  such  an 
assemblage. 

Mr.  Bigelow,  then  minister  at  Paris,  was  accordingly,  on  the  5th  of 
April,  1865,  instructed  to  inform  the  minister  for  foreign  affairs  of 
France  that  President  Lincoln  regarded  the  proposed  Exposition  with 
great  favor,  as  well  because  of  the  beneficent  influence  it  might  be  ex¬ 
pected  to  exert  upon  the  prosperity  of  the  nations,  as  of  its  tendency  to 
preserve  peace  and  mutual  friendship  among  them ;  that  what  the  execu¬ 
tive  government  could  do,  by  way  of  concurrence  in  the  movement,  would 
very  cheerfully  be  done,  but  that  that  was  as  far  as  the  President  was 
able  to  proceed  without  special  legislative  authority,  for  which  appli¬ 
cation  would  be  made  to  Congress  when  it  should  next  meet.  Mr.  Big¬ 
elow  was  at  the  same  time  requested  to  act  temporarily  as  a  special  agent 
for  this  government  in  the  premises. 

Mr.  Bigelow,  by  a  letter  of  the  17th  of  April,  1865,  recommended  the 
appointment,  as  Commissioner  General  of  the  United  States,  of  N.  M. 
Beckwith,  esq.,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  then  residing  in  Paris,  of 
whose  eminent  qualifications  for  the  post  the  Department  had  most  sat¬ 
isfactory  proofs. 

Accepting  the  onerous  duties  of  that  office,  without  compensation, 
Mr.  Beckwith  entered  upon  them  with  an  activity,  zeal,  intelligence, 
and  executive  ability  to  which,  with  the  assistance  of  other  commission¬ 
ers,  is  mainly  due  the  measure  of  success  that,  notwithstanding  unlooked- 
for  and  frequent  impediments,  was  attained  by  the  United  States  Section 
in  the  competition  for  awards  and  in  the  instruction  and  general  benefits 
derived  by  the  nation  from  the  Exposition. 

Under  these  circumstances  I  perform  a  pleasing  duty  in  placing  on 
record  the  grateful  acknowledgments  of  this  Department,  and  I  venture 
to  express  a  hope  that  Congress  will  signify  in  some  public  manner  its 


INTRODUCTION. 


5 


sense  of  services  of  a  most  responsible  and  arduous  character,  rendered 
not  only  without  compensation,  but  involving  many  expenses  incidental 
to  the  position  which  would  not  otherwise  have  been  imposed  upon 
Mr.  Beckwith. 

For  an  exposition  of  the  nature  of  these  duties  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  discharged,  and  for  many  terse  philosophical  commen¬ 
taries  incident  to  them,  I  refer  with  pleasure  to  the  appended  extracts 
from  the  official  correspondence  of  the  Commissioner  General  with  the 
Department. 

On  the  9th  of  October,  1865,  a  general  agency  was  organized  at  New 
York  under  the  direction  of  J.  C.  Derby,  esq.,  who,  taking  counsel  of 
competent  committees  specially  qualified  to  advise  him  in  the  selection 
of  products  belonging  to  each  group  and  class,  adopted  prompt  measures 
to  make  known  to  producers  the  inducements  which  existed  for  taking 
part  in  the  Exposition.  Circulars  and  pamphlets  giving  full  details  of 
the  plan  and  organization  were  prepared  by  the  Department  and  circu¬ 
lated  through  every  available  channel  in  every  State  and  Territory. 

Special  acknowledgments  are  due  to  Mr.  Derby  and  to  Mr.  William 
C.  Gunnell,  chief  civil  engineer  and  architect,  Mr.  A.  P.  Mulat,  engineer 
and  architect,  and  to  the  other  gentlemen  connected,  from  time  to  time, 
with  the  New  York  agency,  for  their  co-operation  with  Mr.  Derby  in  his 
efforts  to  bring  out  a  representative  exhibition  in  the  United  States 
Section  which  would  fitly  indicate  the  condition  and  resources  of  the 
country.  These  efforts,  considered  with  reference  to  the  spirit  of  the 
debates  in  Congress,  and  to  the  delay  caused  by  hesitation  to  make  the 
necessary  appropriations,  may  be  regarded  as  remarkably  successful ; 
and  although  the  United  States  Section  did  not  contain  such  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  products  as  would  constitute  anything  like  a  proper  or  just  basis 
for  estimating  the  industrial  or  natural  resources  of  the  United  States, 
the  summary  of  prizes  cannot  but  be  regarded  as  highly  gratifying  to  the 
country. 

To  the  advisory  committee,  and  to  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New 
York,  for  the  effective  measures  adopted  by  that  influential  and  public- 
spirited  organization  to  promote  the  success  of  the  movement  in  the 
United  States,  the  department  and  the  country  are  much  indebted. 
Messrs.  Samuel  B.  Buggies,  Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  and  Professor  Charles  A. 
Joy  presented  the  subject  for  consideration  and  labored  with  commend¬ 
able  and  efficient  zeal  in  awakening  a  proper  appreciation  of  it  in  the 
public  mind  throughout  the  country. 

The  light  thrown  upon  the  subject  by  the  very  able  speech  of  the 
Hon.  N.  P.  Banks  in  the  House  of  Bepresentatives  did  much  to  promote 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  people  and  a  greater  appreciation  of  the  import¬ 
ance  of  the  Exposition. 

The  general  charge  of  the  preliminary  correspondence  with  the  New 
York  agency,  and  with  the  co-operative  committees,  was  early  confided 
to  Mr.  Henry  D.  J.  Pratt,  to  whose  desk  in  the  diplomatic  branch  of  the 


6 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Department  the  subject  pertains.  The  efficient  manner  in  which  this 
duty  has  been  performed  invites  special  acknowledgment. 

Commissioners  Bowen  and  Beynolds,  of  Illinois,  and  State  Commis¬ 
sioner  Gottliiel,  of  Louisiana,  made  special  efforts  and  obtained  valuable 
contributions  from  their  respective  sections  of  the  country. 

In  California,  and  upon  the  Pacific  coast,  through  the  exertions  of  the 
citizens  of  San  Francisco,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  the  State  Com¬ 
missioner,  I.  N.Hoag,  secretary  of  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  and  a 
committee  of  the  citizens  of  Nevada,  a  very  satisfactory  representation 
of  the  products  of  that  portion  of  the  country  was  added  to  the  Exposi¬ 
tion,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  value  of  our  national  representation. 

In  order  to  present  a  comprehensive  and  connected  view  of  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  the  executive  administration  of  the  Exposition  intrusted  by  the 
Department  to  the  Commissioner  General,  as  well  as  to  show  the  diffi¬ 
culties  and  the  nature  and  details  of  the  labor  required  for  the  proper 
conduct  of  a  participation  of  the  country  in  such  great  international 
displays,  I  present  extended  selections  from  the  official  correspondence 
of  the  Commissioner  General  and  others,  which,  while  giving  a  historical 
epitome  of  the  relation  sustained  by  the  United  States  to  the  whole 
Exposition,  will  serve  as  a  general  introduction  to  the  valuable  series  of 
special  reports  by  the  United  States  Commissioners  and  scientific  experts. 
These  reports  constitute  a  valuable  portion  of  the  fruits  of  the  partic¬ 
ipation  in  the  Exposition  by  the  United  States,  and  present  to  the  people 
of  this  country  much  useful  and  instructive  information  concerning  the 
practical  arts,  and  constitute  a  novel  and  profitable  class  of  public  doc¬ 
uments,  the  tendency  of  which  will  be  to  expand  and  improve  manufac¬ 
tures  and  arts,  and  increase  the  application  of  scientific  principles  and 
discoveries,  which,  so  far  as  they  cheapen  the  transformation  of  raw 
materials  to  articles  for  the  use  of  man,  or  improve  their  quality,  increase 
the  wealth  of  the  nation  and  lighten  the  burdens  of  taxation. 

The  editorial  care  and  direction  of  the  publication  of  these  reports 
have  been  intrusted  to  Professor  William  P.  Blake,  of  California,  who 
attended  the  Exposition  as  Commissioner  from  that  State,  and  was  one 
of  the  scientific  experts  selected  by  the  Commission.  I  feel  very  sure 
that  Congress,  and  the  general  public,  will  sustain  me  in  the  opinion 
that  this  important  responsibility  has  been  discreetly  and  faithfully 
discharged. 

WILLIAM  H.  SEWAED. 

March  3, 1869. 


CONTENTS. 


i. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  FORMATION  OF  THE  EXPOSITION. 

Preliminary  correspondence — The  invitation  to  the  United  States— Suggestions  for  the 
organization — Appointment  of  an  agent  in  New  York — Importance  of  the  Exposition 
to  the  United  States — Notices  to  persons  intending  to  exhibit — Selection  of  products 
and  the  allotment  of  space — Letters  from  the  Commissioner  General  to  the  agent  in 
New  York — Grouping  and  classification  adopted  by  the  Imperial  Commission — Trans¬ 
mission  of  plans  of  the  United  States  Section — The  advisory  committee  in  New  York — 
Resolutions  adopted  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York — Efforts  to  obtain 
extension  of  time — Transfer  to  Paris  of  the  labor  of  apportionment  of  space — Motive 
power — Proposed  exhibition  of  costumes  and  of  aboriginal  races — Exhibition  of  heavy 
cannon  and  munitions  of  war — Society  of  International  Travel — Completion  and 
opening  of  the  Exposition — The  opening  on  the  first  of  April — Condition  of  the  United 
States  Section  at  the  opening. — pp.  9-75. 


II. 


THE  PROGRESS  AND  CLOSE  OF  THE  EXPOSITION. 

Scientific  Commission ;  the  importance  of  obtaining  the  assistance  of  professional  and 
scientific  persons  to  study  and  report  upon  the  Exposition — Reports  upon  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  letters  and  science  in  France — The  organization  and  duties  of  a  scientific 
commission — Commission  upon  weights,  measures,  and  coins — International  Exhibi¬ 
tion  of  measures,  weights,  and  coins — Preparation  of  the  catalogue  of  the  United 
States  Section  and  publication  of  statistics — Field  trials  of  agricultural  machines  at 
Billancourt — International  jury  and  its  organization — New  order  of  awards — Ap¬ 
portionment  of  jurors  to  the  United  States — Work  of  class  juries — The  distribution 
of  prizes — Honorary  distinctions — Exhibition  of  medals  and  diplomas — Prizes  for 
reaping  and  mowing  machines — Condition  of  the  industrial  arts  indicated  by  the 
awards — Commission  of  the  United  States — Regulations  issued  by  the  Secretary  of 
State — Meetings  and  proceedings  of  the  Commission — Close  of  the  Exposition  and 
delivery  of  products — Cereals  collected  by  exchange — Minerals  donated  to  various 
institutions  and  letters  received  in  reply. — pp.  77-139. 

III. 

THE  ACTION  OF  CONGRESS— ESTIMATES,  APPROPRIATIONS,  AND  EXPENDI¬ 
TURES. 

Joint  resolutions  passed  by  Congress — Estimates  by  the  Commissioner  General  of  the 
cost  of  the  Exposition — Estimates  in  detail  for  transportation,  unpacking,  installa¬ 
tion,  guarding,  linguists,  foundations,  and  fixtures  for  machinery,  decorations,  cases, 
storage,  legal  expenses,  &c. — Estimate  of  expenses  of  Scientific  Commission — 
Discussion  of  the  amendment  proposing  to  strike  out  the  provisions  for  the  payment 
of  a  part  of  the  appropriations  in  coin — Report  of  the  advisory  committee  upon  the 
necessity  of  further  appropriations— Expenditures,  report  from  the  Commissioner 
General — Report  from  the  agent  in  New  York. — pp.  141-158. 


8 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


IV. 

THE  PUBLICATION  OF  THE  REPORTS, 

Statement  of  the  authority  under  which  the  reports  have  been  printed — Publication  in 
a  separate  form  and  reasons  therefor — Grouping  of  the  reports  in  volumes — List  of 
the  reports  by  title,  arranged  according  to  subjects — Alphabetical  list  of  the  authors 
of  reports. — pp.  159-163. 


V. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  OBJECTS  EXHIBITED  AND  GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  classification  of  objects  adopted  by  the  Imperial  Commission — Its  comprehensive 
and  exact  character — Its  value  as  an  index  to  the  Exposition  and  to  human  industry 
in  general — Enumeration  of  objects  in  each  group  and  class  and  references  to  the 
reports. — pp.  165-181. 


List  of  United  States  Commissioners. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  ADMINISTRATION  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


I. 

ORGANIZATION  AND  FORMATION  OF  THE  EXPO¬ 
SITION. 


Preliminary  correspondence— The  invitation  to  the  United  States— Sugges¬ 
tions  FOR  THE  ORGANIZATION — APPOINTMENT  OF  AN  AGENT  IN  NEW  YORK — IMPORT¬ 
ANCE  of  the  Exposition  to  the  United  States — Notices  to  persons  intending 
to  exhibit — Selection  of  products  and  the  allotment  of  space — Letters 
from  the  Commissioner  General  to  the  agent  in  New  York — Grouping  and 

CLASSIFICATION  ADOPTED  BY  THE  IMPERIAL  COMMISSION — TRANSMISSION  OF  PLANS 

of  the  United  States  Section — The  advisory  committee  in  New  York — Reso¬ 
lutions  ADOPTED  BY  THE  CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE  OF  NEW  YORK— EFFORTS  TO 
OBTAIN  EXTENSION  OF  TIME— TRANSFER  TO  PARIS  OF  THE  LABOR  OF  APPORTIONMENT 

of  space — Motive  power — Proposed  exhibition  of  costumes  and  of  aboriginal 
races — Exhibition  of  heavy  cannon  and  munitions  of  war — Society  of  Inter¬ 
national  Travel — Completion  and  opening  of  the  Exposition — The  opening  on 

THE  FIRST  OF  APRIL — CONDITION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  SECTION  AT  THE  OPENING. 

In  order  to  give  a  history  of  the  participation  of  the  United  States  in 
the  Exposition  at  Paris  in  1867  selections  are  presented  from  the  official 
correspondence  of  the  Commissioner  General  and  others,  particularly 
such  dispatches  and  inclosures  as  show  the  organization  and  progress 
of  the  exhibition  made  by  this  country.  Some  of  the  earlier  corre¬ 
spondence  was  in  part  transmitted  to  Congress  by  the  President,  Decem¬ 
ber  11,  1867,  and  was  published  in  a  series  of  pamphlets  for  general 
distribution.* 1 2 3 4 5  A  portion  of  this  earlier  correspondence  is  here  reproduced 

1  *The  early  publications  setting  forth  the  progress  made  from  time  to  time  in  prepar¬ 
ing  the  Exposition  appeared  at  intervals  until  the  time  of  opening  in  1867.  These 
publications,  in  the  order  of  their  issue,  were  entitled  as  follows : 

1.  Message  from  the  President  of  the  United  States,  December  11,  1865,  transmitting 
a  report  from  the  Secretary  of  State  concerning  the  Universal  Exposition  to  be  held  at 
Paris  in  the  year  1867.  8vo,  pp.  58. 

2.  Supplemental  circular  relative  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867 :  Pro¬ 
ceedings  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Washington,  Gov¬ 
ernment  Printing  Office,  1866.  8vo,  pp.  14. 

3.  Speech  of  Hon.  N.  P.  Banks,  of  Massachusetts,  upon  the  representation  of  the 
United  States  at  the  Exposition  of  the  world’s  industry,  Paris,  1867.  Washington, 
D.  C.,  Mansfield  &  Martin,  publishers,  1866.  8vo,  pp.  24. 

4.  Second  supplemental  pamphlet,  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867 :  Details  of 
organization.  Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1866.  8vo,  pp.  64. 

5.  Third  supplemental  circular  respecting  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867 :  Importance 


10 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


in  connection  with  the  later  letters,  in  order  to  give  a  connected  view  of 
the  organization,  progress,  and  general  administration  of  the  United 
States  Section  of  the  Exposition. 

In  a  message  from  the  President  transmitting  to  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives  a  report  from  the  Secretary  of  State  concerning  the 
Universal  Exposition  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  the  year  1867,  the  sub¬ 
ject  was  commended  to  the  early  and  favorable  consideration  of  Congress. 
The  letter  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  dated  December  11,  1865,  was  as 
follows : 

u  The  Secretary  of  State  has  the  honor  to  submit  a  copy  of  corre¬ 
spondence  between  the  Department  of  State  and  the  minister  of  France 
upon  the  subject  of  an  invitation  extended  by  the  government  of  France 
to  that  of  the  United  States,  to  take  part  in  a  proposed  Universal 
Exposition  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  the  year  1867 ;  also  a  copy  of  corre¬ 
spondence  between  the  department  and  the  minister  of  the  United  States 
at  Paris,  and  other  papers,  explaining  the  nature  and  magnitude  of  the 
Exposition,  the  general  utility  of  such  exhibitions,  and  the  measures 
which  it  has  been  found  expedient  to  adopt,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
Congress,  in  order  to  secure  for  the  United  States  the  advantages  of 
participation  by  their  citizens  in  the  Exposition. 

u  It  being  necessary  that  the  Imperial  Commission  at  Paris  should,  to 
enable  them  to  carry  out  their  programme  of  arrangements  so  far  as 
it  relates  to  the  United  States,  be  notified,  without  delAy,  of  the  decision 
of  this  government,  it  becomes  important  for  Congress,  at  the  earliest 
practicable  moment,  to  adopt  such  proceedings  as  in  their  judgment  may 
be  best  calculated  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  occasion. 

u  Special  attention  is  invited  to  the  copy  of  a  letter  of  the  16th  ultimo 
from  H.  M.  Beckwith,  esquire,  the  Provisional  Commissioner  General 
of  the  United  States  at  Paris,  which  is  appended  to  one  of  the  same 
date  from  Mr.  Bigelow,  and  which  clearly  explains  the  importance  of 
prompt  action. 

u  From  the  correspondence  it  will  appear  that  the  selection  of  the 
officers  hereinafter  named,  subject  to  the  approval  of  Congress,  was  an 
indispensable  preliminary  for  any  participation  by  the  United  States  in 
the  Exposition,  namely :  John  Bigelow,  esquire,  (the  minister  of  the 
United  States  at  Paris,)  special  agent  of  the  United  States  for  the  Expo¬ 
sition,  (without  extra  compensation  for  that  service ;)  N.  M.  Beckwith, 
esquire,  Commissioner  General  of  the  United  States,  (without  compen¬ 
sation  ;)  Monsieur  J.  F.  Loubat,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United 


of  prompt  action,  &c.  J.  C.  Derby,  general  agent  for  the  United  States.  Wash¬ 
ington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1866.  8vo,  pp.  71. 

6.  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  5,  39th  Congress,  2d  session  :  Message  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  communicating,  in  compliance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  the 
19th  December,  1866,  information  in  respect  to  the  progress  made  in  collecting  the 
products,  and  the  weights,  measures,  and  coins  of  the  United  States,  for.  exhibition  at 
the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris  in  April  next.  8vo,  pp.  52. 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION.  11 

States,  (without  compensation;)  J.  C.  Derby,  esquire,  general  agent  in 
the  United  States,  resident  at  New  York. 

“  It  will  also  appear  that  such  appropriation  for  the  payment  of  nec¬ 
essary  expenses  as  may  be  made  will  be  a  judicious  outlay,  from  which 
large  returns  may  be  confidently  anticipated  in  effects  upon  the  national 
revenues  and  resources,  by  tending  to  expand  the  demand  for  our  pro¬ 
ductions,  by  attracting  for  the  development  of  our  latent  wealth  re¬ 
enforcements  of  labor  and  capital,  and  in  the  collection  and  diffusion  of 
useful  knowledge,  of  the  improved  applications  of  science  to  agriculture, 
manufactures,  and  art,  through  the  results  of  the  reports  of  the  general 
scientific  committee.  The  moral  influence,  moreover,  of  a  just  and  lib¬ 
eral  illustration  of  the  vitality  and  progress  of  this  nation,  at  such  an 
international  gathering,  so  soon  after  a  great  civil  war,  ought  not  to  be 
overlooked  in  the  consideration  of  this  subject.” 

PRELIMINARY  CORRESPONDENCE. 

THE  INVITATION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  following  is  a  translation  of  the  letter  addressed  to  Hon.  William 
H.  Seward,  Secretary  of  State,  by  L.  de  Geofroy,  minister  of  France  to 
the  United  States,  and  dated  at  the  legation  of  France  to  the  United 
States,  March  27,  1865  : 

u  By  two  decrees,  dated  June  22  and  the  1st  of  last  month,  the 
Emperor  has  ordered  that  a  Universal  Exposition  of  the  productions  of 
agriculture,  manufacture,  and  the  fine  arts  should  be  opened  at  Paris 
May  1,  1867.  Another  decree,  also  issued  February  1  of  this  year,  and 
published  in  the  Moniteur  the  21st  of  the  same  month,  has  placed  this 
grand  international  solemnity  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of 
a  commission,  the  presidency  of  which  has  been  confided  to  his  Serene 
Highness  Prince  Napoleon. 

u  Such  a  selection  bears  too  high  testimony  to  the  importance  which 
the  Emperor  attaches  to  the  success  of  this  Universal  Exposition  to 
leave  any  need  to  dwell  upon  it.  As  to  the  commission,  it  is  composed 
of  several  of  his  Majesty’s  ministers,  of  high  functionaries  of  state,  as 
well  as  of  the  most  competent  of  notable  individuals. 

u  The  government  of  his  Majesty  charges  me  to  give  notice,  officially, 
of  these  aforesaid  decrees  to  the  cabinet  of  Washington,  to  invite  its 
valuable  concurrence,  and  to  designate  an  authority  with  which  the  Im¬ 
perial  Commission  could  have  a  direct  understanding. 

u  It  would  also  be  of  advantage,  to  avoid  all  loss  of  time,  that  the 
government  of  the  United  States  should  make  choice  at  Paris  of  an 
agent  who  would  be  specially  delegated  to  be  near  his  Serene  Highness 
the  Prince  Napoleon. 

u  This  mode  of  procedure  is  the  most  suitable  channel,  and  the  speedi¬ 
est,  to  convey  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Imperial  Commission  the  wishes 
of  the  exhibitors  from  abroad. 


12 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


u  The  government  of  his  Majesty  would  attach  a  high  value  to  being 
informed  as  early  as  possible  of  the  result  of  the  steps  I  am  charged  to 
take,  which  have  an  exceptional  character  of  urgency. 

u  The  objects  sent  to  the  Exposition  will  be  received,  in  effect,  in  a 
palace  constructed  for  the  occasion  of  this  solemnity,  and  the  size  of 
which  should  meet  the  actual  need  of  the  exhibitors  of  all  nations.  But 
that  the  general  arrangements  and  plans  which  shall  be  adopted  maybe 
in  relation  with  the  claims  for  space  which  will  be  preferred,  it  will  be 
necessary  that  the  Imperial  Commission  should  know,  with  the  least 
delay,  what  states  will  take  part  in  the  Exposition,  and  how  much  space 
each  would  desire  to  obtain. 

u  In  ending  the  letter  he  has  written  to  me  on  the  subject,  the  minister 
for  foreign  affairs  adds  that  he  is  gratified  to  hope  that  the  government 
of  the  United  States  will  show  a  disposition  to  facilitate,  so  far  as  it  is 
concerned,  the  success  of  the  work  confided  to  the  Imperial  Commission. 
It  is  too  enlightened  not  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  these  solem¬ 
nities,  at  which  nations  contract  new  ties,  collect  useful  and  mutual 
lessons,  and  thus  assure  the  development  of  their  prosperity .” 

A  copy  of  this  note  was  transmitted,  April  5, 1865,  by  Mr.  Seward  to 
John  Bigelow,  esq.,  minister  of  the  United  States  to  France,  with  the 
following  letter : 

u  I  give  you,  for  your  information,  a  copy  of  a  note  which  I  have  re¬ 
cently  received  from  M.  de  Geofroy,  charge  d’affaires  of  the  Emperor, 
concerning  a  projected  Universal  Exposition  of  productions  of  agricul¬ 
ture,  manufactures,  and  the  fine  arts,  to  be  opened  at  Paris  on  the  first 
day  of  May,  1867,  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  a  commission 
in  which  his  Serene  Highness  the  Prince  Napoleon  will  preside. 

u  You  will  inform  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys  that  the  President  of  the 
United  States  regards  the  project  thus  described  with  great  favor,  as 
well  because  of  the  beneficent  influence  it  may  be  expected  to  exert  upon 
the  prosperity  of  the  nations  as  of  its  tendency  to  preserve  peace  and 
mutual  friendship  among  them. 

u  The  Prince  Napoleon  is  most  favorably  known  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  his  connection  with  the  Exposition  will  increase  its  proper 
prestige  in  the  eyes  of  the  government  and  people  of  the  United  States. 

u  What  the  executive  government  can  do  by  way  of  concurrence  in 
the  noble  purpose  of  his  Majesty  will,  therefore,  be  very  cheerfully  done. 
The  design  and  arrangements  will  be  promptly  promulgated.  Por  the 
present  you  will  confer  with  M.  Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  as  a  special  agent 
of  this  government,  and  will  bring  yourself  into  near  relations  with  the 
Prince. 

u  This  is  as  far,  however,  as  the  President  is  able  to  proceed  without 
special  legislative  authority.  Application  for  that  authority  will  be 
made  to  Congress  when  it  shall  have  convened.  In  the  mean  time  this 
department  will  receive  and  give  due  attention  to  any  suggestions  which 
the  government  of  France  may  desire  to  offer,  with  a  view  to  a  complete 
success  of  the  contemplated  Exposition.” 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION. 


13 


Mr.  Bigelow  also  addressed  Mr.  Seward  upon  the  subject,  as  shown 
by  the  following  extract  from  a  communication  dated  at  the  legation  of 
the  United  States,  Paris,  April  12,  1865  : 

“  I  presume  you  have  already  received  official  notice  of  the  Universal 
Exposition  which  it  is  proposed  to  hold  in  Paris  in  the  summer  of  1867, 
coupled  with  a  request  that  the  ingenuity  and  enterprise  of  our  people 
should  be  represented  in  it.  That  you  may  lack  none  of  the  elements 
in  my  possession  which  are  necessary  to  determine  the  true  policy  of 
the  United  States  in  reference  to  this  Exposition,  I  will  state  what  has 
occurred  at  this  legation  in  connection  with  it. 

u  On  the  18th  of  last  month  I  received  a  note  from  Prince  Napoleon, 
president  of  the  In^erial  Commission,  inviting  me  to  confer  with  M.  Le 
Play,  Commissioner  General  of  the  Exposition,  in  reference  to  a  proper 
representation  of  the  United  States  on  the  occasion,  to  which  his  Impe¬ 
rial  Highness  professed  to  attach  much  importance.  Early  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  week  M.  Le  Play  called  upon  me  at  the  legation,  and  since  then 
I  have  had  a  second  interview  with  him  at  his  office.  He  seemed  anxious 
to  know,  in  the  first  place,  if  my  government  would  feel  an  interest  in 
having  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  the  country  represented  at  the  Expo¬ 
sition.  I  ventured  to  express  to  him  my  decided  conviction  that  it 
would;  that  in  1867  we  all  hoped  and  believed  grim-visaged  War  would 
have  smoothed  his  wrinkled  front  in  the  United  States,  and  the  arts  of 
peace  would  have  resumed  their  accustomed  supremacy,  in  which  case 
an  opportunity  of  seeing,  at  a  glance,  what  progress  the  whole  world 
had  made  in  the  arts  of  civilization  during  the  preceding  five  or  ten 
years,  and  also  of  showing  to  the  world  what  we  ourselves  had  accom¬ 
plished,  would  unquestionably  be  highly  prized  by  my  countrymen. 

u  M.  Le  Play  seemed  highly  gratified  by  this  assurance.  He  said  the 
Prince  president  had  been  very  much  astonished  by  the  marvels  of 
ingenuity  and  skill  which  he  had  observed  in  the  United  States,  and 
was  anxious  to  have  them  more  known  and  appreciated  in  France. 

UM.  Le  Play,  with  the  utmost  delicacy,  suggested  that  it  would  be 
desirable  that  our  government  should  place  the  direction  of  its  repre¬ 
sentation  at  the  Exposition  in  the  hands,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  under 
the  absolute  control,  of  some  person  worthy  of  the  trust,  through  whom 
the  exhibitors,  or  their  agents,  and  the  central  commission,  might  com¬ 
municate  as  occasion  required.  He  spoke  of  this  arrangement  as  likely 
to  obviate  some  of  the  inconveniences  which  the  commission  experienced 
at  the  exposition  of  1855.  On  that  occasion  nearly  every  State  had  its 
separate  commissioner,  subordinated  to  no  central  authority.  Infinite 
confusion,  and  a  great  deal  of  dissatisfaction  on  both  sides,  were  the 
inevitable  consequences.  M.  Le  Play,  who  was  also  commissioner  gen¬ 
eral  of  the  exposition  of  1855,  seemed  to  think  it  highly  desirable  that 
some  trusty  and  competent  person  be  invested  with  exclusive  authority 
to  communicate  officially  with  the  central  commission,  and  to  require 
the  several  State  commissioners  or  agents  to  communicate  through  him 


14 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


as  the  proper  agent  or  representative  of  the  whole  nation,  just  as  on  all 
political  matters  they  would  communicate  through  its  diplomatic  agent. 
I  told  M.  Le  Play  that  I  concurred  entirely  with  him  in  this  suggestion, 
and  should  not  fail  to  recommend  it  to  my  government,  though,  as  an 
appropriation  for  money  would  be  necessary  to  give  such  a  commissioner 
his  proper  efficiency,  the  suggestion  had  come  too  late,  I  feared,  for  as 
early  action  as  would  be  desirable.  Congress  having  adjourned,  no 
money  could  be  appropriated  by  the  government  for  this  purpose  before 
next  winter,  and  it  was,  therefore,  impossible  for  me  to  say  in  what  way 
my  government  might  find  it  convenient  to  manifest  its  interest  in  the 
objects  of  the  Exposition  before  that  time.  M.  Le  Play  seemed  to  regret 
the  delay,  which  he  feared  might  prejudice  the  interests  of  our  repre¬ 
sentation  in  this  wise :  It  is  proposed  to  appropriate  the  Champs  de 
Mars  to  the  Exposition.  A  vast  building  is  to  be  constructed  in  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  this  beautiful  space,  which  embraces  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
acres ;  and  around  the  edifice,  at  a  proper  distance,  groups  of  houses,  or 
small  villages,  will  be  constructed  and  furnished  to  represent  the  domes¬ 
tic  habits  and  characteristics  of  different  nations.  This  will  probably  be 
the  greatest  novelty  of  the  Exposition,  if  successfully  executed,  and 
nothing  will  be  neglected  by  the  Prince  president,  who  has  his  heart 
very  much  in  it,  to  make  it  a  success.  The  plans  for  the  structures 
necessary  to  the  development  of  this  feature  ought  to  be  matured  without 
delay,  and  for  that  purpose  there  is  immediate  need  of  a  commissioner 
to  advise  with  in  regard  to  the  United  States.  I  suggested  that  per¬ 
haps  the  President  might  take  it  upon  himself  to  name  a  commissioner 
now,  and  define  his  duties,  leaving  it  to  Congress,  when  it  meets,  to  fix 
his  compensation,  if  he  is  to  be  paid,  and,  in  any  case,  to  supply  him 
with  the  funds  required  in  the  proper  execution  of  his  duties. 

“He  seemed  to  think  that  the  sooner  such  a  person  should  present 
himself  here  the  better,  and  at  the  same  time  gave  me  to  understand 
that  an  office  would  be  provided  for  him  in  the  Palais  de  Elndustrie,  be¬ 
side  his  own,  and  all  the  architects  and  personnel  of  the  commission 
would  be  at  his  disposal. 

“M.  Le  Play  further  informed  me  that  it  is  the  present  intention  of 
the  Imperial  Commission  to  assign  about  six  times  the  space  to  exhibit¬ 
ors  from  the  United  States  which  was  assigned  to  them  in  1855.  This  is 
to  be  independent  of  the  space  occupied  by  the  outside  structures,  which 
will  doubtless  be  in  proportion. 

“When  this  subject  began  to  occupy  my  attention,  I  consulted  Mr.  N. 
M.  Beckwith,  a  very  intelligent  American  gentleman,  at  present  residing 
in  Paris,  who  had  been  one  of  the  commissioners  at  the  New  York  Expo¬ 
sition  of  1853,  and  who  was  also  more  or  less  in  the  councils  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  exhibitors  at  the  Exposition  of  1855.  His  experience  and  good 
judgment  led  me  to  attach  great  value  to  his  opinion  in  regard  to  the 
proper  mode  of  turning  the  Exposition  of  1867  to  the  best  account,  and 
I  requested  him  to  give  me  his  views  in  writing.  He  has  been  good 


4 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION.  15 

enough  to  do  so,  and  I  have  taken  the  liberty  of  annexing  them  to  this 
dispatch. 

“  So  far  as  I  have  any  well-defined  opinions  upon  the  subject,  they 
lead  me  to  approve  of  the  suggestions  of  Mr.  Beckwith.  I  think,  how¬ 
ever,  the  success  of  the  whole  thing  depends  mainly  upon  having  a  com¬ 
petent  central  commissioner.  He  should  be  a  man  of  high  character  5 
reasonably  familiar  with  the  great  sources  of  our  national  wealth ;  accus¬ 
tomed  to  organize  and  employ  the  labor  and  talents  of  others  ;  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  French  people  and  their  peculiar  modes  of  organiz¬ 
ing  their  industry  5  and,  above  all,  he  should  be  conversant  with  their 
language,  without  which  all  other  accomplishments  would  be  nearly  val¬ 
ueless.” 


SUGGESTIONS  FOR  THE  ORGANIZATION. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  letter  of  Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Big¬ 
elow  referred  to  above.  It  is  dated  at  Paris,  April  3, 1865 : 

“In  continuation  of  our  conversation  about  the  International  Exposi¬ 
tion,  permit  me  to  add  a  few  words. 

“The  value  of  French  exports  last  year  was  five  hundred  and  eighty- 
one  million  dollars,  and  shows  an  increase  of  fifty-one  per  cent,  in  four 
years. 

“This  growth  of  the  external  commerce  is  but  the  index  of  the  greater 
growth  of  internal  commerce,  resulting  from  the  increased  productive¬ 
ness  imparted  to  labor,  skill,  and  capital ;  and  the  increased  productive¬ 
ness  is  traceable  in  details  directly  to  the  application  of  the  sciences  to 
the  industrial  arts. 

“If  it  be  true  that  civilization  was  led  in  most  countries  for  a  long 
period  by  a  few  men  of  genius  skilled  in  political  science  and  literature, 
it  is  not  less  true  that  the  men  of  physical  science  have  at  length  come 
to  their  aid. 

“The  geologists,  naturalists,  chemists,  mineralogists,  inventors,  and 
engineers  are  now  directing  the  labor  of  the  world  with  a  success  never 
before  attained. 

“As  the  intellectual  domination  of  the  material  world  increases,  the 
hardships  and  barrenness  of  toil  diminish  and  its  products  multiply ;  and 
while  political  science  emancipates  the  enslaved  races,  physical  science 
enslaves  the  elements  and  forces  of  nature  and  emancipates  mankind. 

“In  this  great  movement  the  largest  benefits  will  fall,  with  the  largest 
markets  in  the  world,  to  those  who  make  the  best  provision  for  the  devel¬ 
opment  and  diffusion  of  the  practical  sciences  as  applied  to  industry. 

“No  nation  produces  within  itself  all  these  in  perfection,  nor  keeps  up 
with  the  daily  progress  in  them ;  but  those  are  most  advanced  in  the 
race  who  adopt  the  best  methods  of  collecting  and  disseminating  the 
progressive  knowledge  resulting  from  the  studies  and  labors  of  all. 

“Among  the  methods  for  this  purpose,  international  assemblies  and 
exhibitions  are  increasing  in  numbers,  in  frequency,  and  in  importance. 


16 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  A  knowledge  of  many  of  the  useful  and  successful  combinations  of 
science  and  industrial  art  cannot  be  conveyed  in  wrords $  they  must  be 
studied  in  models  and  specimens,  which  display  at  once  the  combinations 
and  effects,  the  modes  and  results. 

“These  being  the  products  of  many  localities  and  many  countries, 
bringing  them  together  facilitates  their  study,  and  affords,  at  the  same 
time,  the  opportunity  of  careful  and  accurate  comparisons,  without  which 
no  study  is  complete. 

“The  utility  which  experience  ascribes  to  this  method  is  indicated  in 
France  by  a  comparison  of  the  provisions  made  for  the  exhibition  of 
1854  with  those  making  for  1867. 

“The  first  was  entered  upon  timidly,  the  government  relying  chiefly 
on  private  capital  and  enterprise,  on  which  the  labor  and  risk  were 
thrown.  The  latter  has  been  taken  up  boldly  as  a  business  of  state,  and 
projected  on  a  larger  scale,  contemplating  an  expenditure  of  twenty  mil¬ 
lions  of  francs,  of  which  twelve  millions  are  to  be  supplied  from  the  pub¬ 
lic  funds,  leaving  eight  millions  as  the  probable  contribution  of  visitors. 

“  The  United  States  have  never  participated  in  these  assemblies  to 
the  extent  naturally  suggested  by  their  interests,  intelligence,  and  enter¬ 
prise,  nor  derived  from  them  the  benefits  they  might  have  done.  I 
attribute  this  to  the  want  of  a  suitable  organization  of  the  movement, 
to  the  want  of  timely  information  on  the  subject,  and  provision  for  the 
transportation,  placement,  and  proper  exposition  of  objects,  and  to  the 
absence  of  the  necessary  co-operation  of  the  government  in  aid  of  the 
exhibition. 

“  First.  The  first  step  toward  a  proper  organization  is  indicated  by 
the  regulations  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  which  require  the  govern¬ 
ments  intending  to  co-operate  to  appoint  a  commissioner,  duly  accred¬ 
ited  to  the  Imperial  Commission,  which  commissioner  will  have  charge 
of  the  business  belonging  to  the  country  whose  government  appoints 
him.  It  is  necessary  for  the  commissioner  to  be  in  constant  communi¬ 
cation  with  the  Imperial  Commission,  to  enable  him  to  lay  before  the  ex¬ 
hibitors  early  information  of  the  plans  and  designs  as  they  are  developed 
during  the  whole  progress  of  the  formation  of  the  Exposition. 

“  Second.  The  commissioner  will  require  an  agency  in  New  York,  to 
centralize  the  movement  in  the  United  States,  to  communicate  with 
exhibitors  and  impart  to  them  the  requisite  information  in  detail,  and 
to  facilitate  in  general  the  movement. 

“The  commissioner  will  also  require  (at  a  later  period)  the  assistance 
of  a  committee,  composed,  first,  of  the  professional  and  scientific  persons 
whom  the  government  should  appoint  to  study  and  aid  in  preparing  a 
suitable  report  of  the  exhibition,  to  be  subsequently  published ;  second, 
of  the  agents  appointed  by  different  States,  or  associations,  and  such 
other  persons  as  the  commissioner  may  find  necessary  to  aid  in  the  gen¬ 
eral  work. 

“  Remark. — The  agent  in  New  York,  and  the  professional  men  the  gov- 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION.  17 

eminent  may  appoint,  should  be  paid;  all  others  should  serve  without 
pay.  The  agent  should  select  his  own  local  committees  or  assistants, 
and  so  distribute  them  throughout  the  States  as  to  render  the  movement 
active  and  efficient. 

“This  organization,  completed  in  smaller  details,  is  the  simplest  and 
the  least  that  will  answer  the  purpose,  and  I  feel  no  hesitation  in  ex¬ 
pressing  the  conviction  that  nothing  will  be  done  on  a  scale  worthy  of 
the  country,  and  with  the  completeness  requisite  for  public  benefit,  if 
the  government  does  not  take  the  initiative  in  the  manner  and  to  the 
extent  here  indicated. 

“It  is  obviously  necessary  that  the  organization  should  conform  to 
the  plan  of  the  Imperial  Commission ;  and  it  is  equally  obvious  that  in 
a  movement  of  this  kind,  where  there  is  no  authority,  and  no  correspond¬ 
ing  responsibility,  (which  can  only  emanate  from  the  government-,)  there  is 
not  likely  to  be  the  order,  co-operation,  and  unity  requisite  for  efficient 
management  and  useful  results. 

“If  the  government  decides  to  inaugurate  the  business  in  this  way,  the 
monetary  provision  required  from  Congress  will,  doubtless,  be  readily 
made.  The  country  which  taxes  itself  and  appropriates  more  public 
money  to  education  than  all  other  countries  will  readily  aid  its  men  of 
the  industrial  sciences  and  arts  to  be  present  with  the  evidences  of  their 
skill  in  an  assembly  of  nations  where  all  contribute  for  the  improvement 
of  all,  and  from  which  none  can  retire  without  benefit. 

“  The  diffusion  of  knowledge  is  in  proportion  to  the  numbers  brought 
in  simultaneous  contact  with  its  sources  and  with  each  other;  and  the 
more  numerous  the  objects  assembled,  the  more  numerous  the  exhibitors 
and  visitors  brought  together,  the  better  will  be  the  results.” 

On  the  2d  day  of  August,  1865,  Mr.  Bigelow  again  addressed  the  de¬ 
partment  upon  the  organization  of  the  Exposition.  The  dispatch  is 
given  entire,  but  the  inclosures  are  omitted  : 

“At  a  recent  interview  with  M.  Le  Play,  the  Commissioner  General  of 
the  Universal  Exposition  of  1867,  he  informed  me  that  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
missioners  had  finally  fixed  upon  the  Champs  de  Mars  for  the  site  of  the 
Exposition,  and  had  proposed  to  reserve  for  the  United  States  3,346 
square  metres  of  space  within  the  edifice,  with  the  privilege,  if  we  re¬ 
quired  it,  of  some  1,600  metres  lying  adjacent  and  not  yet  appropriated. 
The  map  which  accompanies  this  dispatch,  and  marked  inclosure  Xo.  1, 
will  show  the  manner  in  which  this  space  is  distributed,  and  the  propor¬ 
tion  which  the  aggregate  bears  to  the  allotments  made  to  the  other 
powers. 

“M.  Le  Play  wished  to  knowT  what  assurance  I  could  give  that  we 
would  occupy  so  much  space.  I  replied  that,  unfortunately,  this  subject 
was  not  brought  to  the  attention  of  my  government  until  after  the  ad¬ 
journment  of  Congress,  which  does  not  meet  again  until  December  next ; 
that  the  amount  of  space  we  should  require  would  depend  very  much  on 
the  liberality  of  its  appropriations,  the  executive  government  having  no 
2  p  E 


18 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


funds  or  credits  available  for  such  a  purpose.  I  also  read  to  him  from 
your  dispatch,  in  which  I  was  designated  as  1  special  agent,’  the  expres¬ 
sions  of  the  interest  which  our  government  took  in  the  Exposition ;  di¬ 
rected  his  attention  to  the  important  changes  in  our  domestic  affairs 
since  that  dispatch  was  written,  all  calculated  to  favor  our  participation 
in  the.  Exposition  ;  and  I  concluded  by  expressing  my  personal  convic¬ 
tion  that  the  United  States  would  make  good  use  of  all  the  space  that 
had  been  allotted  to  it,  and  that  no  effort  would  be  wanting,  on  my  part, 
to  secure  such  a  representation  as  would  be  creditable  to  my  country. 

“  Further  than  this  I  told  him  I  could  not  go  ;  for  though  I  believed 
that  any  recommendation  which  the  President  might  make  upon  this 
subject  to  Congress  would  receive  its  approval,  I  could  give  him  no 
stronger  assurance  of  it  than  my  personal  conviction.  I  urged  the  Com¬ 
missioner  General,  at  the  same  time,  to  let  me  have  the  detailed  plans  of 
the  Imperial  Commissioners  at  as  early  a  moment  as  possible,  to  submit 
to  my  government,  that  no  time  should  be  lost,  on  the  one  hand,  in  pre¬ 
paring  a  programme  for  the  action  of  Congress,  and,  on  the  other,  in 
taking  steps  to  ascertain  the  disposition  and  requirements  of  exhibitors. 

“About  two  weeks  after  this  interview  I  received  from  M.  Le  Play  two 
communications.  Of  the  first,  inclosure  No.  2  is  a  copy,  and  inclo¬ 
sure  No.  3  is  a  translation  ;  and  of  the  second,  inplosure  No.  4  is  a  dupli¬ 
cate,  and  inclosure  No.  5  is  a  translation.  By  inclosures  Nos.  2  and  3  it 
will  be  observed  that  the  Imperial  Commission  has  felt  constrained,  in 
consequence  of  my  inability  to  give  the  Commissioner  General  more  defin¬ 
ite  assurances,  to  reduce  our  allowance  of  space  room  from  3,346  to  2,788 
square  metres. 

“I  have  as  yet  made  no  reply  to  this  communication,  for  I  have  none 
to  make.  Though  the  commission  has  left  us  about  nine  times  the  space 
that  we  occupied  in  1855,  still  I  reget  the  reduction,  so  firmly  persuaded 
am  I,  should  the  opportunity  be  fairly  presented  to  our  people,  that  the 
proportions  which  this  Exposition  is  destined  to  take  in  the  eyes  of  the 
world  within  the  next  twelve  months  will  render  it  much  more  difficult 
to  limit  our  contributions  to  the  larger  space  than  to  fill  it  creditably. 

“  Inclosures  Nos.  4  and  5  embrace  the  general  regulations  and  the  sys¬ 
tem  of  classification  adopted  by  the  Commission.  For  the  translation 
of  the  classification  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Beckwith,  who  has  consented 
to  act  in  the  capacity  of  a  special  commissioner,  under  a  power  derived 
through  me,  as  the  special  agent  of  the  United  States.  In  a  note  which 
accompanied  this  translation,  Mr.  Beckwith  says:  L  If  the  government 
would  publish  the  classification  in  the  newspapers,  they  would  thus  prob¬ 
ably  reach  every  individual  in  the  United  States  interested  in  the  sub¬ 
ject.  The  classifications,  like  a  carefully  written  chapter  of  contents, 
comprise  more  information  as  to  the  scope,  limits,  character,  and  objects 
of  the  Exposition,  than  could  be  given  in  any  other  form  in  an  equal 
space.  They  suggest,  of  themselves,  much  of  the  information  most  use¬ 
ful  and  most  desired  bjr  the  public  at  this  stage  of  the  enterprise,  which 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION.  19 

renders  it  important  that  they  should  be  published  and  distributed  with¬ 
out  delay.1 

“I  concur  entirely  in  this  recommendation,  for  the  reasons  to  which  I 
shall  refer  more  at  length  presently.  If  our  people  are  to  participate  in 
this  Exposition,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  supplying  them  with  the  means 
of  knowing  how  they  may  do  so  to  the  best  advantage,  and  for  that  pur¬ 
pose  they  must  study  the  regulations  and  systems  of  classification  pa¬ 
tiently  and  thoroughly.  They  may  do  that  profitably,  whether  they 
finally  exhibit  or  not,  for  they  will  there  find  probably  the  most  complete 
classification  of  the  products  of  human  industry  and  art  anywhere  to  be 
found  in  print. 

“  There  are  some  features  of  the  regulations  to  which  it  is  proper  that 
I  should  invite  your  attention  at  once.  I  may  have  occasion  to  trouble 
you  about  some  of  the  others  at  a  later  day. 

“The  Exposition  is  to  open  on  the  1st  of  April,  1867,  and  to  close  on 
the  31st  of  October  of  the  same  year.  The  foreign  commissioners  are 
to  be  notified  of  the  space  allotted  to  their  respective  nationalities  before 
the  15th  of  August  instant,  after  which,  I  am  given  to  understand  that 
it  will  be  impossible  to  make  any  material  changes  in  that  regard.  All 
applications  for  admission,  with  a  description  of  the  articles  to  be  exhib¬ 
ited,  must  be  presented  before  the  31st  of  October,  1865,  prior  to  which 
time  also  a  plan  or  chart  of  the  uses  to  Avhich  the  space  will  be  put  by 
each  nationality  respectively  must  be  made  by  the  foreign  commis¬ 
sioners,  on  a  scale  of  0m.002  per  metre,  and  sent  to  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
missioners. 

“Detailed  plan  of  articles,  and  their  distribution  in  the  space  assigned 
them,  must  be  furnished  on  the  same  scale  by  the  foreign  commissioners, 
as  well  as  materials  for  the  official  catalogue,  before  the  31st  of  January, 
1866. 

“It  thus  appears  that  within  the  next  six  months,  and  before  any 
action  is  likely  to  be  taken  by  Congress,  the  Imperial  Commission  must 
know  not  only  precisely  what  articles  will  be  offered  for  exhibition,  but 
they  must  have  an  accurate  plan  of  their  distribution.  How  far  these 
regulations  may  be  relaxed,  and  the  time  extended,  will  depend  upon 
circumstances $  but,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  it  is  impossible  that 
they  should  be  relaxed  so  as  materially  to  relieve  American  exhibitors, 
for  the  reason  that  the  plan  of  the  Exposition  requires  a  peculiar  dispo¬ 
sition  of  the  articles,  from  which  any  serious  departure  is  impracticable. 
This  plan  is  explained  in  a  communication  from  Mr.  Beckwith,  of  which 
inclosure  No.  6  is  a  copy,  and  to  all  of  which  I  invite  your  attention. 

“It  may,  therefore,  be  assumed  that  to  wait  for  the  action  of  Congress 
before  organizing  the  American  department  of  the  Exposition  of  1867 
is  equivalent  to  an  abandonment  of  all  profitable  participation  in  it.  All 
the  plans  must  be  laid,  and  the  chief  expenses  incurred,  if  not  made, 
before  Congress  can  be  heard  from. 

“  Should  our  country  people,  however,  attach  to  the  privilege  of  shar- 


20 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ing  in  the  Exposition  anything  like  the  value  which  is  attached  to  it  by 
the  people  of  Europe,  it  ought  not  to  be  difficult  to  find  capitalists  will¬ 
ing  to  anticipate  the  action  of  Congress  by  requisite  advances  of  means 
whenever  the  government  shall  submit  to  them  a  plan  or  line  of  policy 
which  it  is  prepared  cordially  to  recommend  to  Congress  and  the  public. 

“I  trust  that  in  the  documents  which  I  have  already  transmitted,  with 
those  which  accompany  this  communication,  the  government  will  find  all 
the  information  it  will  require  to  fix,  without  delay,  upon  the  policy  it 
ought  to  pursue. 

“Before  closing  this  communication,  there  are  one  or  two  other 
features  of  the  regulations  to  which  it  is  my  duty  to  invite  your 
attention. 

“  By  article  5  it  is  provided  that  all  communication  between  foreign 
exhibitors  and  the  Imperial  Commission  shall  take  place  through  the 
commissioners  of  the  respective  countries,  and  in  no  case  will  they  hold 
direct  communication  with  the  exhibitors.  For  this  purpose  foreign 
commissioners,  if  there  are  many,  are  invited  by  article  G  to  appoint  a 
delegate,  as  soon  as  possible,  to  represent  them  near  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission. 

“These  provisions  are  designed  to  meet  the  inconveniences  which 
have  heretofore  resulted  from  a  multiplicity  of  commissioners,  who 
were  often  exhibitors,  and  to  concentrate  the  practical  cares  of  manag¬ 
ing  the  Exposition  in  the  hands  of  persons  specially  selected  for  the 
duty,  and  who,  by  a  careful  study  of  its  plan  and  familiarity  with  every 
stage  of  its  growth,  are  best  qualified  to  promote  its  success.  These 
regulations  also  tend  greatly  to  simplify  the  organization  through  which 
our  government  will  have  to  operate.  With  an  appropriation  sufficient 
to  pay  such  portion  of  the  expenses  of  transportation  as  it  may  conclude 
to  assume,  and  other  allied  expenses,  (I  would  recommend  that  it  as¬ 
sume  the  charge  of  all  articles  at  tide-water  in  the  United  States  until 
they  are  returned,  those  sold  during  the  trip  to  pay  their  own  charges,) 
and  with  two  commissioners,  one  to  reside  in  Paris  and  the  other  in  New 
York,  properly  qualified  for  their  duties,  the  official  or  governmental 
organization  would  be,  for  the  present,  anil  for  the  next  eighteen 
months  at  least,  complete.  This  subject  is  more  fully  developed  by  Mr. 
Beckwith  in  inclosure  No.  6,  to  which,  for  the  present,  I  content  myself 
with  inviting  your  attention,  as  presenting  what  seems  to  me  the  sim¬ 
plest,  the  most  economical,  the  most  harmonious  plan  of  operation  that 
I  can  imagine,  and  one  open  to  fewest  objections,  and  most  certain  to 
work  successfully.  I  think  it  would  be  wise  to  take  measures  to  avoid, 
as  far  as  possible,  any  representation  by  States  at  this  Exposition,  for 
the  Imperial  Commission  never  know  what  relative  value  to  attach  to 
such  commissioners,  and  the  result  of  such  a  representation  here  would 
be,  as  it  has  always  been  before,  that  the  whole  national  character  of 
our  part  of  the  Exposition  would  be  sacrificed  to  the  interests  of  a  few 
sharp-witted  speculators  who  might  chance  to  know  best  how  to  turn 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION. 


21 


the  inevitable  confusion  and  disorder  that  would  result  to  their  own 
account. 

u  When  the  Exposition  is  ready  to  open,  it  will  be  proper  for  the 
United  States  to  be  represented  by  a  very  different  and  more  numerous 
body  of  men,  who,  by  their  knowledge  and  accomplishments,  are  quali¬ 
fied  to  describe  in  popular  language  the  novelties  with  which  the  Expo¬ 
sition  may  abound.  It  is  from  the  labors  of  such  men  as  these  that  the 
country  ought  to  derive  its  chief  advantages  from  such  an  Exposition, 
but  such  men  are  not  apt  to  be  qualified  nor  to  have  the  leisure  or  taste 
for  any  of  the  labor  which,  precedes  the  opening  or  which  follows  the 
closing  of  the  Exposition. 

“In  France  it  is  provided  that  the  Imperial  Commission  shall  organize 
iu  each  department  what  it  terms  departmental  committees,  whose 
duties,  among  others,  it  will  be  to  create  a  commission  of  savans,  agri¬ 
culturists,  manufacturers,  mas  ter- work  men,  and  other  specialists,  who 
should  make  a  special  study  of  the  Exposition,  and  prepare  and  publish  a 
report  on  the  various  applications  which  may  be  made  in  their  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  information  they  may  gather.  To  meet  at  least  a  portion  of 
the  expense  of  this  work,  private  subscriptions  are  authorized  to  be 
•opened  in  the  several  departments. 

u  Something  similar  should  be  done  by  our  people  and  government ; 
and  in  the  selection  of  candidates  for  such  work,  no  pains  should  be 
spared  to  select  the  most  capable  from  among  the  class  of  men  who  have 
enough  of  our  own  skill  and  resources  to  determine  what  is  new  and 
worthy  of  transplantation  to  the  United  States.  This  work  will  be  done 
for  the  nations  of  Europe  by  their  ablest  men,  for  thus  only  are  the  im¬ 
portant  lessons  of  the  Exposition  to  be  perpetuated  and  diffused.  I 
hope  we  shall  not  disregard  their  example.  In  making  choice  of  men 
for  this  labor  our  academies  of  art  and  design,  our  agricultural  societies, 
our  mechanics’  institutes,  and  other  literary  and  scientific  societies, 
might  possibly  be  consulted  to  advantage. 

u  With  no  other  apology  for  these  somewhat  perfunctory  suggestions 
than  my  desire  that  our  country  may  not  only  appear  to  advantage  at 
the  Exposition  of  1867,  but  that  its  artists  and  artisans  may  profit  by 
the  unexampled  opportunity  for  instruction  which  it  will  present,  I 
remain,  sir,  with  great  respect,”  &c. 

APPOINTMENT  OF  AN  AGENT  IN  NEW  YORK. 

Mr.  J.  C.  Derby,  the  United  States  dispatch  agent,  New  York,  having 
consented  to  act  as  the  agent  for  the  Exposition  in  the  United  States, 
he  was  instructed  by  the  department  as  follows,  under  date  of  October 
9,  1865: 

“  Sir  :  Having  been  informed  of  your  willingness  to  act  as  the  agent 
in  the  United  States  for  the  Paris  Exposition  for  1867, 1  inclose  for  your 
guidance  and  information  a  copy  of  a  pamphlet  prepared  and  published 
by  this  department,  and  which  contains  the  dispatches  of  Mr.  Bigelow 


22 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


relative  to  the  conditions  upon  which  citizens  of  the  United  States  can 
participate  in  the  Exposition.  The  limited  period  allowed  for  applica¬ 
tions  to  be  filed  was,  on  the  2d  of  September,  pointed  out  to  Mr.  Bigelow, 
and  he  was  requested  to  inform  the  Imperial  Comruission  that  an  exten¬ 
sion  of  the  time  would  be  gratifying  to  this  government ;  and  on  the 
21st  of  that  month  his  attention  was  again  called  to  the  importance  of 
such  an  extension  of  time  as  would  enable  all  of  our  citizens,  who  are 
so  disposed,  to  unite  in  the  Exposition  so  far  as  the  space  assigned  will 
permit. 

“  Your  attention  is  particularly  invited  to  the  suggestions  made  by 
Mr.  Beckwith,  in  his  letter  of  the  30th  of  July,  printed  on  page  26  of 
the  pamphlet,  and  to  Mr.  Bigelow’s  remarks  on  page  7  of  the  same. 

u  Two  thousand  copies  of  the  pamphlet  have  been  distributed,  a  num¬ 
ber  having  been  sent  to  each  of  the  governors’  of  States  and  Territories, 
and  a  number  having  been  sent  to  various  other  quarters  where  they 
would  be  likely  to  reach  parties  interested.  Seventy-five  copies,  which 
remain  on  hand,  will  be  forwarded  to  your  address  without  delay,  for 
such  disposition  as  you  may  think  proper.  Whenever  the  result  of  the 
application  for  extension  is  known  here,  you  will  be  informed  of  it.” 

Mr.  Bigelow,  at  Paris,  was  informed  of  this  appointment  by  a  letter 
of  the  same  date,  from  the  department,  (dispatch  No.  284,)  and  of  which 
the  following  is  an  extract : 

u  Sir  :  With  reference  to  the  correspondence  which  has  taken  place  upon 
the  subject  of  the  French  Universal  Exposition  for  1867, 1  have  to  inform 
you  that  J.  0.  Derby,  esq.,  the  dispatch  agent  of  the  United  States 
at  New  York,  has  been  selected,  and  has  consented  to  act  as  the  agent 
for  the  Exposition  in  this  country.  I  will  thank  you  to  request  Mr. 
Beckwith  to  enter  into  correspondence  with  him  as  to  the  steps  which 
it  may  be  advisable  for  him  to  take  in  that  capacity. 

u  With  regard  to  the  extension  which  you  have  been  requested  to  ask 
for  of  the  time  for  filing  applications  of  our  citizens  to  become  exhibit¬ 
ors,  I  would  suggest  that,  if  it  should  be  found  that  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  is  unable  formally  to  accede  to  the  proposed  change,  you  will 
request  Mr.  Beckwith,  when  he  prepares  the  general  plan  of  organiza¬ 
tion  of  our  branch  of  the  Exposition,  required  according  to  the  pro¬ 
gramme  on  the  31st  of  the  present  month,  to  make  such  allowance  as  his 
judgment  may  dictate  for  additional  machinery  and  articles  for  wrhich  it 
may  be  expected  subsequent  applications  will  be  made.” 

The  following  is  Mr.  Bigelow’s  reply,  (October  27,)  together  with  a 
communication  from  Mr.  Beckwith,  under  date  of  October  26,  1865 : 

u  Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  dispatch 
No.  284,  with  an  inclosure,  by  which  I  am  advised  of  the  appointment 
of  J.  C.  Derby,  esq.,  of  New  York,  as  agent  for  the  French  Universal 
Exposition  of  1867,  to  reside  in  the  United  States. 

u  I  also  have  the  honor  to  inclose  a  copy  of  a  letter  this  day  received 
from  Mr.  Beckwith,  Commissioner  of  the  Exposition  for  the  United 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION. 


23 


States  residing  at  Paris,  from  the  tenor  of  which  it  would  appear  desir¬ 
able  that  Americans  wishing  to  exhibit  should  be  notified  as  soon  as 
possible  to  send  in  their  applications  with  specifications  to  Mr.  Derby, 
instead  of  sending  them  to  Mr.  Beckwith.  The  reasons  for  giving  this 
direction  to  the  applications  are  sufficiently  disclosed  in  Mr.  Beckwith’s 
note.  I  would  suggest,  also,  that  exhibitors  be  notified  at  the  same 
time  to  make  their  applications  as  soon  as  possible,  that  the  New  York 
commissioner  may  have  time  enough  to  make  his  selections,  allotments 
of  space,  drawings,  &c.,and  transmit  them  to  the  Commissioner  at  Paris 
before  the  31st  of  January. 

u  It  may  be  also  desirable  that  the  public  be  prepared  in  some  way, 
either  in  this  notice  or  otherwise,  to  expect  that  it  will  be  the  endeavor 
of  the  commissioners  to  secure  as  complete  a  representation  of  the  art 
and  industry  of  the  United  States  as  possible,  and  for  that  purpose  it 
will  be  necessary  for  them  to  make  selections  of  representative  articles 
in  every  class  or  group,  rather  than  accept  many  specimens  in  the  same 
class,  whatever  may  be  their  merit.  As  the  space  will  be  limited,  it  is 
as  well  that  this  guiding  principle  of  having  a  complete  Exposition,  if 
we  are  to  have  any,  should  be  known  early,  both  to  aid  in  bringing 
about  such  a  desirable  result,  and  to  prevent  needless  disappointment. 

“  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  Arm}7  and  Navy  Departments  have 
some  novelties  appropriate  for  this  Exposition ;  if  so,  it  is  needless  for 
me  to  say  that  anything  coming  from  those  quarters  would  be  likely  to 
command  special  attention.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Bigelow. 

u  Paris,  October  26,  1865. 

u  Dear  Sir  :  In  conformity  with  the  instructions  of  the  Secretary  of 
State  which  you  communicated  to  me,  I  have  to-day  placed  myself  in 
correspondence  with  J.  G.  Derby,  esq.,  agent,  New  York.  I  have  pre¬ 
pared  for  him — 

u  1st.  A  general  letter  placing  before  him  the  present  state  of  that 
part  of  the  business  of  the  Exposition  of  1867  which  he  will  have  first 
to  take  up. 

u  2d.  The  loss  of  time  consequent  upon  the  necessity  of  waiting  for 
the  action  of  Congress  renders  it  necessary  to  transfer  to  New  York 
the  work  of  dividing  the  ground  among  exhibitors,  (as  suggestedin  my 
letter  to  you  of  the  30th  July,  published,)  where  preparation  can  be 
made  pending  the  needful  legislation,  to  complete  the  work  of  distribu¬ 
tion  in  a  brief  space  of  time  afterward. 

u  I  have,  therefore,  transmitted  to  Mr.  Derby  eighteen  letters,  com¬ 
prising  all  the  applications  for  space  in  the  exhibition  which  I  have 
received  to  this  date.  I  have  desired  him  to  place  the  letters  on  record 
as  a  part  of  the  applications  to  be  considered  in  making  the  distribution 
of  ground,  and  I  have  in  conformity  advised  the  writers  that  they  will 


24 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


receive  from  Mr.  Derby,  in  due  time,  definitive  advices  of  the  result  of 
their  applications. 

“I  shall  now  prepare  as  early  as  possible  the  plans  and  drawings  by 
which  Mr.  Derby  will  be  governed  in  making  the  allotments,  and  shall 
point  out  to  him  the  manner  and  extent  to  which  he  can  alter  these 
plans  to  suit  circumstances  without  departing  from  the  general  order  to 
which  all  conform.  These  documents  will  be  accompanied  by  explana- 
tons  and  information  which  will,  I  hope,  render  the  work  easy. 

“  I  would  now  suggest  the  expediency  of  a  notice,  authorized  by  the 
government,  requesting  all  who  wish  to  exhibit,  and  have  not  made  appli¬ 
cations,  to  send  in  their  applications  to  Mr.  Derby,  with  a  limit  of  time 
in  the  notice  beyond  which  no  applications  can  be  received. 

“  The  work  will  be  so  far  advanced  by  this  method,  I  trust,  that  by 
the  time  the  needful  legislation  is  finished  the  allotments  can  at  once  be 
made,  and  the  plans,  catalogues,  and  reports  sent  forward,  so  as  to  be 
returned  to  the  Imperial  Commission  within  the  extended  time  they  will 
be  able  to  allow  us. 

“  I  beg  to  call  your  particular  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  allot¬ 
ments  of  ground;  this,  in  reality,  is  the  formation  in  embryo  of  the 
Exposition. 

“  The  selections  of  products  will  be  limited  in  quantity  to  the  area 
they  are  to  occupy,  but  in  variety  and  character  they  should  comprise  a 
full  and  fair  representation  of  American  products,  industry,  arts,  and 
science. 

“  To  make  these  selections  and  the  allotments  of  space  for  them  is  the 
work  which  now  devolves  on  Mr.  Derby,  and  for  the  selections  it  is  not 
probable  that  any  one  man  could  be  as  competent  as  several,  each  chosen 
for  his  knowledge  in  different  departments. 

“  When  the  applications  are  all  in,  and  the  work  prepared,  the  selec¬ 
tions  and  apportionments,  which  must  proceed  together,  will  occupy  but 
little  time. 

“  The  attention  of  the  government,  I  trust,  will  be  given  to  this,  and 
suitable  persons  invited  to  assist  Mr.  Derby  for  a  brief  period  in  this 
important  part  of  the  work.” 

In  regard  to  the  extension  of  time  requested  of  the  Imperial  Commis¬ 
sion,  Mr.  Beckwith  wrote  to  Mr.  Bigelow  November  16,  1865 : 

‘‘Dear  Sir:  The  observations  relating  to  the  action  of  Congress  in 
regard  to  providing  transportation  for  the  Exposition,  contained  in  the 
article  annexed  to  the  circular  of  the  Department  of  State  of  the  18th 
November,  leave  the  impression  that  there  is  no  occasion  for  the  imme¬ 
diate  decision  of  Congress  on  that  subject,  and  as  no  other  subject  is 
named  requiring  early  attention,  the  inference  naturally  suggests  itself 
that  there  is  none. 

“  I  cannot  doubt,  however,  that  your  dispatches  aiid  my  letters  have 
presented  the  real  situation,  which  requires  an  early  decision,  and  that 
this  will  appear  in  the  communications  of  government  to  Congress. 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION. 


25 


“  The  application  for  time  (which  was  granted)  related  only  to  the 
report  due  on  the  31st  October.  That  report  was  preliminary,  and 
admitted  of  subsequent  modifications,  and  delay  in  regard  to  it  was  not 
of  great  moment,  but  the  important  report  called  for  on  the  31st  Janu¬ 
ary  next  is  final  in  regard  to  that  part  of  the  work.  It  includes  the 
allotment  of  ground  and  formation  of  the  Exposition,  (in  embryo,)  leav¬ 
ing  but  the  subsequent  labor  of  bringing  it  to  maturity.  This  report 
cannot  be  made  until  after  the  action  of  Congress. 

“All  that  has  been  done  is  provisional  and  contingent  on  the  future 
decision  of  the  government;  but  to  make  the  report  in  question  we 
must  abandon  contingencies,  and  enter  upon  positive  engagements  with 
the  Imperial  Commission  and  with  exhibitors.  The  early  decision  of 
Congress  is  therefore  indispensable  to  avoid  further  delay  and  another 
appeal  for  more  time. 

“  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  readiness  of  the  Imperial  Commission, 
and  of  the  Emperor,  to  grant  all  the  delay  possible,  without  interrupt¬ 
ing  seriously  the  general  progress  of  the  work ;  but  how  far  a  delay  of 
the  important  report  alluded  to  would  embarrass  the  general  movement 
I  am  unable  to  judge. 

“  All  that  the  Imperial  Commission  has  said  on  the  subject  is,  that  the 
work  is  well  advanced ;  that  we  are  the  only  nation  now  in  arrear,  and  they 
hope,  and  appear  to  expect,  we  will  soon  be  able  to  make  up  lost  time. 
I  am  the  more  anxious  to  have  the  present  state  of  the  business  clearly 
understood,  because,  after  the  action  of  Congress,  we  shall  need  all  the 
delay  we  can  obtain. 

“  There  is  a  good  deal  of  work  to  be  done  in  New  York,  which  has 
been  presented  in  ample  detail  to  Mr.  Derby,  but  the  work  cannot  be 
done  till  after  the  decision  of  Congress,  and  if  forced  to  be  done  hastily, 
cannot  be  well  done.” 

% 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  EXPOSITION  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Bigelow. 

u  Paris,  November  23,  1865. 

“  Dear  Sir  :  In  proposing  the  Exposition  of  1867,  the  French  gov¬ 
ernment  represented  its  chief  object  to  be  a  collection  of  the  useful  prod¬ 
ucts  of  all  countries  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  and  the  study  of 
the  methods  and  processes  connected  with  the  production  and  fabrica¬ 
tion  of  the  objects  collected,  and  that  this  end  would  be  attained  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  variety  and  universality  of  the  collection.  National 
exhibitions  thrown  together  by  the  spontaneous  action  of  producers 
never  have  the  character  of  universality  desired.  Producers  who  are 
most  active,  or  who  act  most  in  the  spirit  of  sparing  no  expense  in 
advertisements  to  increase  sales  and  profits,  come  forward,  while  many 
whose  products  are  equally  desirable,  and  perhaps  more  instructive, 
have  no  occasion  or  no  disposition  to  make  use  of  the  method,  and  they 


26 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


do  not  appear.  Such  collections  are  defective,  and  to  that  extent 
failures. 

“The  course  adopted  by  the  French  government  on  this  occasion 
differs  from  that  of  preceding  attempts,  and  is  expected  to  have  better 
results.  Invitations  to  co-operate  are  limited  to  governments,  and  the 
respective  governments  are  solicited  to  undertake  the  work  for  their 
respective  countries,  giving  to  their  exhibitions  the  arrangement  pro¬ 
vided  in  the  general  programme,  which  will  bring  them  all  in  harmony 
with  each  other.  Governments  thus  co-operating,  it  may  be  usually  ex¬ 
pected,  will  adopt  each  for  itself  the  local  measures  necessary  to  prevent  a 
partial  exhibition  and  to  secure  a  collection  more  universal  and  fairly 
representative  of  the  country  in  every  department  of  national  and  indus¬ 
trial  products.  In  this  connection  you  will  appreciate  the  importance 
which  attaches  to  the  distribution  of  the  ground  to  exhibitors,  because 
that  comprises  the  formation  of  the  Exposition  and  determines  its  char¬ 
acter. 

UI  consider  it  superfluous  to  develop  and  discuss  the  direct  advantages 
of  international  exhibitions  in  general,  or  of  this  one  in  particular,  to 
the  United  States.  They  present  themselves  to  intelligent  minds,  and, 
fortunately,  we  have  no  others  to  present  them  to. 

“  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  industrial  products  of  England 
(and  w  ho  are  not  $)  are  aware  that  their  prominent  qualities  are  strength, 
solidity,  and  utility ;  that  those  of  France  have  always  been  remarka¬ 
ble  for  beauty  and  taste.  They  cannot  have  failed  to  observe,  also, 
since  the  epoch  of  international  exhibitions,  the  rapid  improvement  of 
English  products  in  graceful  forms,  beautiful  combinations  of  colors, 
finer  designs,  and  superior  taste,  while  those  of  France  rise  equally  in 
the  important  elements  of  strength,  durability,  and  fitness.  Similar 
observations  apply  in  an  eminent  degree  to  Belgium,  which  learns  and 
combines  from  both ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  in  some  degree  of  other 
surrounding  nations.  Nor  is  this  surprising.  Inventions,  combinations, 
discoveries,  improved  methods  and  processes,  spring  to  light  simulta¬ 
neously  in  many  fertile  minds,  and  in  many  localities  of  all  countries, 
but  the  knowledge  is  slow  in  spreading  itself  into  general  use.  Its 
diffusion  is  quickened  by  international  gatherings  and  exhibitions. 
But  on  this  occasion  there  are  indirect  considerations  which  invite  us 
with  unusual  urgency  to  co-operation. 

“  No  one  is  more  sensible  than  yourself  of  the  deficiency  of  exact  in¬ 
formation  in  Europe  in  regard  to  America  previous  to  the  rebellion,  in 
a  political,  literary,  and  moral  sense,  in  a  physical,  geographical,  sta¬ 
tistical,  financial,  industrial,  scientific,  and  productive  sense,  and  in 
every  sense.  It  was  obvious  at  every  step,  everywhere,  and  among  all 
classes,  and  it  suggested  an  incredible  indifference,  unaccountable  to 
those  not  acquainted  with  the  causes  of  such  deficiency.  The  events  of 
the  last  four  years  have  made  the  United  States  more  known  than  all 
the  events  of  their  previous  history.  Their  magnitude,  their  resources, 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION. 


27 


and  their  strength  are  now  acknowledged.  The  strong  impression  pro¬ 
duced  is  pleasing  or  unpleasing,  according  to  the  sympathies  or  aversions 
of  classes  and  interests,  but  none  deny  the  presence  of  a  great  power, 
and  its  advent  is  acceptable  and  hopeful  to  the  masses  of  the  numerous 
peoples. 

u  Emigration  of  the  productive  and  industrial  classes  from  Europe  to 
America  is  an  acknowledged  source  of  prosperity,  and  has  long  received 
the  encouragement  of  the  government. 

“  An  exhibition  of  the  products  of  America  in  the  center  of  Europe, 
well  selected,  and  complete  enough  to  be  national,  showing  the  mineral 
and  agricultural  resources,  the  state  of  manufactures,  the  varieties  and 
quantity  of  machinery,  and  the  condition  of  the  industrial  arts  in  gen¬ 
eral,  would,  in  my  judgment,  produce  an  impression  of  surprise  analo¬ 
gous  to  that  produced  by  the  disclosures  of  the  war.  The  strongest 
impression  would  naturally  fall  on  the  mind  of  the  most  intelligent  por¬ 
tion  of  the  productive  classes,  who  are  most  appreciative  in  this  sense, 
and  have  the  best  means  of  being  informed.  This  is  the  class  of  skilled 
labor  and  of  practical  knowledge,  whose  emigration  is  highly  desirable, 
but  who  are  slowest  to  risk  the  change.  They  would  see  and  judge  for 
themselves  of  materials  and  resources  and  products;  of  the  existing 
conditions  and  opportunities  open  to  them  to  better  their  condition  in 
life. 

u  Financial  organizations  under  the  patronage  of  the  French  govern¬ 
ment  (a  plan  of  which  I  have  sent  Mr.  Derby)  are  now  forming  to  aid 
the  class  of  operatives  in  question  to  assemble  from  all  parts  of  Europe 
to  be  present  at  the  Exposition  and  to  remain  and  study  it.  The  con¬ 
course  will  be  large,  and  they  are  the  practical  students  of  exhibitions. 

u  We  can  participate  in  the  benefits  resulting  from  this,  and  I  do  not 
think  it  chimerical  to  suggest  that  an  American  exhibition,  well  selected 
and  really  national,  viewed  merely  in  its  economical  aspect,  is  desirable, 
and  would  return  to  the  treasury,  by  increased  immigration  and  aug¬ 
mented  revenues,  more  than  its  cost,  however  liberal  the  provision  of 
Congress. 

u  The  United  States  are  the  only  nation  of  importance  which  has  yet 
to  express  itself  definitively  on  the  subject,  and  a  lively  interest  attends 
the  action  of  Congress,  not  only  on  account  of  its  bearing  on  the  Expo¬ 
sition,  but  as  an  expression  of  its  appreciation  of  the  object  and 
enlightened  spirit  of  the  undertaking.” 

NOTICES  TO  PERSONS  INTENDING  TO  EXHIBIT. 

Soon  after  the  organization  of  the  agency  in  New  York,  Mr.  Derby 
issued  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  of  the  official  pamphlet,  giving 
information  to  the  public  and  directing  attention  to  the  importance  of 
the  proposed  Exposition.  He  also  issued  a  circular  letter  to  the  manu¬ 
facturers,  mechanics,  inventors,  producers,  engineers,  architects,  artists, 
and  scientific  and  educational  organizations  of  the  United  States,  of 


28 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


which  the  following  is  a  copy,  and  sent  one  hundred  copies  to  the  gov¬ 
ernor  of  each  State  and  Territory : 

“New  York,  November  23,  1865. 

u  The  undersigned,  having  been  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  State 
to  the  above-named  agency,  and  being  desirous  of  the  co-operation  of 
his  countrymen  in  his  efforts  to  make  as  complete,  interesting,  and  cred¬ 
itable  as  possible  the  representation  of  this  country  at  the  great  Exposi¬ 
tion,  adopts  this  method  of  conveying  to  them  information  and  sugges¬ 
tions  upon  the  subject. 

u  In  compliance  with  a  request  made  through  our  minister  at  Paris, 
the  time  for  filing  applications  from  the  United  States  has  been  so  far 
extended  that  all  which  reach  the  undersigned  before  the  1st  of  January 
next  will  be  in  season.  When  examined  and  considered,  the  decisions 
will  be  duly  made  known. 

u  Parties  wishing  to  exhibit  are  requested  to  apply  immediately  to  the 
undersigned  for  correct  forms  of  application  and  instructions,  inclosing 
postage  stamps  for  reply. 

“  Articles  accepted  should  be  delivered  at  New  York  prior  to  January 
31,  1867. 

u  Accepted  articles  will  be  shipped  from  New  York  to  Paris  and  re¬ 
turned  at  government  expense,  provided  the  necessary  action  of  Con¬ 
gress  obtains. 

u  To  prevent  unnecessary  trouble,  it  should  be  understood  that  it  is  a 
primary  object  to  make  the  representation  of  the  United  States  as  com¬ 
plete  as  possible  in  all  the  classes  and  groups  enumerated  in  the  pro¬ 
gramme  published  in  the  official  correspondence,  and  that  it  will  there¬ 
fore  be  necessary  to  select  representative  articles  in  every  class  or  group 
rather  than  accept  an  excess  of  any  one  class. 

“  In  order  to  secure  the  universality  of  character  above  indicated,  it 
is  suggested  that  in  each  city  or  neighborhood  those  classes  of  manu¬ 
facturers,  artisans,  and  others  who  produce  articles  for  very  general  use 
or  consumption,  should,  without  any  delay,  agree  among  themselves  as 
to  the  specimens  for  which  space  should  be  applied  for. 

u  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  bring  forward  new  and  useful  me¬ 
chanical  inventions,  combinations,  and  fabrics,  and  pains  should  be 
taken  to  have  all  articles  neatly  and  thoroughly  finished  and  prepared 
for  exhibition. 

u  As  the  decisions,  report,  and  plan  of  arrangements  from  the  under¬ 
signed  must  reach  Paris  prior  to  the  31st  of  January  next,  it  is  very 
desirable  that  all  applications  shguld  be  sent  iu  as  much  earlier  than 
the  1st  of  that  month  as  may  be  practicable.” 


CORRESPONDENCE  UPON  THE  ORGANIZATION. 


29 


SELECTION  OF  PKODUCTS  AND  ALLOTMENT  OF  SPACE. 

THE  COMMISSIONER  GENERAL  TO  THE  AGENT  IN  NEW  YORK. 

u  Paris,  October  26,  1865. 

u  In  conformity  witli  the  directions  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  I  have 
the  pleasure  to  address  you  on  the  subject  of  the  Universal  Exposition 
of  1867. 

u  The  information  which  has  doubtless  been  sent  you  by  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  State,  and  the  publications  from  the  same  source,  will  have 
placed  the  business  before  you  in  its  present  state.  This  relieves  me 
from  the  necessity  of  further  preface,  and  I  take  up  the  subject  at  the 
point  where  the  publications  leave  it. 

“  The  delay  which  has  unavoidably  occurred  in  organizing  and  initiat¬ 
ing  the  work  has  rendered  impossible  a  strict  compliance  with  that  part 
of  the  Imperial  Begulations  (article  7)  which  calls  for  a  report  and  speci¬ 
fications  on  the  31st  of  October,  1865. 

“An  application  now  pending  has  consequently  been  made  for  an 
extension  of  time,  and  there  is  reason  to  expect  that  it  will  be  granted. 
But  as  nothing  definite  can  be  done  by  us  until  authorized  by  Congress, 
and  as  the  action  of  Congress  is  still  distant  and  the  period  of  its  de¬ 
cision  uncertain,  it  becomes  the  more  necessary  to  be  prepared  to  act 
rapidly  when  the  time  arrives.  In  the  ordinary  course  it  would  have 
been  practicable  to  receive  in  Paris  all  the  applications  of  exhibitors  and 
to  make  the  allotments  of  ground  here,  but  this  would  require  six  weeks 
or  two  months  more  of  time,  and,  in  view  of  the  time  already  lost  and 
still  to  be  lost,  it  is  necessary  to  transfer  this  part  of  the  work  to  your 
side.  The  work,  therefore,  which  will  first  come  before  you  will  be  as 
follows : 

“  First.  A  public  notice  for  all  applications  (not  previously  sent  in)  to 
be  sent  in  to  you  within  a  limited  period. 

“  Second.  When  this  time  has  elapsed,  and  the  applications  (including 
those  made  here,  which  I  shall  send  you)  are  all  in,  the  selections  will 
have  to  be  made,  which  will  form  the  exhibition,  and  the  total  quantity 
of  products  accepted  will  be  limited  to  the  total  area  provided  for  them. 

“  Third.  The  apportionment  of  ground  to  each  exhibitor,  to  which  his 
name  and  number  will  be  attached,  to  his  locality  in  the  place  desig¬ 
nated. 

“  Fourth.  The  classification  of  products  and  placement  in  conformity 
with  the  general  plan  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  and  drawings,  to  a 
scale  of  0m.002,  which  will  exhibit  the  distribution  made,  together  with 
the  plan  and  arrangement  of  tables,  cases,  and  fixtures  of  all  kinds  for 
the  exhibition  of  the  products. 

u  Fifth.  Plan  of  the  fixtures  required,  and  statement  of  the  force 
needed  for  machines  in  action. 

u  Sixth.  Catalogues  of  names  of  exhibitors,  with  their  numbers,  and 


30 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


t 

catalogues  of  the  objects  to  be  exhibited,  as  described  in  article  7  of  the 
Imperial  Regulations. 

“I  am  preparing,  and  shall  transmit  to  you  as  early  as  possible,  the 
drawings  and  detailed  plans  which  you  will  need  in  the  distribution  and 
apportionment  of  ground ;  and  I  shall  indicate  the  extent  to  which  the 
Imperial  Commission  will  allow  the  remodeling  of  these  plans  to  suit 
your  particular  requirements,  without  breaking  up  the  general  plan  con¬ 
formed  to  by  all ;  and  I  will  add  such  other  information  and  explana¬ 
tions  as  will,  I  hope,  make  this  part  of  the  work  easy. 

“The  most  important  part  of  the  labor  will  be  the  selection  of  prod¬ 
ucts,  selection  being  necessarily  limited  to  the  area  for  exhibition,  and 
the  governing  idea  being  a  fair  and,  as  far  as  possible,  a  full  representa¬ 
tion  of  national  products. 

“  For  this  labor  not  any  one  man  probably  would  be  as  competent  as 
several,  each  of  whom  would  be  better  informed  in  some  particular  depart¬ 
ment. 

“  I  am  not  informed  as  to  whether  the  government  will  provide  for 
this,  or  whether  it  w ill  be  left  to  you,  nor  is  it  of  much  moment,  provided 
the  right  thing  be  done.  But  you  will  observe  the  importance  of  the 
selection,  which ,  in  fact ,  is  the  real  formation  of  the  Exposition ,  and  its 
couqdeteness  and  value  will  depend  on  the  knowledge  and  judgment 
displayed  in  this  department. 

“  The  preceding  will  serve  to  inform  you  of  the  work  you  have  to  pre¬ 
pare  for.”  ****** 

“No.  4.]  “Paris,  November  1, 1865. 

“Dear  Sir:  The  leading  object  of  the  French  government  in  under¬ 
taking  the  Exposition  of  1867  is  indicated  in  the  method  adopted  by  the 
Imperial  Commission  for  the  purpose  of  forming  the  Exposition.  The 
principal  motive  of  producers  in  exhibiting  may  be  to  advertise  the 
qualities  and  value  of  their  products,  thus  augmenting  sales  and  profits. 
But  these  considerations  are  only  collateral  and  secondary  with  the  gov¬ 
ernment.  The  primary  object  is  an  opportunity  for  the  comparison  of 
products  and  the  study  of  processes  by  which  the  knowledge  that  multi¬ 
plies  products,  improves  their  qualities,  and  diminishes  their  cost,  is  dif¬ 
fused. 

“  For  this  purpose,  it  is  obvious  that  the  Exposition  should  be  1  uni¬ 
versal  f  that  is,  it  should  comprise  specimens  of  the  useful  products  of 
the  universe.  To  give  to  the  Exposition,  as  far  as  possible,  the  character 
of  universality,  the  method  of  forming  it,  suggested  by  experience,  and 
adopted  by  the  Imperial  Commission  more  fully  than  in  any  preceding 
exhibition,  is  the  following :  All  useful  products  are  first  divided  into 
groups,  and  the  groups  divided  into  classes.  The  ground  on  which  the 
products  are  to  be  exhibited  is  then  divided  into  compartments  corre¬ 
sponding  to  the  groups  and  classes,  and  these  compartments  are,  in  due 
course,  to  be  filled  with  their  appropriate  objects.  By  this  method  of 


ALLOTMENT  OF  SPACE  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


31 


proceeding,  the  Exposition  will  of  necessity  have  the  character  of  uni 
versality  intended. 

“  An  examination  of  the  grouping  and  classification  which  have  been 
published  will  show  that,  however  diversified  and  different  the  products 
of  different  countries  and  climates,  they  will  all  find  a  place  in  the  dif¬ 
ferent  classes,  while  no  country  of  any  extent,  probably,  will  be  found 
destitute  of  products  suited  to  each  class. 

“  In  dividing  the  ground,  the  importance  of  some  products  as  com¬ 
pared  with  those  of  the  same  country  is  not  overlooked.  The  more 
important  should  have  a  corresponding  representation,  which,  in  general, 
implies  a  larger  space. 

“  This  is  provided  for  as  follows:  The  divisions  suited  to  the  products 
of  France  arid  adopted  by  the  Imperial  Commission  are  represented  as  a 
model.  But  discretion  is  reserved  to  the  commission  of  each  country  to 
remodel  this  plan  and  adapt  it  to  their  own  wants,  which  is  only  limited 
by  the  skeleton  or  autonomy  of  the  general  plan,  which  requires  all 
groups  and  classes  to  be  preserved,  and  precludes  any  from  being 
entirely  obliterated. 

“The  property  of  this  provision  may  be  explained  in  this  manner :  All 
countries,  for  example,  produce  clothing ;  but  the  makers  of  clothes  in 
our  country  might  not  feel  much  interest  in  exhibiting  their  work  in 
another  country,  with  a  view  to  markets,  where  differences  of  climate, 
of  race,  and  of  habits  are  against  them. 

“There  is,  however,  no  product  of  labor  more  important,  none  in  which 
human  skill  has  been  more  universally,  nor  to  which  science  and  art 
have  been  more  elaborately,  applied  in  the  conversion  of  raw  material, 
in  the  adaptation  of  garments  to  climates,  to  particular  uses,  and  to  the 
various  conditions  of  life,  and  for  the  comparisons  necessary  to  an  appre¬ 
ciation  of  the  best  qualities  of  each ;  collections  of  native  costumes  or 
clothing  from  all  countries  are  equally  desirable  and  valuable. 

“  The  method  thus  carried  out  will  obviously  produce  the  conditions 
desired — facilities  of  comparisons  and  the  studies  of  processes  relating 
to  products  of  greater  importance,  and  to  those  of  less  importance  to 
the  products  of  one  locality,  as  compared  with  those  of  another  in  the 
same  country,  and  to  the  products  of  all  countries  compared  with  each 
other. 

“  The  Exposition  will  at  the  same  time  be,  to  a  large  extent,  an  adver¬ 
tisement  of  products  for  the  direct  interest  of  producers. 

“My  chief  purpose  in  this  brief  explanation  of  method  and  object  is 
to  call  your  attention  more  pointedly  to  one  of  the  topics  in  my  letter  of 
the  26th  of  October,1  viz :  The  allotment  of  ground  to  exhibitors. 

“  The  allotment  of  ground  is  the  formation  of  your  exhibition ;  when 
this  is  complete  your  exhibition  (in  embryo)  will  be  completed. 

“  The  success  of  its  representative  character,  in  a  national  sense, 

1  The  letter  here  referred  to  is  published  in  the  official  pamphlet,  second  edition,  page 
37,  and  with  these  papers,  pages  23-24. 


32 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


depends,  therefore,  in  the  knowledge  and  judgment  displayed  in  the 
allotments,  because  that  determines  at  once  the  variety  of  products  to 
be  displayed,  and  the  quality  and  importance  ascribed  to  those  selected 
for  exhibition  in  each  department.  A  right  understanding  of  the  views 
of  the  French  government  in  regard  to  the  Exposition,  in  which  the 
United  States  are  invited  to  co-operate,  and  the  importance  which 
attaches  to  the  allotments,  will,  L  hope,  excuse  my  having  returned  to 
this  subject  and  dwelt  so  long  upon  it.” 

“No.  9.]  “Paris;  November  8,  1865. 

“Dear  Sir:  I  have  alluded  in  previous  letters  to  the  great  import¬ 
ance  attached  by  the  Imperial  Commission,  not  only  to  the  exhibition  of 
useful  products,  but  to  the  exhibition  of  the  methods  and  processes  by 
which  these  objects  are  produced. 

“Extensive  preparations  will  be  made  in  the  Palace  and  in  the  Park 
to  exhibit  machinery  in  action,  accompanied  by  the  persons  usually  em¬ 
ployed  with  it,  displaying  at  once  its  method  of  action  and  its  products. 

“Great  efforts  are  also  making  to  bring  together  and  exhibit  groups 
of  families  of  persons  of  all  nations  usually  employed  in  the  industrial 
arts,  whether  carried  on  by  mechanical  means  or  by  the  use  of  a  few 
tools  and  implements  combined  with  manual  labor  and  skill,  dressed  in 
their  native  working  costumes,  installed  in  their  usual  habitations,  or 
those  resembling  them,  and  fabricating  the  objects  they  exhibit. 

“The  interest  and  importance  which  the  Imperial  Commission  ascribes 
to  the  exhibition  of  methods  and  processes,  the  scope  intended  to  be 
given  to  this  department,  the  police,  sanitary,  and  other  peculiar  pro¬ 
visions  requisite,  and  the  general  co-operation  which  is  invited,  are  set 
forth  in  the  document  hereto  annexed.  It  comprises  thirty-two  pages, 
chiefly  in  lithograph  and  partly  in  manuscript.  It  has  not  yet  been  pub¬ 
lished,  and  is  incomplete.  The  plan  is  developed  day  by  day,  under  the 
study  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  aided  by  the  suggestions  of  others, 
which  are  invited  and  frequently  adopted. 

“  I  send  it  in  the  imperfect  form,  because  I  think  it  sufficiently  devel¬ 
oped  for  your  purposes,  and  no  more  time  should  be  lost  in  presenting  it 
for  your  consideration  and  that  of  the  persons  with  whom  you  will  doubt¬ 
less  advise  in  forming  the  exhibition. 

“The  programme,  you  will  observe,  includes  all  nations  and  nation¬ 
alities,  civilized  and  uncivilized,  among  whom  industrial  arts  exist;  and 
there  are  few  people  without  them. 

“Doubtless  the  greatest  variety  and  number  of  these  industrial  groups 
will  come  from  Oriental  nations,  which  are  little  advanced  in  the  science 
of  mechanics,  and  destitute  of  the  great  combinations  of  capital  and 
skill  embraced  in  large  manufactories.  Industrial  art  among  them  is 
still  confined  to  the  family  circle;  but  their  products  are  abundant  in 
variety  and  quantity,  frequently  excellent  in  quality,  often  of  great 
beauty,  and  in  the  important  elements  of  utility  and  cost  they  still  hold 


ALLOTMENT  OF  SPACE  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES.  33 

in  check  and  nearly  control  the  great  markets  of  the  East,  exposed  to 
the  competition  of  the  best  fabrics  of  Europe  and  America. 

“But  the  Imperial  Commission  does  not  limit  its  Exposition  to  the 
East;  it  hopes  for  similar  exhibitions  from  North  America  and  from 
South  America;  and  I  am  desired  to  bring  the  subject  to  your  particular 
attention. 

“The  programme  is  comprehensive  in  the  scope  of  industries  it  pro¬ 
poses  to  exhibit — workers  in  metals,  in  glass,  in  chemicals,  in  wood,  in 
leather,  in  all  materials ;  hand-spinning,  weaving,  and  embroidery,  ma¬ 
chine  sewing,  machine  shoemaking,  knotting  of  fish-nets,  twisting  of  fish¬ 
lines.  No  industry  will  be  out  of  place,  even  to  a  group  of  red  Indians 
making  pipes,  bows,  wampum,  feathers,  or  baskets.  These  last,  indeed, 
would  be  among  the  most  unique  and  interesting  objects  you  could  send. 
They  would  add  a  valuable  feature  to  the  ethnological  elements  which 
the  many  nationalities  assembled,  with  their  peculiar  habits,  manners, 
industries,  and  character,  are  expected  to  display,  and  which  subject  the 
French  Scientific  Commission  has  been  particularly  directed  to  study. 

“  However  uninteresting  a  group  of  red  men  may  be  in  America,  few 
objects  would  be  thought  more  interesting  in  Europe;  while  similar 
groups  brought  from  the  East  may  afford  subjects  equally  curious  and 
instructive  to  Americans.” 

“  No.  10.]  “Paris,  November  8,  1865. 

“Dear  Sir:  The  special  committee  (French)  on  admissions,  Class  No. 
93,  on  habitations  combining  cheapness,  health,  and  comfort,  have  pub¬ 
lished  the  document  annexed. 

“  Ground  in  the  Park  is  appropriated  for  this  purpose,  and  great  im¬ 
portance  is  attached  by  the  Imperial  Commission  to  the  exhibition  of 
rural  habitations  from  all  countries.  It  is  suggested,  also,  that  the  fur¬ 
niture  adapted  to  them,  being  on  exhibition,  may  be  placed  in  them,  and 
that  they  may  be  inhabited  by  the  families  or  groups  of  persons  alluded 
to  in  my  letter  No.  9,  and  the  documents  attached  to  it. 

“The  impression  prevails  that  we  produce  in  America  model  houses 
of  iron,  combining  many  useful  qualities  and  adapted  to  many  localities; 
also  model  houses  of  wood,  comprising  similar  qualities  in  a  higher 
degree — such  houses  as  are  shipped  to  California,  &c.  But  great  interest 
attaches  to  the  exhibition  of  rural  habitations,  of  whatever  material, 
adapted  to  all  classes  of  laborers  and  every  grade  of  fortune,  including 
the  log:houses  of  remote  settlers  and  those  of  the  transitional  condition, 
from  a  humbler  to  a  higher  state  of  prosperity  and  comfort  correspond¬ 
ing  with  the  use  and  development  of  condition  and  wealth  in  settlements 
of  rapid  growth,  in  which  no  country  can  compare  with  America.  A  row 
or  group  of  this  kind  would  speak  strongly  to  the  eye  and  the  mind.  It 
would  contrast  strongly  with  corresponding  groups  from  different  parts 
of  Europe  and  the  East,  where  characteristics  are  immobility  and  pov¬ 
erty — no  growth,  no  change.  Habitations  of  this  description  are  typical 
3  P  E 


34 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


of  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  population 
of  all  countries;  they  indicate  the  degrees  of  intelligence,  thrift,  and 
prosperity  among  them,  and  would  be  objects  of  interest  and  instruction 
to  the  great  emigratory  classes,  as  well  as  to  the  philosopher  and  econ¬ 
omist.  w 

“No.  17.]  “Paris,  November  10,  1865. 

“  I  inclose  an  application,  in  behalf  of  the  State  of  Michigan,  for  twenty- 
one  thousand  feet  of  blank  space  in  the  Exposition.  I  also  inclose  my 
reply  to  M.  d’Aligny,  which  please  read  and  forward  to  him.  I  suggest 
the  expediency  of  your  publishing  in  the  newspapers  as  advertisements, 
or  otherwise,  a  notice  to  applicants,  comprising  the  observations  1  have 
made  to  M.  d’Aligny  on  the  necessity  of  an  exact  description  of  each 
article  to  be  exhibited,  without  which  you  never  can  complete  catalogues 
for  the  report  on  which  the  Imperial  Commission  compiles  its  publications. 
The  description  is  indispensable,  and  in  the  outset  I  have  assigned  some 
explanatory  reasons  for  this  method  of  proceeding,  which  you  will  prob¬ 
ably  agree  with  me  are  requisite  to  satisfy  applicants  and  induce  them 
to  comply  with  the  requisitions. 

“  Y  ou  are  doubtless  conscious  how  strongly  we  Americans  are  disposed 
to  revolt. at  everything  chalked  out  for  us,  and  how  inclined  to  think 
we  could  make  it  better,  (and  perhaps  we  could,)  and  therefore  take  our 
own  way  about  it. 

“But  the  question  of  better  or  worse  does  not  arise  in  this  case;  it  is 
merely  a  question  of  method  or  no  method.  Any  method  that  all  follow 
is  better  than  none ;  and  as  it  belongs  to  the  Imperial  Commission  to  lay 
down  the  method,  it  belongs  equally  to  us  to  follow  it,  and  we  cannot 
get  on  without.  You  had  better  be  firm  on  this  at  the  outset;  you  will 
have  to  come  to  it,  and  it  will  save  time.  79 

“No.  21.]  “Paris,  November  27,  1865. 

“  Dear  Sir  :  I  beg  to  hand  you  with  this  a  number  of  drawings,  six 
in  all,  numbered  1  to  6 ;  they  develop  plans  of  that  section  of  the  Expo¬ 
sition  Palace  appropriated  to  the  United  States,  and  are  accompanied 
by  detailed  explanations  of  each  drawing,  which  document  is  num¬ 
bered  77.  Explanations  of  this  kind  seldom  appear  as  clear  to  the 
reader  as  to  the  writer;  many  details  which  are  present  in  his  mind, 
and  fill  up  the  outlines,  are  omitted  in  the  description  from  a  feeling  that 
they  will  suggest  themselves,  and  that  a  record  of  them  is  superflous, 
and  would  only  make  the  description  tedious  and  obscure,  rather  than 
clear. 

“But  the  plans  and  explanations  will,  I  hope,  be  found  sufficient  to  ena¬ 
ble  you  to  make  the  distribution  of  groups  and  classes,  and  the  allotments 
of  place  to  exhibitors  with  facility,  and  free  from  error. 

“At  all  events,  if  you  find  my  details  defective,  I  must  refer  you  to 
the  French  plan,  No.  1,  which  I  send  you ;  it  is  all  I  have  had  to  work 


ALLOTMENT  OF  SPACE  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES.  35 

from,  and  I  hope  you  may  find  the  study  of  it  more  interesting  than 

I  do. 

“  The  plans  herewith  relate  only  to  the  Palace ;  nothing  is  said  of  the 
Park,  nor  of  the  three  groups  (VIII,  IX,  X)  and  twenty-two  classes 
which  belong  to  the  Park.  I  shall  return  to  this  subject  as  soon  as  the 
Imperial  Commission  makes  up  its  mind  on  it,  and  decides  on  the  distri¬ 
bution  and  manner  of  occupying  it. 

“No  definite  apportionments  of  ground  in  the  Park  to  nationalities 
have  yet  been  made.  All  are  told  they  can  have  what  they  want,  but  I 
imagine  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  manner  of  occupy¬ 
ing  the  grounds.  The  Imperial  Commission  is,  therefore,  inviting  from 
the  foreign  commissions  suggestions  as  to  how  much  ground  they  want, 
and  how  they  wish  to  employ  it.  Doubtless  in  a  few  days  the  plan  will 
be  settled,  and  the  appropriations  made,  to  be  occupied  in  conformity 
with  the  ground-plan,  which  will  be  promulgated. 

“  I  think  you  will  find  we  have  less  room  in  Group  VI  in  the  Palace 
than  we  require.  My  impression  is,  we  ought  to  occupy  twice  as  much 
room  as  we  have  in  that  department.  The  United  States  are  not  so 
strong  in  products  of  the  other  groups  as  in  those  of  the  sixth,  and  they 
are  of  a  kind  that  require  room.  But  the  plan  of  the  building  does  not 
admit  of  gi  ving  us  a  larger  portion  of  room  in  that  group ;  it  is  the  same 
as  falls  to  other  nations ;  but  the  products  of  other  nations  do  not  demand 
so  much  room  in  that  department. 

“I  have,  therefore,  proposed,  in  writing  to  Washington,  if  it  should 
be  the  opinion  of  your  committee  also,  to  supplement  the  ground  of  the 
Group  VI  in  the  Park,  provided  the  Imperial  Com  mission  will  consent  to 
the  requisite  modification ;  and  my  present  impression  is,  they  will  do  so, 
though  they  have  not  yet  given  me  a  definite  answer.  You  had  better, 
therefore,  as  soon  as  you  are  ready  to  do  so,  express  your  opinion  to  the 
government  on  this  subject,  and  inform  me  also  of  your  views. 

“  I  shall  not  wait,  however,  for  the  advice,  but  secure  the  ground  con¬ 
ditionally  if  I  can,  but  I  wish  to  hear  from  you  as  soon  as  possible  in 
regard  to  it. 

“  If  we  occupy  a  space  in  the  Park  with  objects  of  Group  VI,  it  will 
necessitate  the  construction  of  a  building  suitable  to  the  purpose  at  our 
expense ;  but  I  think  we  shall  not  hesitate  about  that  if  we  want  it,  nor 
do  I  imagine  Congress  will  hesitate. 

“  The  government  of  the  United  States  will  not  be  satisfied  to  under¬ 
take  an  exhibition  of  the  produce  of  the  country  on  a  diminutive  scale, 
nor  permit  it  to  fall  short  and  be  deficient  for  want  of  room,  nor  on 
account  of  the  additional  expense  this  may  involve.  Belgium  is  in  a 
similar  situation,  and  has  resolved  to  supply  the  room  she  needs  by 
building  on  the  Park,  which,  I  have  no  doubt,  will  be  permitted;  but  if 
we  find  we  can  do  without  it  I  shall  be  glad  of  it. 

“This  proposal  does  not  affect  the  arrangements  to  be  made  for 
Groups  VIII,  IX,  X,  which  belong  to  the  Park,  the  provisions  and  allot¬ 
ments  for  which  are  now  delayed  by  the  Imperial  Commission.” 


36 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  No.  22.]  “  Paris,  November  29,  1865. 

u  Dear  Sir  :  I  am  favored  with  yours  of  the  13th  instant,  which 
reached  me  last  evening,  and  I  take  due  note  of  your  observation. 

“  You  will  by  this  time  have  acquired  a  good  idea  of  the  work  to  be 
done,  and  papers  I  send  you  by  this  mail  will  complete  your  impression 
of  the  best  way  of  doing  it.  It  is  necessary  to  appreciate  the  difference 
between  an  irregular  and  defective  exhibition,  which  characterizes  itself 
by  spontaneous  movements  without  concert  of  producers,  and  an  exhi¬ 
bition  formed  by  the  state;  which  should  be  well  selected,  classified,  and 
complete  in  all  its  parts. 

u  You  desire  to  know  how  long  it  will  be  safe  to  continue  to  receive 
applications,  and  the  date  of  the  latest  mail  which  will  reach  here  in 
time. 

u  It  would  be  easy  to  reply  to  those  inquiries  if  we  could  be  governed 
solely  by  the  demands  of  the  imperial  programme  for  January  ;  but  this 
is  impossible.  We  must  be  governed  by  the  requirements  of  the  pro¬ 
gramme,  taking  the  risk  of  failure ;  there  is  no  other  way. 

u  The  first  thing  you  have  now  to  do  is  to  sketch  your  plans  of  the 
ground  for  Groups  II  and  Y,  (see  my  explanation  of  plan  3.)  The  second 
is  to  decide  the  space  you  will  give  (or  thereabouts)  to  each  class  of  ob¬ 
jects  in  the  respective  group,  and  mark  out  the  space  in  conformity;  and 
the  third  is  to  select  from  your  applications  the  most  representative  and 
suitable  products,  and  form  and  file  the  groups  and  classes  laid  out  in 
your  plan. 

“  When  this  is  completed  your  exhibition  will  be  formed.  This  work 
requires  knowledge  of  products,  judgment,  and  care;  it  cannot  be 
hastily  done  and  well  done,  but  it  can  doubtless  be  accomplished,  and 
your  plans  drawn  and  catalogues  made  while  Congress  is  deliberating. 

u  There  will  then  remain  but  little  to  do  after  the  decision  of  Congress 
but  to  announce  to  applicants  the  result  of  their  applications.  This 
announcement  will  constitute  the  definitive  allotments  of  ground  to 
exhibitors.  It  forms  the  contract  between  the  exhibitors  and  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  between  the  government  and  the  Imperial  Commission, 
and  cannot  be  made,  of  coarse,  till  authorized  by  the  government,  neither 
on  your  side  with  the  applicants,  nor  on  my  side  with  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission.  You  will  doubtless  have  the  work  so  far  advanced,  in  the  form 
indicated,  by  the  time  you  receive  the  orders  of  the  government,  that 
you  can  close  up  the  part  necessary  to  the  report  of  January  31  in  very 
brief  time. 

«  This  is  all  you  can  do  in  advance,  and  you  must  be  governed  by  the 
movements  of  Congress  up  to  that  period  ;  you  cannot  be  governed  by 
the  requirements  of  the  imperial  programme.  If  we  keep  up  with  the 
action  of  Congress,  (which  we  must  do,)  and  still  the  business  from  the 
delay  of  Congress  falls  behind  and  finally  fails,  we  shall  have  done  all 
we  could  do.  As  you  will  see  the  movements  of  Congress  you  can  shape 
your  own  by  them;  but  should  Congress  decide  sooner  than  I  anticipate, 


SELECTION  OF  PRODUCTS  FOR  EXHIBITION. 


37 


you  must  still  take  time  to  do  the  work  in  a  proper  manner.  We  were 
not  authorized  to  begin  sooner,  and  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  close  the 
work  prematurely,  half  done  or  badly  done. 

“  It  is  easier  to  find  a  reasonable  and  acceptable  excuse  for  taking  the 
time  absolutely  necessary  than  to  apologize  for  imperfect  and  bad  work 
when  it  appears. 

“As  soon  as  it  is  decided  that  Congress  will  pay  the  expenses  you 
will  have  applications  enough,  which  will  enable  you  to  fill  up  the  groups 
and  classes,  and  form  the  exhibition  in  a  more  complete  manner  than 
you  could  otherwise  obtain.  But  the  work  of  filling  up  the  groups  and 
classes  will  doubtless  involve  some  negotiations  with  exhibitors,  and  will 
inevitably  require  time,  and  the  work  should  not  be  slighted  5  dispatch 
will  depend  on  the  skill  and  competency  of  your  assistants.  But  I  have 
no  doubt  of  your  being  able  to  keep  up  with  Congress,  and  you  can 
judge  better  than  I  can  when  and  what  notice,  or  if  any  notice,  to  close 
the  acceptance  of  applications,  is  necessary. 

“  If  anything  occurs  to  make  it  necessary  to  be  more  positive  in  regard 
to  dates,  I  will  of  course  advise  you.  All  I  can  now  say  is,  you  have 
the  programme  and  knowledge  of  the  situation,  and  have  only  to  use 
the  greatest  dispatch  compatible  with  the  circumstances  and  with  the 
work  which  must  be  done. 

“  I  have  no  doubt  from  what  I  have  since  heard  of  Mr.  Evans,1  he  is 
qualified  for  the  work  I  suggested,  and  will  be  very  useful  to  you.  You 
cannot  get  on  without  a  competent  man  in  that  department,  and  if  he 
is  competent  I  may  want  him  here.  If  Congress  does  not  refuse  to 
undertake  the  work,  it  will  not  refuse  to  pay  the  cost  of  it ;  if  it  does 
refuse,  there  is  an  end  of  it.  No  provision  is  made  for  the  reception  of 
the  produce  of  any  foreign  country  not  presented  by  the  government  of 
the  country,  nor  is  it  likely,  under  the  circumstances,  that  producers 
would  be  willing  to  appear  in  any  other  way  even  if  it  were  practicable, 
which  it  is  not.” 

ADVISORY  COMMITTEE. 

Some  of  the  citizens  of  New  York  who  felt  a  deep  interest  in  the  proper 
representation  of  our  country  in  the  Universal  Exposition,  at  the  request 
of  Mr.  Derby,  and  with  the  approbation  of  the  State  Department  at 
Washington,  organized  an  “advisory  committee”  to  assist  Mr.  Derby, 
particularly  in  making  selections  from  the  numerous  applications  for 
admission  of  products.  The  services  of  this  committee  were  gratuitous. 
It  consisted  of  ten  members,  one  for  each  of  the  ten  groups  as  set  forth 
in  the  programme  of  the  Imperial  Commission.  The  aid  of  experts  in 
each  group  or  class  was  obtained,  and  great  efforts  were  made,  not  only 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  but  elsewhere,  by  journeys  through  portions  of 

1  Mr.  F.  W.  Evans,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  chairman  of  the  advisory  committee 
upon  Group  VI,  who  died  while  engaged  upon  the  work  of  organization.  Mr.  Evans  was 
educated  as  an  engineer  at  the  ficole  Centrale ,  Paris,  and  his  untimely  death  caused 
a  great  loss  to  the  work. 


38 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


the  United  States,  to  secure  a  full  representation  of  the  multiform  and 
various  products  of  the  country.  They  had  the  benefit  of  the  active 
co-operation  of  several  State  Commissioners,  of  many  societies,  and  of 
private  individuals,  and  occasionally  had  the  opportunity  of  consulting 
with  some  of  the  Government  Commissioners. 

At  a  meeting  of  this  advisory  committee  held  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
on  the  fourth  day  of  December,  1866,  the  secretary,  Professor  Charles 
A.  Joy,  was  directed  to  prepare  an  abstract  of  the  minutes  of  previous 
meetings,  and  to  state  what  further  measures  would,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  committee,  be  required  in  order  to  carry  on  the  work  to  a  successful 
completion.  From  the  report  presented  in  conformity  with  these  instruc¬ 
tions,  it  appears  that  early  in  January  of  1866  the  following  communi¬ 
cation  was  addressed  to  Mr.  Derby  by  the  committee : 

“  Your  communication  of  the  19tli  instant,  informing  us  that  1  upon 
consultation  with  prominent  citizens  interested  in  the  growth  and  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  resources  of  our  country/  we  had  been  designated  as  a 
committee  to  aid  you  in  the  selection  of  proper  articles  for  exhibition  in 
Paris  in  1867,  has  been  duly  received  ;  and  after  a  brief  consideration  of 
the  subject,  and  in  compliance  with  your  request,  we  beg  leave  to  sub¬ 
mit  the  following  suggestions : 

u  This  is  the  first  time  that  the  government  has  proposed  to  take  part 
in  a  foreign  exhibition.  Hitherto  the  representation  has  been  by  indi¬ 
vidual  effort  and  without  system,  and  has  been  in  no  sense  national. 

“  It  is  now  incumbent  upon  those  having  the  matter  in  charge  to  take 
prompt,  efficient,  and  comprehensive  action,  to  insure  a  creditable  dis¬ 
play  of  the  products  and  productive  capacity  of  the  United  States ;  and 
if,  in  consequence  of  the  shortness  of  time  and  of  inadequate  appropria¬ 
tions,  it  is  found  that  the  work  cannot  be  properly  done,  it  would  be  bet¬ 
ter  for  the  nation  to  be  excluded  from  the  Exposition  than  for  us  to  send 
forward  a  defective  and  partial  exhibition,  which  will  be  neither  useful 
nor  respectable,  nor  in  any  way  representative  of  the  products  of  the 
country. 

“The  representation  of  the  United  States  at  the  Exposition  of  1867, 
that  would  be  satisfactory  to  its  government  and  its  people,  and  worthy 
of  effort  and  expenditures,  would  be  one  that  furnishes  its  representa¬ 
tive  products  in  each  of  the  several  classes  as  set  forth  by  the  Imperial 
Commissioners,  so  far  as  they  are  known  to  exist  in  this  country. 

“  In  our  judgment,  even  if  the  time  were  not  short,  there  would  be 
great  difficulty  in  undertaking  to  obtain  these  products  by  an  appeal  for 
voluntary  offers ;  but  under  present  circumstances,  and  expressly  in 
reference  to  that  of  time,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  such  measures 
will  effect  the  desired  representation,  and  that  therefore  recourse  must 
be  had  to  very  different  means  in  order  to  insure  the  end  in  view. 

“  First.  As  it  appears  to  us,  it  is  necessary  that  it  be  made  known  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States  that  it  is  the  intention  of  the  govern¬ 
ment,  in  view  of  great  and  important  national  considerations,  to  take 


SELECTION  OF  PRODUCTS  FOR  EXHIBITION. 


39 


the  necessary  measures,  with  the  co-operation  of  its  citizens,  to  have  the 
products  and  productive  capacity  of  the  country  fairly  represented  at 
the  Exposition  of  1867. 

u  Second.  That  the  government  will  furnish  all  the  transportation 
necessary  from  the  seaports  of  the  United  States  to  Paris  and  back  ;  that 
it  will  provide  agents  to  receive,  take  care  of,  and  return  the  products 
furnished  ;  and  that  it  will  empower  a  suitable  commission  to  apply  for 
and  receive  applications  in  such  detail  as  may  be  necessary  for  selection, 
and  finally  to  determine  what  articles  are  to  be  asked  for,  obtained,  and 
forwarded,  and  that,  in  defining  the  duties  of  such  commission,  it  shall 
be  specially  provided  that  the  best  products  of  the  several  kinds  shall 
be  selected,  and  where  there  are  numerous  producers  of  the  same  class 
of  products  of  the  same  degree  of  excellence,  care  shall  be  taken  to 
apportion  the  articles  among  as  large  a  number  of  producers  as  possible. 

u  A  publication  of  this  intention  of  the  government,  accompanied  by 
an  appeal  in  the  proper  spirit  and  language,  and  setting  forth  clearly 
what  is  asked  for  of  the  producers,  and,  impressively,  the  principle  of 
fairness  and  impartiality  that  will  be  required  of  the  commission,  would, 
it  appears  to  us,  meet  with  a  response  which  would  enable  the  commis¬ 
sion  to  perform  its  part. 

u  To  some  extent  the  commission  might  find  it  necessary  to  make 
special  application  to  obtain  creditable  products.  It  would  be  of  great 
service  to  such  commission  to  have  copies  of  the  catalogues  of  the 
expositions  of  1851, 1855,  and  1862,  in  Europe,  and  of  1853  in  the  United 
States. 

“  The  government  of  the  United  States  ought  to  be  a  contributor,  as 
is  the  case  with  foreign  governments.  It  could  order  the  whole  of  the 
larger  parts  of  an  engine  for  a  war  steamer  to  be  set  up  in  Paris,  as  a 
fair  indication  of  our  capacity  in  that  class  of  production. 

u  Should  the  action  of  the  government  and  of  the  producers  of  the 
United  States  be  of  the  character  briefly  set  forth,  it  is  evident  that  no 
small  space  at  the  Exposition  will  be  required ;  and  we  deem  it  necessary 
to  remark  that,  in  view  of  such  action,  the  spaces  occupied  in  the  expo¬ 
sitions  of  1851,  1855,  and  1862,  under  entirely  different  influences,  afford 
no  proper  basis  of  conclusion  as  to  the  allotment  required  in  1867. 

u  Not  having  before  us  any  estimate  of  the  expenditures  required  for 
the  participation  of  the  United  States  in  the  manner  proposed,  we  can 
hardly  with  propriety  naiqe  any  sum j  but  in  our  view  of  the  urgent 
need  of  very  prompt  action,  we  deem  it  proper  to  say  that  it  appears  to 
us  that  not  less  than  $300,000  should  be  placed  at  the  command  of  the 
appropriate  department,  from  which  the  commission  would  receive  its 
powers  and  instructions,  and  to  which  it  would  make  application  for 
such  funds  as  may  be  necessary  to  perform  the  work  intrusted  to  them. 

u  In  this  communication  we  have  aimed  to  present,  in  a  summary 
manner,  the  views  which  we  have  formed.  Of  course,  very  much  remains 
to  be  considered  and  decided. 


40 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


u  If  in  the  future  proceedings  it  is  thought  that  we  can  be  of  service, 
we  shall  be  happy  to  meet  you  and  to  render  such  aid  as  may  be  in  our 
power. 

“For  the  advisory  committee:  [Signed  byj  Horatio  Allen,  Samuel  B. 
Buggies,  Frederick  Law  Olmsted,  Charles  A.  Joy,  sub-committee.” 

An  estimate  of  expenses  was  prepared  in  conformity  with  the  above 
letter. 

“  Mr.  Buggies  and  Mr.  McElrath,  of  our  committee,  repeatedly  visited 
Washington  to  urge  upon  Congress  the  necessity  for  immediate  action. 

“  They,  with  others,  addressed  public  meetings  and  published  articles 
in  the  papers  of  the  day. 

“  It  was  not  until  the  5th  of  July  last,  more  than  a  year  after  the  at¬ 
tention  of  the  government  had  been  first  called  to  the  subject,  that  any 
appropriations  were  made,  and  those  then  made  were  quite  inadequate 
in  amount. 

“  The  United  States  agency  has  therefore  labored  under  disadvantages 
not  experienced  in  other  countries. 

“  The  uncertainty  which  prevailed  to  some  extent  in  Congress,  in  the 
peculiar  condition,  at  a  certain  period,  of  our  public  relations  with  France, 
whether  the  United  States  would  participate  at  all  in  the  Exposition, 
and  the  consequent  delay  in  the  passage  of  the  appropriation,  rendered 
it  impossible,  at  an  early  day,  to  arouse  the  national  spirit  to  the  extent 
that  a  different  state  of  facts  would  undoubtedly  have  witnessed. 

“  Notwithstanding  these  untoward  circumstances,  a  very  considerable 
work  has  been  done,  and  much  more  can  be  accomplished  if  immediate 
additional  aid  be  rendered  by  Congress. 

u  The  highest  interests  of  the  nation  evidently  demanded  the  utmost 
efforts  of  your  committee  to  stimulate  the  country  without  delay  to  a 
full  exhibition  of  its  products,  notwithstanding  any  temporary  inade¬ 
quacy  of  the  appropriations. 

“  They  have  proceeded  under  the  conviction  that  Congress,  when  fully 
acquainted  with  the  magnitude  of  the  subject,  and  its  consequent  neces¬ 
sities,  would  make  any  necessary  increase  in  the  appropriations. 

“  At  the  meeting  of  the  Advisory  Committee,  December  4,  1866,  the 
respective  chairmen  of  the  ten  groups  submitted  full  reports  of  what 
they  had  been  able  to  accomplish  up  to  that  date.” 

Mr.  William  J.  Hoppin,  chairman  of  the  committee  for  Group  I,  em¬ 
bracing  works  of  art,  &c.,  reported  that  a  general  invitation  to  partici¬ 
pate  in  the  Exposition  had  been  addressed  to  artists  and  others,  and 
extensively  circulated  in  the  newspapers.  A  committee  charged  with 
the  duty  of  selecting  was  organized  from  among  the  owners  of  private 
galleries  and  familiar  with  the  condition  of  art  in  this  country. 

“  They  adopted  the  rule  to  accept,  if  possible,  only  the  best  things  we 
have  done  since  1855,  and  this  rule  necessarily  excluded  some  interest¬ 
ing  and  creditable  works,  which,  if  the  competition  were  among  our¬ 
selves,  and  not  between  the  United  States  and  foreign  nations,  would 


SELECTION  OF  PRODUCTS  FOR  EXHIBITION. 


41 


probably  have  been  admitted.  Want  of  space  also  compelled  the  exclu¬ 
sion  of  some  valuable  productions. 

“  It  was  determined  to  give  great  predominance  to  landscapes  in  our 
selection,  because  this  was  the  department  in  which  the  American  school 
of  art  has  gained  most  distinction. 

“  In  obedience  to  these  rules,  the  art  committee  endeavored  to  decide 
which  were  the  best  pictures  that  had  been  painted  by  the  leading  men 
within  the  last  ten  years,  and  then  to  obtain  these  works  by  direct  appli¬ 
cations  to  their  owners. 

“  In  sculpture  the  same  general  rules  of  selection  prevailed,  and  some 
of  our  best  productions  will  be  sent  to  Paris. 

“  The  owners  of  these  works  of  art  expect  no  private  advantages  from 
this  enterprise,  and  are  willing,  for  no  other  motive  than  to  increase  the 
fame  of  the  artists  and  the  credit  of  the  nation,  to  submit  to  the  absence 
of  their  treasures  for  nearly  a  year,  and  to  the  risk  of  their  possible  loss. 
It  therefore  seems  no  more  than  reasonable  that  Congress  should  make 
an  additional  appropriation  for  return  freight,  premiums  of  insurance, 
and  the  necessary  expense  of  an  agent  or  custodian. 

“  The  value  of  the  works  of  art  thus  contributed  and  loaned  by  these 
individuals  for  the  public  benefit  is  at  least  $150,000,  and  it  would  be 
exceedingly  unjust  and  ungenerous  if,  in  addition  to  the  sacrifices  made 
by  them,  they  should  be  called  upon  to  pay  the  charges  indicated 
above.” 

Professor  Charles  A.  Joy,  chairman  of  Group  II,  embracing  books, 
proofs  and  apparatus  of  photography,  musical  instruments,  medical  and 
surgical  instruments,  mathematical  and  philosophical  instruments,  &c., 
reported : 

That  there  were  147  applications  for  space ;  of  these  50  were  with¬ 
drawn  voluntarily  or  rejected,  leaving  97  producers  to  whom  space  was 
assigned. 

Mr.  Samuel  B.  Buggies,  chairman  of  the  committee  upon  Group  Y, 
and  commissioner,  reported : 

u  The  chairman  of  this  group,  soon  after  his  appointment  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment  in  July  as  one  of  the  ten  professional  commissioners,  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  adequate  action  by  the  country  personally  visited 
all  the  States  from  Hew  York  westward  to  Minnesota  and  Iowa  Inclusive, 
explaining  the  importance  of  the  Exposition  to  the  interests  of  the  vari¬ 
ous  portions  of  the  United  States. 

“In  these  efforts,  and  especially  in  the  northwestern  States,  he  was 
actively  and  efficiently  aided  by  two  of  his  associates  in  the  commission, 
Mr.  James  H.  Bowen,  of  Chicago,  and  Mr.  Henry  F.  Q.  d’Aligny,  of  the 
Upper  Peninsula  of  Michigan,  and  also  by  the  zealous  co-operation  of 
several  of  the  commissioners  appointed  by  the  several  States,  including 
Mr.  J.  L.  Butler,  of  Missouri,  Mr.  J.  P.  Beynolds,  of  Illinois,  and  Mr.  J. 
A.  Wilstacli,  of  Indiana.” 


42 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  magnitude  in  number  and  in  bulk  of  the  contributions  in  Class  40 
of  this  group,  the  products  of  mines  and  metallurgy,  rendered  it  necessary 
to  select  only  the  most  important  and  characteristic  portions.  It  was 
therefore  necessary  to  call  in  the  aid  of  experts,  not  only  to  make  the 
necessary  selections,  but  to  classify,  label,  and  properly  pack  in  boxes 
the  specimens  to  be  sent,  and  for  that  purpose  to  procure  suitable  rooms 
and  several  skilled  assistants. 

This  labor  for  a  portion  of  the  collections  sent  to  Paris  from  New  York 
was  performed  chiefly  by  and  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Thomas 
Egleston  of  the  School  of  Mines  of  Columbia  College,  in  the  city  of  New 
York. 

Mr.  F.  W.  Evans,  chairman  of  Group  YI,  embracing  machinery,  &c., 
reported : 

“  The  committee  on  Group  YI  was  organized  in  July  last,  as  soon  as  the 
action  of  Congress  rendered  it  certain  that  the  articles  accepted  could  be 
sent.  They  had  to  select  from  about  five  hundred  applications,  and  their 
aim  has  been  to  fill  up  the  space  allotted  to  them  with  representative 
articles  for  each  class,  paying  no  regard  to  priority  of  application,  and 
taking  care  that  every  branch  of  manufacture  and  of  industry  comprised 
in  this  group  should  be  represented. 

“In  order  to  do  this,  the  space  being  limited,  the  committee  had  first 
to  decide  on  the  relative  amount  of  ground  to  be  allotted  to  each  class, 
and  then  to  fill  up  such  space  with  the  representative  articles  correspond¬ 
ing.  This  part  of  the  work  required  careful  study,  much  correspondence, 
and  some  travel,  in  order  to  see  and  understand,  so  as  to  decide  know¬ 
ingly  on  the  merits  of  the  articles  for  which  space  was  demanded. 

“Some  of  the  best  articles  not  being  forthcoming,  the  committee 
deemed  it  advisable  to  solicit  their  representation,  especially  when  such 
exhibition  would  necessarily  entail  great  expense  upon  the  owners. 
And  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  it  was  not  in  the  power  of  the  agency  to 
furnish  material  aid  for  some  of  the  manufacturers  of  expensive  and 
complicated  machinery,  whose  exhibition  would  confer  lasting  honor 
upon  the  mechanical  skill  of  the  country  without  any  immediate  pecu¬ 
niary  benefit  to  the  owners.” 

Mr.  W.  S.  Carpenter,  chairman  of  Group  Y1II,  embracing  animals  and 
specimens  of  agricultural  establishments,  reported : 

“That,  under  the  prohibition  by  the  minister  of  the  interior  in  France, 
in  view  of  the  danger  from  the  prevalent  cattle  plague,  it  was  found  im¬ 
practicable  to  send  live  animals  to  the  Exposition.  The  few  articles 
applied  for  were  transferred  to  Group  YI.” 

In  conclusion,  the  committee  reported  as  follows : 

“From  the  preceding  abstracts  of  the  reports  of  the  chairmen  of  the 
ten  groups  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  amount  of  work  that  has 
been  accomplished  by  your  committees  in  the  limited  time  at  their  dis¬ 
posal.  There  have  been  about  twelve  hundred  applications  for  permis¬ 
sion  to  exhibit  products.  Some  of  them  were  made  in  the  name  of  States, 


SELECTION  OF  PRODUCTS  FOR  EXHIBITION.  43 

and  cover  a  large  number  of  individuals.  The  number  of  persons  di¬ 
rectly  interested  in  the  Exposition  amounts  to  several  thousands. 

“  The  money  value  of  the  articles  to  be  exhibited  cannot  be  stated  with 
accuracy.  It  would  be  difficult  to  form  a  just  estimate;  but  as  only 
choice  articles  have  been  accepted,  it  can  safely  be  put  down  at  many 
hundred  thousand  dollars. 

“  Many  products,  the  exhibition  of  which  would  have  proved  highly 
advantageous  to  the  country,  were  practically  excluded  for  the  reason 
that  there  was  no  provision  for  return  freight.  To  send  them  to  Paris 
was,  in  some  instances,  equivalent  to  giving  them  away. 

“ There  has  been  much  enlightened  patriotism  displayed  on  the  part 
of  exhibitors.  Many  of  them  have  expended  large  sums  of  money  for 
the  purpose  of  showing  to  the  world  what  we  can  produce,  and  western 
railroad  companies  have  liberally  offered  to  carry  freight  for  the  Expo¬ 
sition  free  of  charge. 

“  Your  committee  having  been  familiar  with  all  the  details  of  the  work 
from  the  beginning,  knowing  what  has  been  accomplished  and  how  much 
may  yet  be  done,  are  in  the  condition  to  state  what  further  sums  are 
required  to  maintain  the  credit  of  our  country  in  participating  in  this 
world  wide  enterprise. 

“To  sum  up  these  necessities,  there  is  urgent  need  of  an  immediate 
additional  appropriation  of  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  to  save  the 
property  of  exhibitors  and  to  complete  the  work  begun. 

“The  enlightened  citizens  who  have  loaned  their  valuable  works  of 
art  must  be  secured  from  pecuniary  loss  on  freight  and  insurance ;  the 
expense  of  collecting,  assorting,  selecting,  and  labeling  ores  and  miner¬ 
als,  and  of  publishing  concise  statistical  statements  of  the  extent  and 
value  of  our  mineral  lands,  ought  to  be  defrayed  by  the  government, 
with  additional  appropriation  for  return  freight  of  suites  of  specimens 
which  institutions  and  individuals  are  willing  to  loan  for  the  Exposition. 

“In  the  department  of  machinery  the  sum  at  the  disposal  of  the 
agency  is  altogether  inadequate ;  there  is  an  absolute  necessity  for  mo¬ 
tive  power  in  the  supplementary  building  in  the  Park,  or  a  very  large 
class  of  exhibitors  will  be  deprived  of  the  opportunity  of  showing  their 
machines  in  motion,  and  a  considerable  addition  to  the  transportation 
fund  is  required  to  enable  the  agent  to  forward  some  of  the  most  import¬ 
ant  machines  yet  offered. 

“The  fund  is  also  inadequate  for  inland  transportation  in  France  and 
return  of  the  packages  to  the  seaport ;  also  for  the  care  of  them  in  Paris 
and  the  necessary  services  of  agents  and  interpreters. 

“There  is  not  sufficient  money  to  defray  the  necessary  expenses  of  the 
agent  in  New  York,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that,  but  for  the  gratuitous  aid 
received  from  persons  not  officially  connected  with  the  Exposition,  and 
the  meager  salaries  accepted  by  yourself  and  others,  the  work  would 
have  been  seriously  interrupted. 

“In  the  original  plan  of  organization,  prepared  by  the  secretary  of 


44 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


this  committee,  provision  was  made  for  the  appointment  of.  ten  commis¬ 
sioners  to  report  the  scientific  results  of  the  Exposition,  and  it  was  pro¬ 
posed  to  give  each  commissioner  authority  to  employ  the  necessary 
assistants.  They  should  also  be  authorized,  as  a  body,  to  appoint  a  sec¬ 
retary  to  keep  and  preserve  proper  records  of  their  proceedings  and  their 
correspondence,  and  to  provide  rooms  at  Paris  for  meetings  and  busi¬ 
ness,  with  the  necessary  incidental  expenses. 

“Adequate  provision  should  also  be  made  for  the  expense  of  collect¬ 
ing  and  exhibiting  the  weights  and  measures,  and  especially  the  coins 
of  the  United  States,  reaching  back  to  our  colonial  era,  to  properly  pre¬ 
pare  for  the  international  discussion  invited  by  the  French  commission 
of  the  very  important  question  of  a  common  unit  of  money  for  the  use 
of  the  civilized  world.  The  successful  establishment  of  a  coinage  of  uni¬ 
form  weight  and  fineness,  and  common  to  all  the  nations  of  the  world, 
wpuld  annually  save  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  to  the  citizens  of 
the  United  States. 

“For  the  necessary  objects  above  specified,  your  advisory  committee 
are  of  opinion  that  an  expenditure  of  fifty  thousand  dollars  by  the  pro¬ 
fessional  commissioners  will  be  necessary,  and  should  be  appropriated 
by  Congress. 

“It  should  be  considered,  moreover,  that  the  task  which  has  been  as¬ 
signed  to  these  ten  commissioners,  of  preparing  a  report  or  series  of 
reports  upon  the  Exposition,  and  upon  the  several  departments  of  indus¬ 
try  which  will  be  represented  in  it,  is  one  which,  for  its  proper  execution, 
will  require  a  species  of  assistance  for  which  no  provision  has  been  made 
in  the  resolutions  under  which  they  have  been  appointed.  In  order  that 
such  reports  may  subserve  the  purpose  intended  of  promoting  the  ad¬ 
vancement  of  the  arts  of  industry  in  the  country,  and  thus  contributing 
to  the  national  wealth,  they  should  exhibit  not  only  the  present  condi¬ 
tion  of  each  department,  but  also  some  sketch  of  its  history,  and  some 
account  of  the  progressive  steps  by  which  it  has  reached  its  present  state 
of  perfection.  They  will  consequently  require  a  large  amount  of  special 
study  and  of  correspondence  or  personal  communication  with  the  scien¬ 
tific  and  practical  men  of  other  countries. 

“  For  the  intelligible  presentation  of  the  results  they  will  require  to  be 
illustrated  by  numerous  drawings  and  diagrams,  exhibiting  the  construc¬ 
tions,  apparatus,  and  machinery  employed  in  the  various  processes  which 
they  describe.  The  purely  mechanical  labor  of  digesting  the  literary 
material  thus  collected,  and  of  preparing  the  illustrations  necessary, 
would  be  more  than  sufficient  to  occupy  all  the  time  of  the  commission¬ 
ers,  were  not  their  proper  task  a  higher  one  than  that  of  mere  histori¬ 
ans.  If  their  labors  are  to  be  practically  useful,  they  must  be  free  to 
study,  discuss,  and  criticise  the  objects  and  processes  upon  which  they 
report,  to  bring  into  clear  relief  whatever  is  most  meritorious  in  each, 
and  to  point  out  the  particulars  in  which  improvement  is  still  to  be  de¬ 
sired,  and  the  directions  in  which  it  may  be  sought.  They  should, 


IMPORTANCE  OF  A  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION. 


45 


therefore,  be  authorized  and  enabled  to  employ  such  artistic  and  profes¬ 
sional  assistance  as  may  relieve  them  of  that  portion  of  their  work  which 
they  could  only  perform  in  person,  to  the  great  prejudice  of  the  final 
value  of  their  reports. 

“The  necessity  of  providing  the  commissioners  with  such  assistance 
was  early  perceived  and  pointed  out  by  Professor  Joy  in  a  letter  to  your¬ 
self  published  by  Congress  and  by  the  Commissioner  General  of  the 
United  States  in  Paris. 

“In  a  communication  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  State  under  date 
of  31st  January,  1866,  Mr.  Beckwith,  with  the  intelligent  forecast  char¬ 
acterizing  all  his  official  communications,  remarks:  ‘The  resolutions 
presented  to  Congress  on  the  21st  of  December  proposed  appropriations 
for  a  scientific  commission  of  ten  members,  corresponding  to  the  ten 
groups  of  products.  But  this  number ,  unassisted ,  will  not  be  sufficient . 
It  will  devolve  upon  them  not  only  to  make  the  requisite  studies  and 
reports,  but  also  to  serve  on  international  juries.  The  latter  service, 
though  requiring  much  time,  will  afford  the  best  opportunities  for  infor¬ 
mation  resulting  from  the  investigations,  experiments,  and  discussions 
of  the  juries.  But  they  will  not  be  equal  to  the  worh  icithout  assistants , 
and  they  can  be  obtained  at  a  moderate  cost.  The  services  of  scientific 
and  professional  assistants  can  be  engaged,  whose  special  studies,  collo¬ 
quial  knowledge  of  continental  languages,  familiarity  with  the  conti¬ 
nental  nomenclature  of  the  sciences  and  industrial  arts,  together  with 
their  personal  acquaintances,  access  to  sources  of  information  and  works 
of  authority  and  local  knowledge  in  general,  will  render  their  services  as 
assistants  highly  efficient.  The  scientific  commission  thus  supplemented 
will  be  equal  to  the  work  required  of  it,  and  more  useful  labor  can  be 
accomplished  in  this  way  at  less  cost  than  in  any  other  way.? 

“The  Advisory  Committee  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  several  gov¬ 
ernments  of  Europe  which  have  resolved  to  participate  in  the  Exposition 
have  not  been  in  any  case  unmindful  of  this  important  provision.  Our 
professional  and  scientific  commissioners  cannot  but  deeply  feel  the  dis¬ 
advantage  under  which  they  must  necessarily  labor,  unless  Congress 
shall  see  fit  to  concede  to  them  the  same  aid  in  the  execution  of  their 
task  as  will  be  enjoyed  by  their  fellow-commissioners  from  other  lands. 

“By  reference  to  the  early  correspondence  between  the  Commissioner 
General  and  the  minister  of  the  United  States  in  Paris,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  appropriations  already  made  by  Congress  fall  short  by  more 
than  forty  thousand  dollars  of  the  sum  estimated  by  the  Commissioner 
General  as  the  very  minimum  necessary  to  secure  for  our  country  a  cred¬ 
itable  representation  at  the  Exposition,  and  very  much  further  below 
what  he  thought  desirable.  These  estimates  were  made  with  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  what  other  governments  were  doing,  and  could  have  been 
dictated  solely  by  a  patriotic  desire,  not  only  to  secure  to  our  country 
all  the  important  advantages  which  may  be  made  to  flow  from  this  great 


46 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


international  comparison  of  industries,  but  also  to  see  her  honorably  sus¬ 
taining  her  part  in  this  most  generous  of  rivalries. 

“His  estimates  will  be  found  in  a  published  correspondence,  in  a  letter 
addressed  to  Mr.  Bigelow  under  date  of  November  22,  1865,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  all  the  additional  appropriations  asked  for  by  the  under¬ 
signed  might  be  made  without  transcending  the  limits  assigned  by  him, 
and  which  the  necessities  of  the  case,  as  they  have  developed  them¬ 
selves,  have  shown  to  be  too  low. 

“The  Advisory  Committee  beg  leave  further  to  submit  that  the  pro¬ 
vision  of  the  joint  resolution  of  Congress  making  an  appropriation  of  a 
certain  definite  sum  for  the  purpose  of  defraying  the  personal  expenses 
of  the  ten  commissioners  while  engaged  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties, 
might  with  propriety  be  modified.  While  these  professional  men  may 
desire  to  derive  no  pecuniary  advantage  from  their  connection  with  the 
commission,  it  cannot  be  proper  or  just  that  they  should  suffer  positive 
pecuniary  loss.  Their  services,  if  properly  performed,  cannot  fail  to  be 
of  material  benefit  to  the  country.  If  worth  having,  they  are  worth  pay¬ 
ing  for.  Their  terms  of  service,  including  the  time  occupied  in  going 
and  returning,  extend  over  a  period  of  eight  months.  A  moment’s  con¬ 
sideration  is  enough  to  show  that  the  cost  of  a  voyage  to  France,  out 
and  back,  and  the  necessary  expense  of  living  for  such  a  length  of  time 
in  a  foreign  capital  crowded  with  visitors,  and  at  prices  greatly  enhanced,  • 
are  most  inadequately  met  by  the  appropriation  in  the  joint  resolution. 
It  would  surely  be  more  just,  and  far  more  Consistent  with  the  dignity 
of  the  nation,  that  provision  should  be  made  for  the  payment  of  the  actu¬ 
ally  necessary  expenses  of  the  ten  commissioners,  to  be  duly  audited  on 
proper  vouchers  by  any  appropriate  officer  of  the  government. 

“In  conclusion,  and  in  view  of  the  preceding  facts  and  considerations, 
we,  the  undersigned,  are  of  opinion  that  the  pecuniary  means  now  at 
your  disposal  are  quite  inadequate  to  the  requirements  of  the  various 
industrial  and  public  ihterests  of  the  country. 

“We  therefore  respectfully  recommend  that  you  make  immediate  ap¬ 
plication  to  Congress  for  an  additional  appropriation,  amounting  in  the 
aggregate  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars. 

“The  total  expenditure  would  even  then  fall  considerably  short  of  the 
proportionate  expenditure  by  most  of  the  countries  represented  in  the 
Exposition,  but  it  would  enable  the  United  States  to  maintain  to  a  fair 
extent  its  just  rank  in  this  great  concourse  of  nations.” 

This  report  was  addressed  to  Mr.  Derby,  and  was  signed  by  the  chair¬ 
men  of  the  admission  committees  of  the  ten  groups. 

RESOLUTIONS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE. 

A  special  meeting  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York  was  held 
on  Friday,  January  12,  1866,  to  hear  the  report  of  the  committee,  con¬ 
sisting  of  Mr.  Samuel  B.  Buggies,  Mr.  Denning  Duer,  Mr.  George  Op- 


RESOLUTIONS  OF  THE  CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE. 


47 


dyke,  Mr.  J.  S.  T.  Stranahan,  and  Mr.  Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  in  relation  to  the 
Universal  Exposition  of  Industry  to  be  held  in  Paris  in  1867  ;  President 
A.  A.  Low  in  the  chair.  The  Hon.  Samuel  B.  Buggies,  in  behalf  of  the 
committee,  reported  the  following  resolutions  for  adoption  : 

u Resolved ,  That  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York  have  learned, 
with  profound  satisfaction,  that  the  government  of  the  United  States 
has  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  government  of  France,  to  unite  with 
the  other  governments  of  the  world  in  the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris, 
in  April,  1867,  of  the  products  of  each ;  and  will  confidently  rely  on  the 
intelligence  and  liberality  of  Congress  to  make  timely  and  adequate  ap¬ 
propriations  for  exhibiting  the  products  of  the  American  Union  on  the 
proposed  occasion,  in  such  a  manner  and  on  such  a  scale  as  shall  main¬ 
tain  its  just  rank  among  the  civilized  nations  of  the  earth. 

uj Resolved,  That  in  view  of  the  well-considered  action  of  the  French 
government  calling  upon  all  its  departmental  authorities,  including  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  boards  of  trade,  and  academies  of  art,  to  co-oper¬ 
ate,  within  the  proper  limits  of  their  authority,  in  the  enlightened  design 
of  fully  displaying  the  products  of  France,  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of 
this  the  principal  national  city  of  the  United  States  feel  called  upon  to 
exert  whatever  influence  they  may  possess  with  their  fellow-citizens 
throughout  the  Union  to  induce  them  promptly  to  furnish  to  the  pro¬ 
posed  Exposition,  in  the  most  liberal  manner,  such  specimens  of  their 
products  of  industry  or  art  as  may  elevate  our  national  character ;  and 
to  secure  more  effectually  this  object,  they  do  now  invite  appropriate 
action  on  the  part  of  the  other  chambers  of  commerce  and  boards  of 
trade  of  our  country. 

u  Resolved ,  That  it  be  referred  to  a  committee  of  five  members  of  this 
chamber,  to  invite  the  attention  of  the  chambers  of  commerce  and  boards 
of  trade  in  the  different  cities  of  the  United  States  to  the  peculiar  na¬ 
tional  importance,  both  political  and  financial,  of  the  proposed  Exposi¬ 
tion,  in  exhibiting  to  the  governments  and  the  peoples  of  Europe  the 
natural  and  industrial  resources  of  the  American  Union,  now  happily 
restored  in  its  full  constitutional  authority.” 

Mr.  Buggies  supported  the  resolutions  with  eloquent  and  appropriate 
remarks,  after  which  Mr.  Cowdin  addressed  the  chamber  on  the  subject. 

The  resolutions  were  unanimously  adopted,  and  the  committee  author¬ 
ized  to  forward  them  to  Congress,  and  also  to  the  various  chambers  of 
commerce  and  boards  of  trade  throughout  the  country. 

EFFORTS  TO  OBTAIN  EXTENSION  OF  TIME. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

»  u  Paris,  January  25,  1866. 

u  I  beg  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  30th  December, 
advising  reception  of  my  communication  of  the  15th,  and  to  thank  you 
for  the  attention  it  had  received. 


48 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  I  think  you  will  desire  to  be  informed  exactly  of  our  relations  to  the 
Imperial  Commission  in  regard  to  the  extension  of  time,  and  I  take  leave 
to  annex  hereto  copy  of  my  letter  to  Mr.  Derby  of  the  24th  instant,  which 
contains  at  once  a  statement  of  the  situation  and  my  advices  to  him  in 
conformity  therewith,  for  his  guidance.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Derby. 

“  Paris,  January  24,  1866. 

“Dear  Sir  :  I  am  favored  with  your  letter  of  the  5th  instant,  No.  15, 
and  am  gratified  and  encouraged  by  the  good  spirits  in  which  you  write. 

“The  action  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  will  undoubtedly  receive  the 
favorable  consideration  of  Congress,  and  if  followed  immediately  by  the 
concurrent  action  of  other  chambers,  the  movement  will  have  still  more 
weight. 

“  The  decision  of  Congress  is  vital,  and  if  the  Exposition  is  worthy  of 
their  attention,  it  deserves  immediate  attention,  before  it  is  too  late. 

“My  letter  of  the  23d  of  December,  No.  31,  will  have  relieved  you,  I 
trust,  from  immediate  anxiety  in  regard  to  time  for  filling  up  classes, 
and  enabled  you  to  go  on  with  the  work  without  interruption. 

“  I  regret  that  I  cannot  make  the  extension  of  time  definite  and  name 
the  utmost  limit  that  can  be  obtained. 

“  But  I  feel  no  hesitation  in  suggesting  that  it  will  not  exceed  three 
months  from  the  31st  instant,  and  this  is  more  than  I  think  the  Imperial 
Commission  would  now  consent  to. 

“You  should  not,  therefore,  undertake  anything  on  a  scale  which  can¬ 
not  be  brought  to  maturity  so  as  to  enable  you  to  complete  the  list  and 
catalogue  within  this  time. 

“  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  near  ten  months  have  elapsed  since  the 
proposal  of  the  French  government  was  communicated  to  the  cabinet  at 
Washington,  that  Congress  assembled  early  in  December,  that  the  French 
government  has  not  yet  been  informed  that  the  United  States  will  take 
part  in  the  Exposition,  and  that  we  are  not  yet  authorized  to  make  defin¬ 
itive  engagements  with  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“  The  embarrassments  resulting  from  this  delay  are  not  mitigated  by 
their  being  unavoidable.  We  are,  therefore,  not  in  a  favorable  •situation 
for  asking  the  Imperial  Commission  to  put  themselves  to  further  incon¬ 
venience.  We  should  be  able,  first,  to  report  to  them  the  favorable  action 
of  Congress,  which  would  carry  the  assurance  that  the  changes  we  ask 
them  to  make  would  not  be  made  in  vain. 

“  Neither  is  it  expedient  for  us  to  move  in  this  prematurely,  and  pre¬ 
sent  to  the  Imperial  Commission  occasion  to  act  under  circumstances  so 
unfavorable  to  us  as  to  be  likely  to  result  in  giving  us  less  time  than  we 
may  expect  at  a  later  period. 

“  The  date  when  the  second  report  will  be  due  (31st  instant)  has  not 
yet  arrived.  Previous  to  that  the  Imperial  Commission  cannot  act  on 
its  own  impulse.  It  is  therefore  safe  to  wait  and  leave  the  initiative  to 


EFFORTS  TO  OBTAIN  EXTENSION  OF  TIME. 


49 


them,  and,  as  they  know  our  situation  and  are  disposed  to  favor  us,  they 
will  not  move  in  the  matter  till  they  are  obliged  to.  When  they  call  on 
us  to  report  I  will  respond  and  make  the  best  terms  I  can  for  time ;  but 
before  this  event  occurs  I  fully  expect  the  action  of  Congress  will  change 
the  situation  and  make  it  more  favorable. 

u  The  Imperial  Commission  is  well  disposed  to  aid  us  in  regard  to  time 
4  as  much  as  it  can,’  and  I  observe  that 4  it  can  ’  a  little  more,  if  we  help 
them  to  help  us,  by  leaving  to  them  for  the  present  the  difficulty  of  pre¬ 
venting  us  from  helping  ourselves. 

u  I  have  fully  explained  the  situation  to  Mr.  Bigelow,  and  we  are  of 
one  opinion  on  the  subject. 

u  I  have  also  discussed  it  with  M.  Le  Play,  and  have  informed  him 
that  I  shall  at  present  leave  the  initiative  to  him,  but  that  we  cannot 
afford  to  cut  the  work  short  at  this  stage  and  spoil  it,  and  must  assume 
that  as  much  time  as  possible  will  ultimately  be  granted. 

aHis  replies  are  made  under  the  reserves  which  comport  with  his  rela- 
tious  to  the  Imperial  Commission,  but  he  appreciates  the  situation,  and 
is  satisfied  with  the  course  which,  for  the  present,  I  propose,  and  this 
leaves  me  no  uneasiness  on  the  subject. 

u  Be  assured  that  I  shall  obtain  as  much  time  as  can  be  obtained, 
which,  I  think,  will  in  no  case  exceed  three  months,  and  shall,  in  so 
doing,  preserve  a  good  understanding  with  the  Imperial  Commission, 
which  is  all  that  the  situation  requires — at  all  events,  all  that  it  admits  of. 

u  The  time  we  have  lost  cannot  be  recovered  nor  wholly  made  up  from 
the  future,  and  we  shall  suffer  some  inconvenience  from  it. 

u  The  gentlemen  you  name  as  having  come  to  your  aid  will  be  of  great 
service  to  you,  and  I  am  happy  to  learn  that  they  are  willing  to  lend 
their  influence  and  co-operation. 

u  The  estimates  of  cost  of  a  suitable  building  in  the  Park,  returned  to 
me,  were  so  unsatisfactory  that  I  abandoned  the  idea  of  producing  them 
as  a  basis  for  appropriations. 

u  1  subsequently  obtained  estimates  from  the  architects  of  the  Palace, 
who  compute  the  cost  of  what  we  shall  require  at  about  five  dollars  per 
square  yard  of  ground  covered  by  a  building,  and  I  have  reported  this 
estimate  to  the  Department  of  State.” 

Mr.  Beckicith  to  Mr.  Seicard. 

“  Paris,  April  29,  1866. 

u  Sir  :  The  Imperial  Commission  has  thus  far  assented  to  the  delays 
1  have  been  obliged  to  ask  for,  which  it  was  possible  to  grant,  without 
'  arresting  the  progress  of  some  portion  of  the  works  in  the  Champ  de 
Mars. 

****** 
u  It  is  necessary  to  the  progress  of  the  works  in  the  Champ  de  Mars 
that  we  should  now  decide  and  agree  definitively  to  occupy  the  ground 
reserved  for  us  or  relinquish  it,  that  it  may  be  prepared  for  other  uses. 

4  p  E 


50 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


u  The  annexed  letter  on  the  subject,  addressed  to  me  by  the  Imperial 
Commission,  sets  forth  fully  the  situation  of  the  Park  business,  and  indi¬ 
cates  the  necessity  of  an  early  decision.  The  letter  is  accompanied  by  a 
plan  showing  the  ground  reserved. 

#  #  #  #  #  * 

UI  have,  therefore,  asked  for  the  further  delay  requisite  to  make  this 
communication,  and  that  I  may  be  exactly  informed  on  the  subject  before 
surrendering  the  ground.,  if  it  be  not  possible  to  retain  it.” 

#  #  -  *  #  #  # 

u  Paris,  June  1,  1866. 

u  I  annex  hereto  a  letter  from  the  Imperial  Commission.  *  *  *  It 

sets  forth  very  clearly  the  progress  and  present  situation  of  the  prelimi¬ 
nary  work  for  the  Exposition,  and  the  necessity  for  proceeding  on  our 
part,  and  fixes  the  30th  of  June  for  the  delayed  reports  due  from  us. 

u  I  am  not  without  hope  that  the  action  of  Congress  will  have  enabled 
Mr.  Derby  to  proceed,  and  that  he  will  be  able  to  close  up  and  send  in 
his  report  by  the  time  named.” 

M.  Le  Play  to  Mr.  Beckicith. 1 

u  Paris,  May  26, 1866. 

u  I  have  the  honor  to  remind  you  that,  in  accordance  with  article  seven 
of  the  general  regulations,  the  foreign  committees  are  requested  to  furnish 
a  plan  of  places  to  the  scale  of  0.002  of  a  metre,  indicating  by  group  and 
class  the  space  assigned  to  each  exhibitor,  with  the  exhibitor’s  name,  pre¬ 
vious  to  the  31st  of  January,  1866. 

“It  is  now  four  months  since  the  expiration  of  the  time,  and  the  Im¬ 
perial  Commission,  not  having  received  that  document,  needs  the  infor¬ 
mation,  iu  order  to  complete  the  construction  of  the  general  plan. 

“The  Imperial  Commission  leaves  the  foreign  commissions  free  to 
arrange  their  articles  as  they  please,  within  the  space  allotted  to  them, 
provided  the  principles  of  general  classification  are  regarded;  but  cer¬ 
tain  measures  must  be  considered  together,  by  comparing  the  plans  of 
the  different  states,  and  settled  jointly,  for  the  following  reasons : 

“  Each  nation,  as  you  know,  is  separated  from  its  neighbors,  on  one 
side  by  a  partition  put  up  by  joint  expense,  and  on  the  other  by  a  passage- 
way.  In  regard  to  this  partition,  the  architects  wish  to  make  a  certain 
number  of  doors  in  it,  to  afford  a  free  circulation.  The  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  offers  its  kind  mediation  to  arrange  this  communication  between 
neighboring  states;  but  this  cannot  be  effected  without  an  exact  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  mode  of  location  adopted  by  each  party,  and  this  informa¬ 
tion  is  indispensable,  in  order  to  agree  upon  the  height  of  the  partition, 
the  position  and  dimensions  of  the  screens,  &c. 

“  Along  the  passage-ways  separating  two  joining  nations  the  different 
commissions  intend  to  erect  ornamental  fronts  of  a  national  style  of 
architecture.  Two  opposite  fronts,  though  differing  essentially  in  their 


1  Translation. 


APPORTIONMENT  OF  SPACE.  51 

general  appearance,  must  have  a  similarity  of  construction,  which  can¬ 
not  be  determined  upon  without  seeing  the  plans. 

“  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that  the  Imperial  Commission  has 
appropriated  the  seventh  gallery  for  particular  public  purposes,  as  post 
and  telegraph  offices,  police  station,  fire-engine,  talking-room,  water- 
closet,  dressing-room,  &c.  The  commission  is  now  ready  to  begin  this 
work,  but  must  first  know  the  plans  of  exhibitors  near  the  locality. 

“  The  eating-rooms  and  such  places  in  the  foreign  department  are  to 
be  constructed  by  national  workmen  appointed  by  the  different  commis¬ 
sions;  but,  in  case  it  is  neglected,  the  Imperial  Commission  will  have 
the  work  done  by  Frenchmen;  it  is,  therefore,  absolutely  necessary  to 
have  the  plans  and  specifications  to  complete  the  work  of  this  branch. 

“  Section  seventh  of  the  gallery,  lighted  at  night  and  open  to  the  pub¬ 
lic,  must  be  separated  from  the  Palace,  which  willJbe  closed  at  sunset. 
The  Imperial  Commission  is  now  arranging  this  department,  and,  as  it 
wishes  to  pay  due  deference  to  the  plans  of  the  foreign  commissions,  the 
construction  of  that  portion  of  the  edifice  will  be  put  off  till  the  30th 
of  June,  hoping  to  get  the  necessary  information  by  that  time. 

“  The  buildings  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  are  advancing,  and  in  two 
months  a  large  part  of  the  Palace  will  be  done.  Exhibitors  should  take 
possession  as  soon  as  possible. 

61 1  have  already  mentioned  that  it  is  desirable  that  foreigners  should 
have  their  show-cases  made  at  home,  so  that  everything  may  accord  in 
nationality;  yet  everything  of  the  kind  can  be  made  here,  by  French¬ 
men,  if  exhibitors  prefer  it.  As  the  opening  of  the  Exposition  ap¬ 
proaches,  workmen  will  become  more  scarce,  and  they  will  raise  their 
prices  for  labor ;  so  it  is  better  to  have  everything  done  at  once.  A 
strike  among  the  workmen  might,  moreover,  cause  some  delay  toward 
the  last. 

“  For  these  many  reasons,  I  beg  you  to  forward  to  me  the  plans  for 
the  United  States  by  the  30th  of  June.  Of  course  a  modification  of  the 
plans  can  be  subsequently  made.  Send  me  also  a  plan  of  the  houses  to 
be  erected  in  the  Park,  and  the  trees  to  be  planted  by  the  United  States 
Commission  in  the  allotted  space,  as  announced  on  the  25th  of  April 
last.” 

RE-TRANSFER  TO  PARIS  OF  THE  LABOR  OF  APPORTIONMENT  OF  SPACE. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Derby. 

“Paris,  October  11,  1866. 

“I  beg  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  favors  of  the  22d,  24th,  and 
25th ;  Nos.  45,  46,  47,  48,  and  50.  No.  49  has  not  been  received. 

“  I  have  also  received  the  lists  of  applicants  in  the  different  classes  of 
Groups  II,  III,  IY,  Y,  VI,  YII,  VIII,  IX,  and  X,  and  the  supplementary 
lists  of  applicants  and  withdrawals,  named  in  the  above  correspondence. 

“  I  will  reply  more  fully  to  your  letters  herein  acknowledged  in  a  short 


52 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


time.  I  cannot  express  my  surprise  and  my  embarrassment  arising  from 
the  incompleteness  of  these  reports. 

“  With  the  exception  of  the  Palace  portion  of  Group  YI,  which  is  well 
formed,  nothing  definitive  has  been  done. 

“In  my  letter,  No.  114, 1  referred  back  to  your  committee  the  work  of 
completing  the  formation  of  Group  YI,  in  the  annex. 

“I  beg  now  to  cancel  that  reference,  as  it  is  impossible  to  wait  for  the 
work  to  be  done  on  your  side. 

“All  the  other  Palace  groups  are  equally  unformed,  and  there  is  now 
no  possibility  of  avoiding  a  complete  failure  of  our  exhibition  but  for  me 
to  undertake  the  formation  of  the  groups  myself. 

“I  shall  have  to  estimate  the  space  for  each  product,  place  it,  allot 
the  space  to  applicants,  make  the  plans  for  structures,  in  that  conform¬ 
ity,  from  the  catalogues  which  must  be  an  exact  index  of  this,  and  report 
them  to  the  Imperial  Commission  for  the  great  catalogue  which  is  now 
printing  and  will  be  a  finality,  and  then  proceed  to  construct  the  installa¬ 
tion  to  correspond  with  these  arrangements. 

“  To  do  this,  I  have  procured  the  best  aid  I  can  obtain,  and  we  are 
engaged  upon  the  work  day  and  night. 

“  The  applications  will  not  fill  some  of  the  groups ;  in  others  they  will 
be  greatly  in  excess  of  the  space. 

“Those  for  Group  YI  far  exceed  the  ground  and  the  money,  both  on 
your  side  and  on  this  side,  and  must  be  greatly  reduced. 

“As  soon  as  it  is  possible  I  will  send  you  a  list  of  the  products  to  be 
received,  and  a  separate  list  of  those  which  cannot  be  received,  and  re¬ 
quest  you  to  advise  both  parties  of  applicants  in  that  conformity. 

“This  will  be  definitive,  as  the  catalogues  will  be  printed,  and  the 
works  constructed,  to  correspond  with  this  distribution. 

“I  make  these  observations  with  the  utmost  reluctance.  I  am  con¬ 
vinced  of  your  attention,  and  zeal,  and  earnestness,  and  I  know  you  have 
had  difficulties. 

“But  the  work  thus  thrown  upon  me  forces  me  to  undertake  it  myself, 
and  accomplish  it  as  I  best  may,  which  requires  an  explanation  of  what 
I  am  doing ;  or  to  abandon  the  Exposition,  which  would  be  a  dereliction 
of  duty  that  is  impossible.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris,  October  11,  1866. 

“  Sir  :  I  am  under  the  necessity  of  reporting  to  the  department  the 
present  state  of  the  Exposition. 

“  The  work  of  receiving  applications,  allotting  space  to  applicants,  and 
making  plans  and  catalogues  in  conformity,  upon  which  the  necessary 
structures  to  receive  the  products  could  be  made  in  advance  of  their 
arrival,  was  committed  to  Mr.  Derby  about  twelve  months  since,  and  he 
was  recommended  to  form  a  suitable  committee  to  advise  and  assist  him. 


APPORTIONMENT  OF  SPACE.  53 

“Mr.  Derby  reported  in  due  course  that  he  had  formed  a  board  of  able 
assistants,  and  would  proceed  with  the  work  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

“The  inaction  of  Congress  caused  delays,  and  I  obtained  correspond¬ 
ing  extensions  of  time,  which  were  protracted  to  the  last  moment  com¬ 
patible  with  the  possible  execution  of  the  preliminary  work  on  this  side. 

“I  have  now  received  from  Mr.  Derby  the  reports  of  what  has  been 
done  ;  but  with  the  exception  of  the  formation  of  a  part  of  Group  YI, 
nothing  definitive  has  been  done. 

“There  have  been  no  allotments  of  space  to  exhibitors  in  any  of  the 
other  groups ;  the  products  have  not  been  placed  in  them,  the  space  they 
will  occupy  has  not  been  ascertained,  consequently  there  are  no  plans 
of  the  structures  required,  nor  any  catalogues,  forming  the  index  to  this 
work,  to  be  reported  to  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“A  portion  of  Group  YI,  in  the  Palace,  has  been  ^rmed,  and  it  is  well 
done.  But  the  other  seven  or  eight  groups  are  un attempted ;  the  ground 
is  vacant,  and  presents  only  imaginary  sketches  of  proforma  plans,  sim¬ 
ilar  to  those  which  were  sent  from  this  as  models  nearly  a  year  since. 

“In  place  of  all  this  work  I  have  received  nothing  but  lists  of  appli¬ 
cants,  and  of  their  products,  copied  from  their  applications,  and  arranged 
in  classes. 

“But  the  space  these  products  will  occupy  is  unknown;  the  space  re¬ 
quired  by  the  applicants  is  not  named ;  and  with  the  exception  of  Group 
YI,  the  applications  themselves  have  not  been  sent — nothing  but  the 
brief  lists  of  names  and  products,  as  above  stated. 

“I  have  neither  allotments,  plans,  nor  catalogues,  nor  the  elements  of 
which  to  make  them  in  a  proper  manner. 

“The  Imperial  Commission  is  now  printing  the  great  catalogue,  and 
pressing  for  mine,  which  has  been  promised,  but  I  have  none  to  report, 
and  the  structures  must  soon  be  begun  or  they  cannot  be  made. 

“There  remains  but  one  possible  way  of  avoiding  a  complete  failure 
of  our  exhibition. 

.  “I  must  undertake  myself  to  estimate  the  space  each  product  will 
occupy,  with  the  allotments  of  ground  to  applicants,  form  the  plans  of 
structures  to  correspond,  compose  the  catalogues  in  this  conformity,  and 
report  them  to  the  Imperial  Commission  for  publication,  and  proceed  to 
make  the  necessary  structures,  as  I  best  may,  on  the  slender  informa¬ 
tion  above  described. 

“I  have  not  any  doubt  that  it  is  my  duty  in  this  emergency  to  adopt 
this  course,  for  no  other  but  failure  is  possible ;  and  having  solicited  the 
aid  of  the  most  capable  persons  within  reach,  we  are  now  engaged  upon 
it  day  and  night,  and  shall  be  able  to  report  it  in  a  few  days  to  Mr.. 
Derby  for  his  guidance  in  advising  applicants  of  the  result  of  their  appli¬ 
cations,  and  in  collecting  and  forwarding  the  products. 

“  Some  of  the  groups  will  not  be  quite  tilled,  but  in  others  the  applica¬ 
tions  are  greatly  in  excess  of  the  space  or  of  the  provisions  of  Congress 
for  the  expenses,  and  large  numbers  will  be  excluded. 


54  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

i 

“This  I  am  most  desirous  of  avoiding,  because  it  will  give  disappoint¬ 
ment  and  dissatisfaction  to  applicants,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  avoid  it. 

“It  is  not  in  my  power  to  make  this  brief  and  accurate  statement  of 
the  situation  without  appearing  to  reflect  on  the  work  of  Mr.  Derby. 

“  But  that  is  not  my  desire ;  on  the  contrary,  I  am  convinced  of  his 
attention,  his  zeal,  and  his  earnestness,  and  that  his  failure  in  completing 
the  work  placed  in  his  hands  is  owing  to  his  inability  to  obtain  the  re¬ 
quisite  assistance,  from  some  cause  which  he  can  probably  explain,  but 
which  is  unknown  to  me.” 

NECESSITY  OF  EARLY  INSTALLATION  OF  MACHINES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Derby. 

0  “  Paris,  November  4,  1866. 

“  I  beg  now  to  recall  your  attention  particularly  to  the  documents 
accompanying  my  letter  of  the  24th  of  June,  published  by  you,  page 
45,  [Third  supplemental  circular,]  article  18,  as  follows : 

“>  Between  the  1st  and  14th  of  April  each  class  jury  of  Groups  II, 
III,  IV,  V,  VI,  and  X  will  examine  the  products  and  class  the  exhib¬ 
itors  deserving  prizes,  without  distinction  of  nationalities.’ 

“  This  important  work  will  be  completed  within  the  first  fourteen  days 
after  the  opening  of  the  Exposition,  and  the  reports  thus  made  will 
form  the  basis  on  which  the  awards  will  be  made. 

“  The  time  allowed  appears,  at  first  sight,  short,  but  there  will  be 
sixty-eight  separate  juries,  which  is  one  jury  on  each  class  in  these 
groups,  and  they  will  work  separately  and  simultaneously. 

“  The  labor  being  thus  divided,  the  time  will  be  ample. 

“  My  object  at  present  is  to  remind  you  that  we  have  designated  be¬ 
tween  sixty  and  seventy  machines  to  be  installed  and  put  in  motion  in 
Group  VI ;  and  if  this  labor  be  not  completed,  and  the  machines  in  full 
and  perfect  action  at  the  opening  on  the  1st  of  April,  they  will  lose 
their  chance  of  favorable  reports  from  the  juries,  and  consequently  of 
the  awards  which  their  qualitfes,  displayed  in  action,  might  command. 

“  Machinists  will  appreciate  the  labor  which  is  requisite  to  place  and 
adjust  in  good  working  order  so  many  machines,  and  that  this  cannot 
be  done  but  by  the  concurrence  of  many  persons  within  the  time  that 
remains  for  it. 

“I  have  already  stated  to  you  in  previous  letters  the  defects  in  the 
information  required  for  foundations  which  should  be  laid  before  the 
frosts  set  in,  and  have  only  to  repeat  my  hopes  that  the  necessary  infor¬ 
mation  will  arrive  in  time. 

“  I  wish  now  to  repeat  also,  and  it  should  be  made  known  to  the 
owners  of  each  of  the  machines,  that  no  preparation  can  be  made  in 
advance  for  the  transmission  of  steam  by  separate  steam  pipes,  nor  of  * 
force  from  the  main  shafts  to  the  respective  machines. 


THE  SUPPLY  OF  MOTIVE  POWER.  55 

u  These  transmissions  and  the  structures  they  may  require  will  be  at 
the  expense  of  the  owners  of  the  machines  respectively. 

u  The  machines  to  be  operated  should,  therefore,  be  sent  forward  as 
early  as  possible,  and  the  machinist  who  is  to  set  up  and  work  the  ma¬ 
chines,  or  each  machine,  should  come  with  it,  prepared  to  complete  the 
work  at  once,  and  to  defray  the  expenses  each  of  the  machines  may 
require. 

“  If  the  owners  of  the  machines  do  not  respond  with  alacrity  to  this 
request  there  will  be  lamentable  defects  in  this  department  at  the  open¬ 
ing,  and  it  is  the  department  in  which  our  strength  lies— where  we  shall 
be  successful,  if  anywhere. 

u  If  any  of  the  parties  whose  machines  have  been  designated  for  action 
are  not  prepared  to  do  the  needful  in  good  time,  I  beg  to  be  notified  of 
this  at  once  that  other  machines  may  be  substituted,  if  possible. 

u  I  will  thank  you  to  communicate  the  substanc^f  this  letter  to  each 
of  the  parties  interested  as  early  as  possible. 

u  I  have  already  been  notified  informally  that  a  portion  of  Group  VI 
will  be  delivered  to  me  in  a  few  days,  on  wdiicli  I  can  commence  work, 
and  I  expect  shortly  the  delivery  in  form.  ” 

MOTIVE  POWER. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Derby. 

u  No.  14.]  “  Paris,  November  8,  1865. 

u  Dear  Sir  :  Class  No.  52,  in  Group  VI,  comprises  machines  and 
apparatuses  suited  to  the  uses  of  the  Exposition. 

u  The  plan  of  the  special  committee  to  which  the  most  of  this  work  is 
assigned  is  to  supply  motive  power  to  the  Exposition,  as  far  as  practica¬ 
ble,  by  using  the  machines  exhibited. 

u  The  arrangements  for  steam  power  are  as  follows  : 

“The  machines  and  apparatuses  to  be  moved  by  steam  power  belong 
to  Classes  47  to  66,  Group  YI,  and  will  occupy  the  great  gallery  (hall) 
forming  the  outer  circle  but  one  of  the  Palace. 

u  The  furnaces,  and  generators  will  be  placed  in  the  Park,  outside  the 
walls  of  the  Palace,  in  a  circular  line,  parallel  with  the  wall,  but  at  equal 
distances  from  each  other,  to  correspond  with  the  different  localities 
within  the  Palace  requiring  steam. 

u  This  service  will  be  divided  into  fourteen  sections,  organized  and 
worked  separately. 

“  The  force  will  be  transmitted  to  shafts  in  gallery  No.  6  ;  the  shafts 
will  extend  in  polygonal  lines,  yielding  to  the  curve  of  the  gallery,  and 
transmitting  the  force  to  various  machines  to  be  moved. 

“  It  is  proposed  by  the  commission  to  supply  requisite  motive  power 
by  letting  the  work  in  sections  to  contractors  a  forfait,  (by  the  job  ) 
u  The  annexed  document  in  lithograph  presents  the  conditions  and 
bases  on  which  the  commission  invites  the  offers  of  contractors,  and 


56 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


they  engage  to  give  a  preference  to  the  contractors  belonging  to  the  na¬ 
tionality  to  which  the  contract  may  apply. 

u  It  may  be  doubtful  if  any  of  our  good  engineers  happen  to  be  famil¬ 
iar  enough  with  the  elements  of  such  a  contract,  such  as  the  cost  of 
material,  fuel,  labor,  living,  &c.,  in  Paris,  to  enable  them  to  make  safe 
estimates  and  offers;  and  equally  doubtful  whether  their  present  employ¬ 
ment  is  not  more  remunerative  than  any  they  would  be  likely  to  obtain 
here,  in  competition  with  lower  wages,  permspient  residence,  and  better 
knowledge  of  the  situation.  But  there  may  be  those  who  may  be  able 
to  see  their  interest  in  it,  and,  in  conformity  with  the  inventors  of  the 
plan,  and  the  wishes  of  the  committee,  I  submit  the  matter  to  your  con¬ 
sideration.” 

u  No.' 39.]  u  Paris,  January  16, 1866. 

u  I  had  the  pleas™  to  address  you  this  morning,  and  have  received 
this  evening  your  favors  of  the  22d  of  December,  No.  10,  and  of  the 
23d  December,  Nos.  11  and  12. 

u  No.  10  relates  to  the  efficient  measures  you  propose  for  disseminating 
the  information  therein  alluded  to,  and  refers  to  the  difficulty  of  engi¬ 
neers  in  offering  to  supply  motive  jmwer  for  machinery  in  the  absence  of 
specific  information  regarding  the  price  of  labor,  fuel,  board,  and  other 
elements  of  cost. 

u  I  had  foreseen  this  difficulty,  but  not  the  means  of  obviating  it. . 
u  I  have  sent  you  all  the  documents  and  all  the  information  on  this 
subject  provided  by  the  engineering  department.  They  consider  it  in 
the  province  of  contractors  themselves  to  make  the  investigations 
on  which  their  offers  must  be  based.  It  is  an  object  with  the  depart¬ 
ment,  in  adopting  the  contract  method,  to  divest  itself  of  the  labor  and 
responsibility  of  the  estimates  and  of  the  fluctuations  of  market  prices 
which  fall  to  the  side  of  the  undertaker. 

u  1  will  make  further  inquiries  in  other  quarters,  being  desirous  of 
having  the  motive  force  supplied  by  our  own  engineers,  but  I  have  not 
much  expectation  of  being  successful  in  the  inquiries  because  the  sub¬ 
ject  requires  the  investigation  of  a  practiced  engineer,  whose  researches 
can  be  relied  upon  as  the  basis  of  contract. 

u  I  have  no  authority  to  employ  an  engineer  for  this  purjiose.  Indeed, 
the  first  step  of  a  contractor  should  be  to  make  Or  provide  the  means 
of  such  investigation  for  himself,  as  that  is  a  part  of  the  labor  and 
expense  intended  to  be  thrown  on  him  and  is  implied  in  his  contract. 

u  The  general  disposition  of  the  apparatus  for  the  motive  force  you 
will  find,  I  trust,  sufficiently  indicated  in  the  cahiers  I  sent  you,  and  as 
the  American  section  will  be  operated  by  itself  you  will  have  in  your 
own  hands  the  elements  for  computing  the  aggregate  force  required, 
the  velocities,  &c.,  for  it  is  upon  the  elements  to  be  supplied  by  you  that 
the  Imperial  Commission  itself  would  have  to  make  those  estimates. 


THE  SUPPLY  OF  MOTIVE  POWER. 


57 


“No.  41.]  Paris,  January  22,  1866. 

“  Referring  to  my  letter  of  the  16th  instant,  No.  39,  I  have  not  been 
able  to  obtain  the  information  requisite  as  to  the  cost  of  materials,  &c., 
on  which  a  contract  could  be  safely  made  for  the  supply  of  motive 
power  in  Group  No.  VI.  But  I  have  made  an  (verbal)  understanding 
with  the  chef  de  service  in  the  engineering  department,  by  which  he 
agrees  to  pay  an  American  contractor  the  average  price  paid  to  French 
contractors  for  similar  work. 

“  This  is  the  only  basis  for  a  contract  which  I  can  give  you,  and,  from 
the  nature  of  the  case,  I  imagine  that  this  method  will  be  followed  by 
other  nations  who^may  wish  to  have  their  own  engineers  employed,  but 
who  will  have  the  same  difficulties  in  obtaining  local  information  as  to 
cost  of  elements. 

“If,  therefore,  you  can  arrange  with  a  respe<^|ble  and  responsible 
party,  in  whom  you  have  confidence,  who  wishes  to  exhibit  his  machinery, 
and  is  desirous  of  working  it  for  the  supply  of  motive  power  on  the 
terms  above  named,  please  do  so. 

“The  arrangement  on  your  part  will  be  provisional,  and  you  will 
transfer  the  contractor  to  the  Imperial  Commission  to  complete  his  con¬ 
tract.  He  will  be  their  emplo}Te,  and  under #their  orders,  and  will  receive 
his  pay  from  them,  but  you  can  assure  him  the  contract  upon  the  basis 
above  named. 

“  The  nature  of  the  service  to  be  performed,  the  apparatus  to  be  sup¬ 
plied,  the  structures  to  be  made  at  his  expense,  the  hours  of  work,  the 
prolongation  or  abridgment  of  time,  and  all  the  general  conditions  and 
regulations  applicable  to  the  contract,  and  binding  upon  both  parties, 
are  set  forth  in  the  document  accompanying  my  letter  No.  14,  of  Novem¬ 
ber  8th,  p.  55,  with  all  which  conditions  the  contractor  should  first 
make  himself  acquainted. 

“  You  will  be  able  also  to  inform  him  pretty  nearly  as  to  the  amount 
of  motive  power  you  will  require.  This  is  of  moment  because  the  out¬ 
lay  and  preparatory  expenses  of  the  contractor  will  be  as  much  nearly 
for  the  supply  of  a  small  force  as  for  a  larger  one,  while  the  pay  will  be 
in  proportion  to  force.  If,  for  example,  you  want  thirty  horse-power, 
and  the  price  is  $100  per  horse  for  the  season,  (which  perhaps  is  not  a 
bad  guess  as  to  probable  offers,)  the  contract  money  would  amount  to 
$3,000,  and  for  sixty  horse  it  would  be  $6,000,  while  no  such  increase  of 
cost  in  fixtures  or  structures  would  occur.  It  is  also  for  the  contractor 
to  consider  that  he  must  arrive  in  advance,  complete  his  contract,  and 
see  that  he  has  his  apparatus  in  order  for  work  in  time ;  the  days  get 
short  and  weather  bad,  aud  work  expensive  late  in  the  season.  I  should 
think  October  would  be  as  late  as  it  would  do  to  arrive  here  and  com¬ 
mence  the  placing  of  apparatus. 

“  I  have  only  to  add  to  these  observations  that  the  Imperial  Commis¬ 
sion  is  now  engaged  in  making  contracts,  and  is  desirous  of  being 
informed,  as  early  as  convenient,  whether  or  not  you  will  provide  a  con- 


58 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tractor,  and  I  have  informed  the  commission  that,  I  think,  within  a 
fortnight  after  yon  receive  this  letter  you  will  be  able  to  satisfy  yourself 
on  the  subject,  and  will  advise  us  in  conformity.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  May  6,  1866. 

“  Sir  :  I  had  the  honor  to  address  you  on  the  29th  April,  transmitting 
a  letter  from  the  Imperial  Commission  on  the  subject  of  the  ground 
which  we  propose  to  occupy  in  the  Park. 

“  I  now  transmit  another  letter  from  the  Imperial  Commission  on  the 
subject  of  motive  force,  dated  the  3d  instant,  and  received  this  morning. 

“  I  beg  to  state  briefly  that  the  method  adopted  for  supplying  force 
for  machinery  is  by  separate  contracts  for  each  national  section. 

“Each  nation  ma^^mployits  own  engines  and  engineers,  and,  for  the 
force  thus  furnished,  six  hundred  francs  per  horse  power  will  be  paid  by 
the  Imperial  Commission,  or  the  nations  may  decline  furnishing  the  force 
they  require,  and  leave  it  to  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“An  excellent  opportunity  is  thus  presented  without  expense  to  the 
exhibitor  to  display  the  qualities  and  results  of  his  engine-boilers  and 
apparatus. 

“  I  transmitted  to  Mr.  Derby  early  in  November  the  general  plan  and 
conditions,  (which  have  been  printed  and  published  in  the  United  States,) 
and  desired  him  to  advise  me  in  due  time  whether  or  not  he  would  fur¬ 
nish  a  contractor  for  the  motive  force,  and  if  not,  to  inform  me  of  the 
amount  of  force  he  would  require,  that  I  might  request  the  Imperial 
Commission  to  supply  it. 

“  On  the  8th  April,  at  the  request  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  I  ap¬ 
plied  to  Mr.  Derby  again,  informing  him  of  the  necessity  of  immediate 
decision. 

“  But  owing,  I  doubt  not,  to  the  delays  in  Congress,  Mr.  Derby  has 
not  been  able  to  arrive  at  any  decision,  and  I  am  without  information 
on  the  subject. 

“The  Imperial  Commission  now  calls  on  me  (in  the  annexed  letter)  to 
enter  into  a  contract  with  them  to  furnish  the  motive  force  which  wTe 
may  require,  or  to  decline  it  definitely,  and,  in  so  doing,  inform  them 
what  amount  of  force  we  will  need,  that  they  may  contract  for  it,  and 
proceed  to  construct  the  necessary  works.  They  remark,  also,  that  if 
I  cannot  comply  with  either  of  these  demands,  the  wmrks  in  general 
must  not  the  less  go  on,  and  they  cannot  be  responsible  after  the  pres¬ 
ent  notice  for  the  inconveniences  which  may  result  to  us  from  further 
delay  in  this  department. 

“  I  have  concluded  not  to  reply  to  this  letter  until  the  last  moment 
which  M.  Le  Play  will  concede  to  me,  and  if  advices  do  not  arrive  to 
relieve  me  from  the  embarrassment,  I  must  then  surrender  the  privilege 
of  our  exhibitors  to  furnish  their  own  motive  force,  and  request  the 
Imperial  Commission  to  supply  it. 


THE  SUPPLY  OF  MOTIVE  POWER. 


59 


“  This  is  the  only  course  that  appears  open  to  me,  but  it  is  not  likely 
to  result  very  satisfactorily.  I  must  assume  the  amount  of  force  we 
shall  need.  If  I  fix  it  too  high,  and  the  Imperial  Commission  make  the 
contract  in  conformity,  and  commence  the  construction^of  furnace, 
chimney,  steam-pipes,  &c.,  for  a  larger  force  than  we  shall  need,  they 
will  have  to  compromise  subsequently  with  the  contractor,  or  pay  him 
for  wasted  force,  and  in  either  case  they  will  suffer  some  loss  which  they 
will  probably  ask  me  to  pay.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  I  fix  the  amount 
too  low,  we  shall  be  without  the  requisite  force. 

“  I  feel  bound  to  acknowledge  in  this  connection  the  continued  dispo¬ 
sition  of  the  Imperial  Commission  to  yield  all  the  delay  that  is  possible. 
But  we  are  now  on  the  fourth  month  of  delay,  at  our  own  special  request, 
and  I  am  aware  that  the  works  on  the  Champ  de  Mars  have  reached  a 
stage  which  requires  the  question  of  force  to  be  s^tled. 

“It  is  also  evident  that  similar  questions  will  continue  to  arise  in 
pretty  rapid  succession  which  will  not  admit  of  further  delay.” 

M.  Le  Flay  to  Mr.  Becicwith. 1 

“  Paris,  May  3,  1866. 

“  Monsieur  le  Commissaire  :  The  Imperial  Commission  has  recently 
settled  the  details  of  the  organization  of  the  mechanical  service ;  they 
have  approved  the  contracts  made  with  the  furnishers  of  force,  and  the 
general  dispositions  for  the  transmission  of  the  force. 

“  It  is,  therefore,  indispensable  that,  without  loss  of  time,  the  com¬ 
mittee  of  the  United  States  of  America  proceed  to  a  similar  work, 
which  the  information  contained  in  this  letter  will  enable  you  promptly 
to  complete. 

“You  have  already  learned,  from  reading  the  third  instruction,  (of 
which  I  send  herewith  another  copy,)  that  the  general  transmission  is 
made  by  two  [parallel]  shafts,  distant  from  each  other  4m.71,  elevated 
4m.36  above  the  ground,  and  communicating  movement  to  each  other. 
The  shafts  are  0ni.29  in  diameter,  forming  polygons  of  which  the  sides 
are  13m.8  in  mean  length,  producing  an  angle  between  them  of  about 
5°.  The  revolutions  for  the  French  section  will  be  one  hundred  per 
minute,  but  the  American  section  having  no  connection  of  movement 
with  neighboring  sections,  you  can  choose  yourself,  according  to  your 
wants,  the  velocity  which  seems  to  you  most  advantageous. 

“  I  pray  you  only  to  recollect,  in  determining  the  velocity,  the  fact 
that  the  general  arrangement  will  not  admit  of  poulies  (wheels  on  the 
shafts)  of  more  than  lm.00  in  diameter. 

“  This  general  transmission  thus  suspended  is  very  expensive,  costing 
not  less  than  six  hundred  and  fifty  francs  the  running  metre.  It  is, 
therefore,  of  great  importance  to  reduce  the  length  of  the  shafts  as  much 
as  possible.  In  the  French  section  the  movement  is  supplied  to  about 


1  Translation. 


60 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


one-third  the  length  of  the  Gallery  YI.  It  is  confined  to  certain  local¬ 
ities,  leaving  others  without  motive  force;  and  finally,  in  regard  to 
certain  localities  which  require  but  feeble  force,  we  have  provided  it,  not 
by  transmission  direct  from  the  main  shafts,  but  by  one  of  the  three 
following  methods : 
il  1.  By  special  motor. 
u  2.  By  a  small  secondary  shaft  in  rear. 
u  3.  By  a  shaft  under  ground. 

“  I  hope  the  Commission  of  the  United  States  will  adopt  the  same 
principle  to  regulate  the  installation  of  their  machines. 

u  Not  having  yet  received  definitive  advices  of  the  arrangements  they 
intend  to  adopt,  and  being  unable  to  wait  for  full  advices  before  ordering 
the  supports  and  shafts  of  which  the  execution  requires  a  great  deal  of 
time,  I  think  it  nece^ry  to  fix  upon  a  plan  of  placing  them  analogous 
to  that  adopted  in  the  French  Section. 

u  The  plan  hitherto  annexed  indicates  the  position  of  the  shafts  (on 
this  hypothesis)  in  your  section. 

“  The  transmissions  will  occupy  a  travee  of  14m.00,  and  will  have  thus  a 
double  length  of  shaft,  say  28m.00.  It  would  seem  that  this  should  be 
sufficient  for  your  wants ;  if  not,  or  if  you  wish  to  substitute  the  travee 
indicated  by  another,  which  you  find  more  convenient  for  your  installa¬ 
tions,  or,  finally,  if  you  think  you  will  not  have  need  of  this  length,  I 
pray  you  to  inform  me  immediately,  in  order  that  I  may  consider  it  while 
there  is  yet  time. 

u  If  any  apparatus  which  ought  to  move  be  placed  outside  of  this 
travee ,  it  will  receive  its  force  from  one  of  the  three  methods  above  named, 
which  you  can  choose  and  apply  in  each  particular  case. 

u  A  platform,  supported  independently  of  the  transmissions,  4m.00  in 
breadth  and  5m.15  in  height,  will  extend  continuously  (except,  perhaps, 
across  the  great  entries)  the  whole  length  of  Gallery  YI,  (des  arts  usuels.) 

u  This  will  serve  as  a  promenade  for  visitors,  who  will  find  in  the 
salons  garages  (enlarged  spaces  with  seats)  in  the  middle  of  each  sec¬ 
tor  a  place  of  rest,  where  they  can  sit  and  enjoy  the  spectacle  of  mechan¬ 
ical  activity  displayed  at  their  feet.  Certain  exhibitors  of  objects  of 
great  height,  which,  occupy  two  stories,  expect  to  derive  great  benefit 
from  this  platform  by  carrying  a  passage  from  it  to  their  second  story. 
I  allude  particularly  to  some  exhibitors  of  agricultural  machines,  sugar 
apparatus,  light  houses,  organs,  &c.  Similar  arrangements  might  be 
adopted  in  your  section,  which  would  render  its  appearance  more  im¬ 
pressive. 

u  It  will  be  indispensable  to  regard  the  supports  of  the  platform  in 
placing  your  apparatus. 

u  The  general  plan  herewith  indicates  exactly  the  places  of  the  sup¬ 
ports. 

u  These  arrangements  being  w^ell  defined,  it  remains  to  consider  those 
which  belong  to  the  furnishing  of  the  motive  force. 


THE  SUPPLY  OF  MOTIVE  POWER. 


61 


11  All  tlie  contracts  that  have  been  made  with  French  undertakers  for 
our  French  Section  have  been  made  on  the  basis  of  six  hundred  francs  per 
effective  horse-power,  measured  on  the  shaft.  This  sum  serves  equally 
for  base  in  our  contracts  with  England  and  Belgium,  and  th^ame  should 
be  adopted  by  you,  if,  in  conformity  with  my  preceding  communications, 
you  have  organized  yourselves  your  mechanical  service  with  contractors 
of  your  couutry.  This  sum  includes  also  the  furnishing  and  placing 
completely  of  the  furnace,  boiler,  engine,  transmission,  construction  of 
the  building  for  the  boilers  and  furnace,  the  chimney,  the  steam-pipes, 
and  the  passage  in  which  the  pipe  is  laid,  the  combustibles,  and  the  per¬ 
sons  required  for  the  apparatus.  It  is  also  understood  that  all  these 
materials  remain  the  property  of  the  contractor  after  the  exhibition 
u  I  send  you  herewith  a  form  of  contract  which  indicates  the  principal 
conditions  of  these  agreements  made  directly  between  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  and  the  foreign  commissioners  themselves,  and  not  with  those 
of  their  countrymen  whom  they  choose  for  contractors. 

u  This  pro  forma  contract  presents  some  blanks  which  should  be  filled 
up,  and  of  which  the  most  important  relates  to  the  motive  force,  and 
consequently  to  the  amount  to  be  paid  by  the  Imperial  Commission  for 
the  force. 

u  My  previous  communications  on  the  subject  of  the  mechanical  force 
necessary  to  your  section  having  remained  thus  far  without  response,  I 
cannot  fill  up  the  blanks,  and  I  renew  my  entreaty  to  be  informed  the 
most  promptly  what  is  possible  in  this  respect.  This  force  once  fixed 
as  exactly  as  possible,  will  indicate  the  sum  to  be  paid,  by  multiply¬ 
ing  the  number  of  horse-power  by  six  hundred  francs.  But  the  sum 
thus  calculated  will  be  the  maximum,  and  subject  to  proportional  reduc¬ 
tions,  if  by  dynamometric  observations  the  power  actually  furnished  be 
less  than  the  amount  named  as  a  basis  of  calculation. 

u  To  aid  you  in  completing  the  organization  of  your  mechanical  force, 
I  hope  to  be  able  to  place  at  your  disposal  some  machines,  portable 
or  fixed,  exhibited  by  French  contractors,  but  on  condition  that  you 
inform  me  as  soon  as  possible  what  machines  you  may  have  need  of. 

“  Finally,  (and  if  you  have  any  objections  to  make  I  shall  be  obliged 
if  you  will  make  them  at  latest  before  the  15th  instant,)  your  section 
will  comprise  arrangements  for  the  general  transmission  of  force,  to  the 
extent  of  fourteen  metres  in  length,  corresponding  to  double  that  length 
of  shaft. 

u  It  is  desirable,  in  conformity  with  the  example  of  Belgium  and  Eng¬ 
land,  that  the  United  States  should  agree  with  the  Imperial  Commission 
to  furnish  the  motive  force  necessary  to  their  section,  reserving  to  them¬ 
selves  to  come  to  an  understanding  with  their  own  national  contractors 
afterward.  Thus,  as  I  have  explained  to  you  in  my  various  communica¬ 
tions  relative  to  this  object,  the  Imperial  Commission  thinks  that  all 
considerations  unite  in  favor  of  making  this  method  general ;  in  this 
ca$e  there  will  be  occasion  for  a  contract  analogous  to  the  outline  of 
agreement  which  I  send  you.  ^ 


62 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“If,  on  the  contrary,  the  Commissioner  of  the  United  States  does  not 
think  himself  able  to  agree  to  this,  it  will  be  indispensable  for  him  to 
advise  me  immediately,  and  to  indicate  the  motive  force  that  will  be  re¬ 
quired  to  enable  me  to  proceed  in  his  place  to  prepare  the  necessary 
mechanical  constructions  in  his  section.  The  French  contractors  are 
about  to  commence  the  construction  in  the  Champ  de  Mars  of  their 
buildings  for  furnaces  and  boilers,  passages  for  steam  pipes,  &c.  A 
longer  delay  in  deciding  for  your  section  will  tend  to  compromise  the 
work  that  is  requisite  for  it,  and  the  Imperial  Commission  must  decline 
the  responsibility  from  this  time  for  the  consequences  which  further 
delay  may  entail. 

“  In  the  expectation  of  a  prompt  response  to  my  communication,  I 
pray  you,  Monsieur  le  Commissaire,  to  accept  the  assurance  of  my  dis¬ 
tinguished  consideration.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris,  November  27,  1866. 

“  Sir  :  It  is  my  desire  and  effort  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  as  little  as  possible  with  details,  but  some  of  them  should  be  brought 
to  your  notice  in  passing,  that  they  may  be  understood. 

“  The  regulations  and  formalities  by  which  the  Imperial  Commission 
conduct  their  work  are  applicable  to  all  nations  alike,  and  we  must  con¬ 
form  to  them,  or  we  cannot  proceed.  The  more  we  show  a  disposition  to 
reconsider  what  has  been  done  and  go  back  to  change  it,  or  propose 
methods  which  we  may  think  better,  but  which  are  not  in  accord  with 
their  methods,  the  more  we  come  in  conflict  and  embarrass  the  work. 

“  To  avoid  this  result  at  this  late  date  is  of  great  importance,  and  in 
the  endeavor  to  do  this  I  have  several  times  of  late  been  obliged  to  place 
myself  in  apparent  opposition  to  the  proposals  from  New  York,  even 
when  I  should  cordially  agree  with  the  object,  if  it  were  practicable  in 
the  way  proposed.  This  pressure  arises  from  particular  interests,  which 
might  have  been  more  fully  accommodated  at  an  earlier  period  if  they 
had  come  forward,  but  which  it  is  now  more  difficult  to  satisfy. 

“  The  contract  for  motive  force  was  kept  open,  at  my  request,  until  it 
became  so  embarrassing  to  the  Imperial  Commission  that  they  notified 
me  I  must  close  it,  or  sign  a  contract  which  they  sent  me,  agreeing  to 
supply  the  force  myself  and  commence  at  once  the  structures.  Being 
unable  to  comply  with  this  request  or  to  present  a  contractor  acceptable 
to  the  Imperial  Commission,  I  abandoned  the  attempt,  and  called  on 
them,  on  the  13th  of  July,  to  provide  the  requisite  force,  in  conformity 
with  the  general  regulations,  of  which  I  duly  notified  Mr.  Derby  and  the 
department. 

“Mr.  Derby  writes  on  this  subject,  on  the  9th  November,  1  that  there 
is  much  feeling,  among  those  interested  in  machinery,  about  motive  force 
in  our  section,  and  they  think  we  ought  to  have  had  our  own  engine  and 
engineer.’ 


CONTRACTS  FOR  MOTIVE  POWER. 


63 


“  To  this  I  replied  as  follows:  6  That  is  precisely  my  feeling;  I  agree 
with  them;  and  when  that  contract  on  fair  terms  was  presented  month 
after  month,  without  takers,  and  I  was  persuading  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  time  after  time  to  keep  it  open,  and  still  nobody  qjffered,  I  was 
disappointed.  The  result  of  this  delay  was  that  the  works  went  on,  and 
when  I  was  called  on  finally  to  close  up  I  was  obliged  to  pay  a  consider¬ 
able  sum  extra  to  get  the  power  you  required,  because  the  preliminary 
work  was  too  feeble  in  structure  and  had  to  be  done  over;  and,  as  this 
was  owing  to  our  delay,  1  was  compelled  to  yield  or  go  without  the  force. 
I  surrendered  this  business  from  necessity,  with  a  feeling  of  disappoint¬ 
ment  and  chagrin ;  and  I  might  use  a  stronger  expression,  for  I  fully 
believed  our  people  would  take  that  contract  freely,  and  relied  on  it,  and 
suffered  for  my  mistake.  Therefore  I  have  no  more  to  say  on  that  sub¬ 
ject  but  this :  feelings  which  are  not  strong  enough  to  lead  to  action  are 
of  no  value ;  if  our  machinists  feel  sufficient  interest  in  it  to  buy  out  the 
contractor,  they  can  do  so,  and  if  not,  not.7 

u  Mr.  Derby  writes  again,  on  the  13th  instant,  as  follows:  i  If  you  will 
propose  to  the  French  contractor  for  the  motive  power  of  the  American 
Section  that  we  will  furnish  our  own  power  at  our  own  expense,  and  at 
the  same  time  allow  him  to  draw  his  contract  money  from  the  Imperial 
Commission  just  as  if  he  furnished  it  according  to  contract,  the  money 
will  be  supplied  by  parties  here  for  furnishing  this  power,  as  it  is  con¬ 
sidered  of  the  greatest  importance,  not  only  by  exhibitors  but  by  lead¬ 
ing  men  in  this  country,  that  this  power  should  be  furnished  by  an 
American  contractor,  and  that  an  American  engine  and  boiler  should 
be  used  for  that  purpose.  If  the  French  contractor  has  already  con¬ 
structed  buildings  for  boilers,  &c.,  and  put  up  the  shaftings  or  supports 
for  it,  these  can  be  used  by  the  American  contractor.  If  he  has  not,  we 
will  furnish  them  from  this  side ;  i.  e.,  at  our  expense.  As  I  have  hereto¬ 
fore  advised  you,  there  is  much  feeling  here  upon  this  subject — which  will 
not  be  diminished  when  the  Exposition  opens  to  the  view  of  Americans 
in  Paris — of  American  machinery  propelled  by  a  French  engine  and 
French  engineer.7 

“To  this  I  have  replied  by  this  day7s  mail  as  follows:  1  Referring  to 
the  remarks  of  your  letter  No.  78  relative  to  motive  force,  the  subject  will 
perhaps  be  made  clearer  by  restating  the  conditions.  It  is  incumbent 
on  the  Imperial  Commission  to  furnish  motive  force,  and  they  retain 
the  entire  control  of  the  force.  They  proposed  to  accept  a  contractor 
for  our  section,  presented  by  us,  provided  the.  contractor  would  accept 
of  their  terms,  by  which  he  would  become  responsible  to  them,  receive 
his  pay  from  them,  and  be  entirely  under  their  control.  By  that  arrange¬ 
ment  we  would  continue  to  look  to  the  Imperial  Commission  for  force, 
as  if  we  had  not  presented  the  contractor ;  they  would  take  the  risk  of 
the  contract,  and  if  the  machine  broke  down  or  any  other  accident  dis¬ 
abled  it,  the  Imperial  Commission  would  be  bound  to  supply  its  place  to 
us  at  their  expense,  they  settling  with  the  contractor.  The  same  condi- 


64 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tions  exist,  whether  the  contractor  be  presented  by  us  or  not.  These 
are  not  our  terms,  but  those  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  and  they  are 
applicable  to  all  foreign  nations.  We  were  unable  to  nominate  a  con¬ 
tractor  in  time,  as  you  are  aware,  and  the  Imperial  Commission  made 
a  contract  with  another  contractor.  We  have  never  had  any  control  of 
this  contract,  nor  can  the  Imperial  Commission  recall  it;  it  is  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  the  holder.  He  may  sell  it  if  he  can  find  a  buyer,  provided 
always  that  the  other  contracting  party — the  Imperial  Commission — will 
accept  the  buyer  in  place  of  the  seller.  Therefore  any  party  wishing  to 
make  this  contract  must  buy  out  the  holder  and  agree  with  the  Imperial 
Commission  to  accept  him  in  place  of  the  seller,  and  enter  into  a  new 
contract  in  that  conformity.  With  this  change  we  have  nothing  to  do, 
except  to  oppose  it  or  promote  it,  according  to  our  interest,  as  far  as  our 
influence  may  go.  Now,  I  shall  be  extremely  glad  to  have  an  American 
contractor  and  engine  in  place  of  the  one  we  have;  it  is  what  we  ought 
to  have,  and  I  am  ready  to  do  all  I  can  to  effect  this  change,  provided 
always  that  the  new  contract  will  be  equal  to  our  wants.  But  I  cannot 
propose  the  canceling  of  the  existing  contract,  which,  if  accepted,  would 
leave  us  at  this  late  date  without  a  positive  contract  for  force ;  nor  would 
the  Imperial  Commission  listen  to  such  a  proposal ;  neither  can  I  become 
myself  the  contractor,  which  would,  in  effect,  be  my  position  by  your 
proposal.  The  new  contractor  must  come  forward  and  negotiate  for 
himself;  he  must  agree  with  the  holder  on  the  terms  of  sale,  and  till  this 
is  done  nothing  can  be  done;  he  must  then  agree  with  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  to  accept  him  as  a  substitute  for  the  other,  and  enter  into  the 
obligations  and  responsibilities  which  they  require  of  all  contractors. 
I  will  help  him  in  this  as  far  as  I  can,  provided  always  his  offer  is  equal 
to  our  wants  and  compatible  with  the  general  interest  of  our  exhibition, 
which  it  is  incumbent  on  me  to  look  after.  I  think  it  best,  therefore,  for 
me  not  to  make  the  proposal  you  suggest,  and  would  recommend  your 
contractor  not  to  begin  with  such  a  proposal,  because  it  would  come  to 
nothing  either  with  the  holder  or  with  the  Imperial  Commission.  The 
holder  is  a  machinist  of  reputation  and  wealth,  who  wishes  to  exhibit 
his  machine,  and  cares  very  little  for  the  pay.  I  do  not  think  he  would 
listen  to  a  proposal  to  give  up  his  contract  and  continue  to  draw  his 
pay;  I  think  he  would  refuse  it;  at  the  same  time,  if  the  case  were  prop¬ 
erly  stated,  and  he  were  asked  to  name  his  terms,  he  might  name  terms 
more  moderate  than  the  buyer  is  ready  to  offer.  These  are  my  impres¬ 
sions,  but  I  cannot  undertake  this  negotiation ;  it  is  the  business  of  the 
new  contractor,  and  I  shall  be  glad  if  I  can  help  him  in  it  in  the  way  I 
have  suggested,  and  glad  if  it  succeeds.7 

“It  will  be  readily  seen  that  I  cannot  propose  the  canceling  of  the 
existing  contract  and  substitute  nothing  in  its  place  but  a  vague  under¬ 
standing  that  parties  who  are  not  yet  named  will  come  forward  and 
make  another  contract.  The  Imperial  Commission  would  not  consent  to 
this,  and  if  they  did  it  would  only  deprive  our  exhibition  of  the  certaintjT 


ETHNOGRAPHICAL  EXHIBITION. 


65 


it  now  lias  of  sufficient  force,  and  leave  the  common  interest  to  the 
uncertainties  of  an  incomplete  engagement  not  reduced  to  the  forms  of 
business  which  secure  fulfillment. 

u  It  is  for  the  interest  of  the  exhibition  to  have  the  new  contract  per¬ 
fected  before  the  old  one  is  relinquished,  and  it  is  incumbent  on  those 
who  are  directly  interested,  and  desire  to  profit  by  the  change,  to  come 
forward  and  complete  it  in  advance. 

“  I  think  I  should  jeopardize  the  general  interest  of  our  exhibitors  in 
consideration  of  the  particular  interests  of  contractors  if  I  acted  other¬ 
wise,  and  my  object  in  this  communication  is  to  explain  this  situation. 

“The  pressure  from  particular  interests  at  this  stage  naturally 
increases,  and  the  numerous  letters  which  I  receive  direct  from  parties 
themselves  are  now  embarrassing. 

“I  shall  endeavor  to  satisfy  each  as  far  as  is  compatible  with  the  com¬ 
mon  interest  of  our  exhibition,  which  should  be  kept  uppermost  ;  but  I 
cannot  deviate  from  that,  unless  in  particular  cases,  which  may  be  referred 
to  you,  you  shall  think  me  mistaken  and  direct  me  to  act  otherwise.” 

PROPOSED  EXHIBITION  OF  COSTUMES  AND  OF  ABORIGINAL  RACES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Derby. 

“  No.  12.]  “  Paris,  November  8,  1865. 

“  Dear  Sir  :  The  annexed  publication  is  from  the  special  committee 
on  costumes,  Class  92,  and  indicates  the  method  adopted  in  France  for 
perfecting  that  part  of  the  Exposition. 

“  The  peoples  of  Western  Europe  descend  from  successive  invasions 
of  numerous  races  which  settled  in  various  localities,  holding  compara¬ 
tively  small  intercourse  with  each  other  previous  to  the  epoch  of  rail¬ 
ways,  and  preserving,  consequently,  great  variety  of  dialects,  habits, 
manners,  and  costumes. 

“  These  characteristics  are  suggestive,  not  only  of  differences  of  origin, 
but  of  the  influences  which  tend  to  preserve  or  create  the  differences  in 
question,  such  as  peculiarities  of  climate,  soil,  geographic  configuration, 
occupation,  &c.,  in  localities  but  little  removed  from  each  other. 

“The  difference  of  origin  and  the  better  means  of  communication  in 
America,  the  uniformity  of  institutions,  the  diffusion  of  a  common  liter¬ 
ature,  the  superior  intelligence,  and  the  homogeneous  character  of  the 
nation,  tend  alike  to  preclude  the  preservation  or  growth  of  similar  local 
distinctions,  while  the  brief  history  of  the  country,  from  its  settlement, 
embraces  too  short  a  period  of  time  for  the  modifications  of  character  and 
development  of  local  differences,  which  it  is  becoming  the  fashion  to 
ascribe,  with  or  without  reason,  to  the  powerful  influence  of  the  elements. 

“  I  doubt  if  you  will  be  able  to  make  a  collection  of  native  costumes 
that  will  be  very  interesting  or  instructive,  either  in  a  historical  or  an 
ethnological  sense.” 

5  P  E 


66 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Mr.  Beckivith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  September  19, 1806. 

“  The  project  of  bringing  together  at  the  Exposition  groups  of  aborigi¬ 
nal  races  from  different  quarters  of  the  globe  may  appear  at  first  adapted 
merely  to  gratify  the  curiosity  of  the  multitude. 

“  But,  however  legitimate  such  a  wish  might  be,  the  project  includes 
a  higher  object. 

“The  interesting  researches  which  relate  to  the  natural  history  of 
man,  it  is  well  known,  are  now  pursued  with  great  zeal,  and  are  pushed 
back  to  periods  long  anterior  to  the  commencement  of  the  historic  period. 

“  The  elements  of  these  researches  include  careful  studies  of  the  physi¬ 
ology  of  races,  of  the  habits  and  manners  of  existing  races,  of  languages 
living  and  dead,  and  of  fossil  remains. 

“  The  persons  most  occupied  with  these  inquiries  are  seldom  men  of 
fortune,  and  rarely  travelers,  but  they  are  usually  men  of  small  means, 
devoted  to  special  pursuits,  which  they  follow  with  untiring  zeal,  depend¬ 
ing,  to  a  great  extent,  for  the  material  facts  on  which  their  general¬ 
izations  are  based,  upon  the  hasty  and  often  superficial  observations  of 
unscientific  travelers  and  upon  accidental  discoveries. 

“  Bringing  together  specimens  of  races,  as  proposed,  will  present  a 
rare  opportunity  for  the  linguists,  the  sinologues,  the  ethnologues,  the 
physiologists,  &c.,  to  perfect  and  verify  their  theories — to  correct  them 
or  to  originate  new  ones — an  opportunity  which  most  of  them  have  never 
enjoyed,  nor  could  in  any  other  way. 

“The  American  Indians,  as  regards  their  physical  qualities,  their 
moral  and  intellectual  qualities,  their  present  condition,  their  obscure 
past  and  more  obscure  future,  are  unquestionably  among  the  most  inter¬ 
esting  of  the  early  races  of  man. 

“  Their  gradual  diminution  is  considered  by  some  as  the  evidence  and 
effect  of  that  law  which  they  contend  governs  the  animal  kingdom,  in 
conformity  with  which  the  lower  precedes  the  higher,  and  is  in  turn 
exterminated  by  it.  From  this  it  is  argued  by  one  party  that  civiliza¬ 
tion  spreads  only  by  extermination,  while  their  opponents  maintain  that 
all  races  are  capable  of  civilization  and  preservation,  and  that  extermin¬ 
ation  results  only  from  the  ignorance  and  consequent  enmity  of  races. 

“But,  whatever  the  causes  of  decay,  the  fact  is  obvious  that  the  abo¬ 
riginal  inhabitants  of  America  are  diminishing,  and  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  it  is  in  human  power  to  preserve  or  even  to  prolong  their  exist¬ 
ence. 

“  The  journals  from  Washington  just  received  contain  the  legislation 
.  of  Congress,  Document  No.  157,  relating  to  certain  tribes  of  Indians. 

“  The  pains  taken  to  introduce  among  them  the  arts  and  habits  of 
civilization  is  remarkable.  Oxen,  horses,  plows,  hoes,  axes,  log-chains, 
saw-mills,  grindstones,  spades,  farming  implements  of  all  sorts,  and 
domestic  utensils,  are  not  only  provided  for  them,  but  white  persons  of 


EXHIBITION  OF  MATERIALS  OF  WAR.  67 

both  sexes  are  sent  among  them  to  teach  them  the  uses  of  these  things 
and  the  habits  of  a  higher  life. 

“  The  consideration  and  care  of  the  government  and  people  of  the 
United  States  for  these  ancient  races  are  beneficent  and  even  parental. 
But  this  fact  is  little  known  in  the  world,  and  we  are  frequently  reproached 
with  pursuing  a  cold  and  cruel  policy  toward  the  Indians. 

“  A  better  understanding  of  this  subject  would  relieve  us  from  these 
reproaches  and  justify  the  policy  of  the  government  and  nation,  by 
showing  that  it  is  eminently  humane  and  wise,  and  really  up  to  the  level 
of  the  highest  civilization  of  the  age. 

“  The  history  of  this  policy  and  its  effects,  carefully  studied,  would 
also  throw  great  light  on  the  ethnological  question  to  which  I  have 
alluded,  touching  the  destiny  of  races  as  affected  by  human  laws  and  by 
laws  which  are  higher  than  those  of  human  origin. 

“  If  I  could  succeed  in  adding  a  group  of  Indians  to  the  assembly  of 
races  which  it  is  hoped  will  be  brought  together  at  the  Exposition,  I 
think  it  might  give  rise  to  inquiries  and  researches  which,  in  a  scientific 
sense,  would  be  interesting  and  useful,  and  in  a  political  sense  would 
tend  to  diffuse  a  knowledge  of  facts  in  every  way  creditable  to  the  gov¬ 
ernment  and  the  country;  and  I  am  not  without  hope  that  you  may  think 
the  subject  of  sufficient  interest  to  bring  it  again  to  the  attention  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior.” 

EXHIBITION  OF  HEAVY  CANNON  AND  MUNITIONS  OF  WAR. 

The  two  letters  following,  from  Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward,  explain 
the  absence  of  an  exhibition  by  the  government  of  materials  of  war  in 
the  United  States  Section  : 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  April  19, 1866. 

“  Sir  :  The  fabrication  of  heavy  cannon  and  materials  of  war  in  gen¬ 
eral  being,  to  a  large  extent,  the  work  of  government,  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  omitted  articles  of  this  kind  in  forming  their  catalogues  for  the 
Exposition. 

“  But  the  nations  most  advanced  in  products  of  this  description,  Eng¬ 
land,  Prussia,  Belgium,  &c.,  have  expressed  a  desire  to  exhibit  them, 
and  the  Imperial  Commission  has  resolved  to  add  them  to  the  catalogue. 

“The  French  government  will,  therefore,  form  for  itself  in  the  Park  a 
separate  exhibition,  comprising  all  descriptions  of  materials  of  war,  and 
other  similar  exhibitions  will  be  formed  by  other  governments  or  manu¬ 
facturers,  or  by  both. 

“An  exhibition  of  this  kind  by  the  United  States,  through  the  co- 
operation  of  the  Navy  and  War  Departments  and  manufacturers,  might 
be  made  with  great  effect,  and  a  place  could  be  provided  for  it  in  the 
Park,  under  the  same  roof  where  I  propose  to  supplement  Group  VI, 
alluded  to  in  my  previous  letters. 


68 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


u  The  additional  expense  this  would  involve  would  not  he  large  on  this 
side,  and  the  cost  of  the  proposed  building  could,  I  think,  be  kept  within 
the  sum  I  have  named  for  that  purpose,  which  Congress  appears  disposed 
to  provide. 

u  A  branch  from  the  railway  which  encircles  Paris  will  be  laid  to  con¬ 
nect  with  the  Park,  which  will  facilitate  the  transport  of  heavy  objects, 
and  suitable  machinery  for  handling  and  placing  them  will  be  provided. 

u  A  collection  of  war  materials  would  add  great  attractions  to  our 
exhibition,  and  undoubtedly  be  highly  appreciated. 

u  I  have  requested  Mr.  Derby  to  apply  to  you  for  information,  and  I 
beg  your  favorable  consideration  of  the  subject.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  May  31, 1866. 

u  Sir  :  I  beg  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  11th  instant, 
referring  to  mine  of  the  19th  April,  on  the  subject  of  an  exhibition  of 
materials  of  war. 

u  Your  letter  includes  a  copy  of  the  observations  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  on  the  subject,  in  which  he  remarks  that  he  is  L  aware  of  no 
benefit  that  would  accrue  to  our  government  or  country  from  an  exhi¬ 
bition  of  specimens  of  our  ordnance  in  Paris/  from  which  I  infer  that  I 
must  have  failed  to  present  the  subject  in  the  light  which  I  intended. 

u  It  has  been  the  occasional  custom  of  the  United  States  government, 
and  it  is  the  constant  custom  of  European  governments,  to  dispatch 
commissioners  to  different  countries  to  study  and  report  upon  the  prog¬ 
ress  and  condition  of  the  materials  of  war. 

u  These  inquiries  are  attended  with  great  expense,  on  account  of  the 
extended  journey  they  require.  The  inquiries  are  in  themselves  diffi¬ 
cult  and  the  results  imperfect,  owing  to  the  objections  and  obstacles 
often  thrown  in  the  way  of  them,  and  the  reports  are  defective,  which 
result  from  such  hasty  and  imperfect  studies  without  the  means  of  com¬ 
parison. 

u  The  Imperial  Commission  omitted  this  subject  in  its  original  pro¬ 
gramme,  but  England,  Prussia,  and  Belgium,  countries  among  the  most 
advanced  in  products  of  this  kind,  thought  the  occasion  should  not  be 
neglected  for  bringing  together  collections  of  the  most  improved  and 
advanced  materials  of  war  from  all  countries,  which  would  present  at 
once  the  best  possible  opportunity  for  the  study  and  comparison  of  them 
without  obstacles. 

u  At  their  suggestion  the  Imperial  Commission  reconsidered  the  sub¬ 
ject,  and  resolved  to  provide  for  such  an  exhibition. 

u  The  French  government  concurred  in  this  view,  and  the  result  will 
be  national  exhibitions  of  the  best  war  materials  of  the  countries  above 
named,  in  which  each  will  exhibit  not  for  its  own  especial  benefit  but  for 
the  mutual  common  benefit,  which  accords  with  the  spirit  and  meaning 
of  the  entire  Exposition  of  1867. 


EXHIBITION  OF  MATERIALS  OF  WAR. 


69 


“I  feel  that  I  should  apologize  for  intruding  the  subject  a  second  time 
on  your  attention,  but  I  am  not  without  hope  that  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  and  the  Secretary  of  War  may  be  willing  to  reconsider  the  matter 
in  the  light  now  presented. 

u  If  those  departments  could  be  induced  to  contribute  to  the  Exposi¬ 
tion,  and  send  a  competent  officer  to  study  and  report  upon  it,  (of  whom 
there  must  be  many  who  would  accept  the  commission  without  expense,) 
they  eould  not  fail,  I  think,  to  obtain  more  complete  and  valuable  infor¬ 
mation  than  they  could  get  in  any  other  way  of  the  quality  and  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  materials  of  war  of  every  kind  in  all  countries  where  great 
attention  and  skill  are  applied  to  the  production  of  them.” 

SOCIETY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  TRAVEL. 

The  following  letter  from  Commissioner  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Derby,  dated 
Fads,  November  8,  1865,  explains  the  organization  and  objects  of 
u  The  Imperial  Society  of  International  Travel:” 

“Many  persons  engaged  in  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  various  in¬ 
dustries  will  desire  to  visit  the  Exposition  for  the  purpose  of  studying 
it  in  connection  with  their  particular  interests.  It  is  likely  also  that 
many  of  these  persons  whose  studies  would  produce  practical  and  useful 
results  may  not  be  able  to  afford  the  whole  expense  which  it  involves. 
The  annexed  publication  emanates  from  an  association  collateral  to  the 
Imperial  Commission,  founded  on  a  capital  of  $100,000,  for  the  purpose 
of  aiding  the  class  of  persons  in  question  to  visit  the  Exposition  by  means 
©f  contracts  in  their  favor  at  reduced  prices,  with  railways,  steam  navi¬ 
gation  companies,  hotel-keepers,  &c.  The  articles  of  association  and 
method  of  proposed  operation  are  described  in  the  annexed  pamphlet. 

“I  send  it  merely  as  a  suggestion,  which  some  ingenious  and  well-dis¬ 
posed  person  may  embrace,  to  originate  a  similar  organization  if  thought 
useful  and  requisite  on  our  side.” 

The  object  of  the  society  is  : 

L  To  make  arrangements  with  railway  companies,  steamship  compa- 
mies,  and  others,  in  regard  to  running  trains  and  making  trips  at  reduced 
rates,  from  the  principal  towns  of  France,  Algiers,  and  from  foreign 
countries,  for  the  express  purpose  of  transporting  the  working  classes, 
farmers,  and  mechanics,  to  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1867,  at  Paris. 

2.  To  enable  all  these  persons  to  reach,  in  a  safe  and  easy  manner,  the 
great  manufacturing  and  agricultural  centers. 

3.  To  furnish  them  with  all  kinds  of  information,  through  the  agency 
of  competent  persons,  attached  to  the  special  service  of  the  adminis¬ 
tration. 

4.  To  provide  for  them  capable  interpreters. 

5.  To  direct  them  to  vacant  apartments,  and,  in  certain  eases,  to  sup¬ 
ply  board  and  lodging  for  travelers  at  Paris,  or  in  other  places. 

The  society  will  base  all  its  operations  upon  a  moderate  tariff,  within 
the  reach  of  all. 


70 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


It  will  make  arrangements  witli  railway  companies,  so  that  travelers 
of  all  classes  coming  by  the  ordinary  trains  can  procure,  at  starting,  a 
certificate  allowing  them  full  possession  of  all  advantages  offered  by  the 
society. 

The  directors  of  the  society,  according  to  the  wish  expressed  in  article 
five  of  the  regulations  of  the  Imperial  Commission  for  the  Universal  Ex¬ 
position  of  1867,  at  Paris,  will  provide  for  the  running  of  third-class 
trains,  specially  intended  for  farmers,  overseers,  workmen,  and  mechan¬ 
ics.  They  will  place  themselves,  as  soon  as  possible,  in  communication 
with  prefects,  sub-prefects,  mayors,  heads  of  institutions,  presidents  of 
chambers  of  commerce,  corporations,  &c.,  and  with  the  ministers  of  for¬ 
eign  powers,  for  the  purpose  of  soliciting  their  valuable  assistance  and 
advice  in  regard  to  the  best  method  of  making  known  the  conditions  of 
this  way  of  traveling,  and  the  manner  of  receiving  the  sum  to  be  paid, 
by  means  of  small  weekly  installments.  For  this  purpose,  the  society 
will  establish  in  each  department  an  agency,  having  power  to  appoint 
sub-agents  in  all  towns  and  villages,  who  will  be  provided  with  books 
containing  small  printed  receipts  to  be  given  in  exchange  for  each  pay¬ 
ment  of  fifty  centimes  or  one  franc. 

Upon  the  first  page  of  this  book  will  be  printed  an  extract  from  the 
regulations,  as  follows : 

A.  — These  books  are  not  transferable  unless  notice  has  been  previ¬ 
ously  given  to  the  agent  of  the  administration. 

B.  — The  sums  collected  in  each  department  will  be  paid  in,  every  week, 
to  the  receiver  of  finances,  or  to  some  person  of  equal  responsibility. 

C.  — Each  holder  of  a  book,  by  giving  notice  ten  days  in  advance  to 
the  departmental  agent,  will  be  reimbursed  for  all  sums  he  may  have 
expended,  except  the  premium  of  two  francs,  payable  by  each  book,  and 
a  reserve  of  three  per  cent,  intended  to  cover  the  expenses  of  printing 
and  of  commission  to  the  agents  and  sub-agents. 

D.  — Members  of  workmen’s  societies,  or  even  of  workshops,  can,  if 
they  wish,  form  companies  and  make  direct  contracts  with  the  society 
for  their  journey  and  sojourn  in  Paris. 

The  receipts  will  be  distributed  through  all  the  towns  and  villages, 
and  it  will  be  easy  at  any  time  for  any  person  wishing  to  visit  Paris  in 
1867  to  purchase  one  or  more  of  these  receipts,  according  to  the  expense 
of  his  ticket  and  of  his  sojourn  in  Paris,  if  he  desires  it. 

This  arrangement  will  give  an  opportunity  to  persons  interesting  them¬ 
selves  in  social  and  universal  progress  of  purchasing  these  receipts  in 
any  place,  and  of  disposing  of  them  where  and  when  they  wish. 

At  the  railway  terminus  in  Paris  persons  in  the  society’s  employ  will 
be  constantly  stationed  to  furnish  gratuitously  any  information  desired 
by  travelers  of  all  classes.  These  persons  wall  be  provided  every  day 
with  lists  of  apartments,  unengaged  chambers  in  hotels,  furnished 
houses,  and  all  other  particulars. 

In  short,  the  persons  in  employ  of  the  society  should  endeavor  to  be 


SOCIETY  OF  INTERNATIONAL  TRAVEL.  71 

useful  in  every  way  to  the  stranger,  and  to  make  his  sojourn  in  the  capi¬ 
tal  as  agreeable  as  possible. 

The  office  of  the  society  will  be  open  day  and  night  for  the  reception 
of  travelers. 

A  hospital  will  be  prepared,  under  the  direction  of  a  physician,  with 
an  apartment  for  ladies. 

COMPLETION  AND  OPENING  OF  THE  EXPOSITION. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  January  21, 1867. 

“  Sir  :  The  dates  fixed  by  the  imperial  regulations  for  placing  the 
products  which  are  to  form  the  Exposition  are  as  follows  : 

“The  structures  in  the  Palace  and  the  Park  to  be  completed  by  the  1st 
of  December  ;  the  show-cases,  tables,  and  fixtures  of  all  kinds  to  be 
placed  before  the  15th  January;  the  reception  and  unpacking  of- 
products  to  commence  on  the  15th  January,  and  to  terminate  on  the  10th 
March,  after  which  no  more  will  be  received.  The  products  to  be  ar¬ 
ranged  for  exhibition  between  the  11th  and  28th  March ;  the  29th  and 
30th  are  allowed  for  cleaning  and  sweeping,  and  a  general  inspection  on 
the  31st  will  take  place  preparatory  to  the  opening  on  the  1st  April. 

“  The  latest  notice  on  this  subject  which  I  have  received  from  the  Im¬ 
perial  Commission  is  dated  the  12th  instant,  reminding  me  that  the 
above  regulations  will  be  adhered  to ;  that  the  Emperor  will  inspect  the 
Exposition  between  the  28th  and  31st  March ;  and  that  the  opening  will 
take  place  on  the  1st  April,  without  fail. 

“The  dates  for  finishing  the  structures  which  we  had  to  make,  and 
for  commencing  the  introduction  of  products,  (15th  instant,)  being  past, 
I  now  propose  to  report  the  situation  of  our  work. 

“Palace. — I  have  completed  the  flooring  of  Groups  II,  III,  IY,  Y, 
in  the  Palace,  and  laid  out  upon  them  the  plans  in  conformity  with  which 
the  installations  (fixtures)  are  to  be  made  and  placed. 

“  In  Group  YI  one  part  of  the  floor  is  being  laid,  and  will  soon  be  fin¬ 
ished  ;  and  in  the  other  part  of  the  same  group  the  foundations  in  ma¬ 
sonry  are  in  progress  for  machines,  of  which  plans  of  foundations  have 
been  sent  me,  upon  which  I  could  construct  in  advance ;  but  all  the  nec¬ 
essary  plans  have  not  yet  reached  me.  The  concrete  in  Groups  I  and 
YII,  laid  by  the  Imperial  Commission,  will  be  sufficient  in  those  groups, 
and  answer  in  place  of  wood  floors. 

“Park. — The  annex  in  the  Park  will  be  about  three  hundred  feet  in 
length,  and  nearly  thirty-four  feet  in  breadth.  The  frame  of  this  build¬ 
ing  is  erected,  and  the  covering  commenced ;  this,  by  contract,  should 
have  been  completed  on  the  15th  January,  but  the  tempestuous  weather 
which  set  in  on  the  2d  January,  and  severity  of  the  cold  which  still  con¬ 
tinues,  have  retarded  this  work;  the  material  for  the  covering  and  the 
flooring  is  prepared  and  ready  to  be  laid,  and  a  very  short  period  of 
milder  weather  will  enable  me  to  complete  this  building. 


72 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  Witli  respect  to  tlie  buildings  to  be  erected  in  the  Park — two  houses, 
one  school-house,  and  a  bakery,  to  be  sent  from  the  United  States — the 
information  sent  me  is  not  such  as  to  enable  me  to  prepare  the  ground 
for  them,  and  there  is  likely  to  be  some  delay  in  consequence  after  their 
arrival. 

“  The  contracts  for  the  installations  (tables,  show-cases,  shelves,  frames, 
partitions,  and  other  fixtures)  in  Groups  II,  III,  IV,  V,  and  VI,  require 
the  completion  and  delivery  of  this  work  by  the  31st  instant ;  but  I  have 
been  obliged  to  extend  the  time  for  a  part  of  it  to  the  9th  February. 

“The  preparation  of  the  walls  in  Group  I,  for  the  reception  of  pictures, 
is  nearly  completed;  and  I  rely  upon  being  in  a  condition  to  commence 
the  reception  of  products  in  the  Palace  from  the  25th  instant  to  the  30th 
instant,  and  to  commence  the  unpacking  and  placing  throughout  the 
Palace  and  annex  by  the  10th  February. 

“Most  of  my  contracts  for  the  more  expensive  work  have  been  made 
in  Belgium,  at  lower  prices  than  I  could  obtain  in  Paris,  and  where  cir¬ 
cumstances  admit  of  more  reliance  on  punctuality. 

“  I  ought  not  to  omit  to  state  in  this  connection  that  the  backward 
and  still  incomplete  condition  of  the  catalogues  has  compelled  me  to 
undertake  and  carry  on  the  expensive  part  of  the  work  in  question  under 
great  disadvantages. 

“  Taking  the  preliminary  catalogues  and  allotments  which  I  trans¬ 
mitted  to  the  department  on  the  24th  October  as  a  basis,  I  have  been 
obliged  to  make  the  contracts  for  the  construction  of  the  fixtures  in  that 
conformity,  as  being  likely  to  be  pretty  nearly  what  would  prove  to  be 
in  the  end  necessary. 

“  But  as  there  have  been  many  changes  in  those  lists  of  products  and 
allotments  of  space,  and  these  changes  are  still  going  on,  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  when  the  products  and  the  fixtures  come  together  they 
will  not  in  all  cases  fit  each  other. 

“  I  am  liable  to  find  a  space  for  which  I  have  prepared  an  expensive 
show-case  occupied  by  a  stove,  or  another  space  for  which  I  have  pre¬ 
pared  a  table,  appropriated  to  products  requiring  a  different  method  of 
installation  for  exhibition,  &c. 

“  This  contingency  results  inevitably  from  carrying  on  simultaneously 
two  distinct  works,  one  of  which  (the  catalogues)  should  precede  tbe 
other,  by  which  method  alone  the  fixtures  could  be  made  in  advance  to 
fit  the  products  when  they  arrive. 

“The  incongruity  between  the  products  and  the  installations  prepared 
for  them,  to  whatever  extent  it  may  be  found  to  exist,  will  cause  further 
delays,  probably  considerable  waste  or  expenditure  of  money  that  might 
have  been  avoided,  and  can  hardly  fail  to  render  it  impossible  to  place 
and  expose  the  products  in  all  cases  in  the  way  and  manner  desired  by 
the  exhibitor,  and  intended.  Some  changes  and  disappointments  from 
this  source  may  become  unavoidable,  and  give  rise  to  dissatisfaction 
and  complaints  from  exhibitors  thus  disturbed,  and  who  perceive  no 
cause  for  it  but  what  appears  to  them  very  bad  management. 


THE  OPENING  CEREMONIES. 


73 


11  But  it  is  obvious  that  if  the  construction  of  the  fixtures  had  been 
delayed  for  the  completion  of  the  catalogues,  (not  yet  completed,)  such 
delay  would  have  been  equivalent  to  an  abandonment  of  the  Exposition, 
and  it  will  require  unceasing  efforts,  as  it  is  to  bring  the  products  and 
the  fixtures  together,  however  incongruous  their  condition,  in  time  to  pre¬ 
vent  their  exclusion  from  the  Exposition. 

#  #  #  *  *  #  •  * 

u  I  have  not  yet  been  able  to  report  any  of  the  catalogues  to  the 
Imperial  Commission.  Their  urgency  increases  daily  and  their  hopes 
have  been  fed  by  the  continued  advices  above  quoted,  each  of  which  in 
succession  seemed  to  indicate  that  but  little  remained  to  do,  and  that 
the  final  report;  might  be  fairly  expected  by  the  following  mail. 

“  But  the  result  is,  I  regret  to  say,  that  the  Imperial  Commission  has 
at  length  become  impatient.  They  have  received  my  representations  of 
late  with  apparently  diminished  confidence,  and  have  now  given  me 
final  notice  that  if  my  manuscript  catalogues  are  not  delivered  to  them 
by  the  25th  instant  for  publication,  the  Exposition  will  open  on  the  1st 
of  April  without  them. 

u  I  still  hope  to  avoid  this  result ;  it  would  place  our  exhibitors  at 
great  disadvantage,  and  I  look  with  increasing  anxiety  for  the  final 
reports  from  the  agency  at  New  York.” 

THE  OPENING  OF  THE  EXPOSITION. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  April  2, 1867. 

“  Sir  :  The  Exposition  was  opened  yesterday,  the  1st  of  April,  in  con¬ 
formity  with  the  regulations  published  by  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“  Work  in  the  building  and  the  Park  was  suspended  for  the  occasion, 
the  doors  were  opened  to  the  public,  the  attendance  was  numerous,  and 
the  weather  was  brilliant. 

“  The  diplomatic  bodies  and  the  other  invited  guests  were  assembled 
in  the  interior  gallery  appropriated  to  the  fine  arts.  The  national  com¬ 
missions  were  stationed,  each  in  its  own  section,  on  the  elevated  platform 
which  runs  through  the  great  gallery  of  machinery  comprising  the  larger 
circuit  of  the  building. 

“  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  and  the  Empress  arrived  at  2  o’clock  p.  m., 
accompanied  by  the  chief  officers  of  state,  several  ladies  of  the  court, 
the  Imperial  Commissions,  and  a  numerous  suite  of  functionaries  con¬ 
nected  both  with  civil  departments  and  with  the  Exposition. 

“The  imperial  cortege  on  arrival  ascended  the  great  platform  or 
promenade,  and  made  the  entire  circuit  of  the  building,  the  various 
national  commissions  being  presented  in  succession  by  the  minister  of 
state,  vice-president  of  the  Exposition,  to  the  Emperor  and  the  Empress 
as  the  cortege  arrived  at  the  different  sections. 

u  The  national  commissions  then  repaired  to  their  respective  sections 


74 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


in  the  gallery  of  fine  arts  and  joined  the  invited  guests.  The  imperial 
cortege  descended  from  the  platform  and  made  the  tour  of  the  gallery 
of  fine  arts,  their  Majesties  saluting  the  audience  as  they  passed,  receiv¬ 
ing  in  return  their  cordial  greeting. . 

“  The  imperial  cortege  then  retired  by  the  great  door  opposite  the 
one  by  which  they  had  entered,  the  Exposition  was  declared  to  be 
open,  the  barriers  and  guards  removed,  and  the  avenues  left  free  to  the 
circulation  of  the  multitude.” 

CONDITION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  SECTION  AT  THE  OPENING. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  April  3,  1867. 

u  Sir  :  I  beg  to  state  briefly  that  at  the  opening  of  the  Exposition  the 
structures  in  our  section  were  nearly  completed  and  the  placing  of  the 
products  about  half  finished.  Many  of  them  are  still  on  the  road 
between  this  and  Havre,  which  has  been  greatly  clogged  by  accumula¬ 
tion  beyond  the  means  of  rapid  transport. 

“  Fully  a  month  will  be  required  to  complete  the  work,  and  this  obser¬ 
vation  is  applicable  to  every  national  section  of  importance,  including 
the  French  section. 

u  Very  little  machinery  w^as  ready  in  any  section  for  movement,  though 
a  few  machines  in  some  sections  were  put  in  motion  for  effect. 

u  Three  or  four  of  our  machines,  under  charge  of  Mr.  Pickering,  were 
belted  and  shafted  ready  for  work,  but  the  Imperial  Commission  were 
not  ready  to  supply  us  with  steam  or  water,  and  the  machines  did  not 
run. 

u  Each  nationality  has  been  urgent  in  pushing  forward  its  work  for 
the  opening,  in  which  anxiety  I  participated,  and  increased  the  number 
of  workmen,  employing  one  set  during  the  day  and  another  for  the  night 
till  five  in  the  morning  for  a  short  period. 

“  The  natural  anxiety  in  my  section  was  sufficient,  and  the  movement 
was  overdone  by  the  severe  pressure  of  the  Imperial  Commission.  This 
caused  an  accumulation  and  a  clog  which  retarded  instead  of  hastening 
the  work. 

“  The  contracts  for  transport,  cartage,  carpenters’  work,  masonry, 
decoration,  &c.,  all  broke  down,  new  contracts  were  made,  wages 
were  doubled,  the  men  became  masters,  and  with  this  accumulation  of 
force  and  expense  the  work  went  slower  every  day. 

u  With  the  business  in  this  train  many  of  our  exhibitors  arrived, 
anxious  to  find  their  products  and  get  them  in  place ;  but  destitute  of 
any  knowledge  of  the  situation,  ignorant  of  the  regulations,  and  to  a 
great  extent  of  the  language,  they  have  met  with  difficulties  and  delays 
they  did  not  look  for,  and  have  shown  some  dissatisfaction. 

u  But  time  and  patience  will  remedy  this,  reasonable  grounds  of  com¬ 
plaint — if  such  exist — will  be  removed,  and  imaginary  grounds  will  van¬ 
ish  with  a  better  knowledge  of  the  circumstances. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  SECTION  OF  THE  OPENING. 


75 


u  The  precipitation  and  disorder  with  which  the  exhibitors  hurried  off 
their  products  from  the  United  States  at  the  latest  moment,  their  gen¬ 
eral,  almost  uniform  neglect  to  furnish  inventories  of  the  contents  of 
packages,  and  the  arrival  of  every  vessel  but  one  in  advance  of  the  bill 
of  lading  and  shipping  documents  such  as  they  were,  precipitated  the 
business  upon  me  in  a  condition  which  can  only  be  appreciated  by  those 
who  are  familiar  with  the  movements  of  commerce. 

“  For  the  most  part  I  have  had  no  means  of  furnishing  the  customs 
with  the  requisite  inventories,  nor  of  knowing  the  contents  of  packages, 
till  they  were  opened  and  the  inventories  made,  and  many  of  them  are 
not  yet  opened. 

u  The  shipping  lists  have  proved  to  be  very  inaccurate — several  pack¬ 
ages  in  them  have  not  appeared,  while  many  others  not  in  them,  nearly 
a  hundred  in  all,  have  been  delivered.  Under  these  circumstances  it  is 
impossible  to  hold  vessels  to  any  strict  account  for  delivery. 

u  The  impossibility  of  making  a  correct  catalogue  under  these  circum¬ 
stances  is  evident.  I  have  made  the  best  that  was  possible  and  it  appears 
in  the  first  edition  of  the  imperial  catalogue,  but  it  is  extremely  imper¬ 
fect. 

“  I  have  nowin  press  a  catalogue  together  with  the  statistics  to  accom¬ 
pany  it ;  the  catalogue  is  in  three  languages  and  the  statistics  in  French. 
This  will  be  more  accurate,  and  will  be  out,  I  trust,  by  the  15th  instant. 
But  even  this  cannot  be  perfected  before  the  second  or  third  edition. 

u  The  houses  from  Chicago  have  been  a  great  embarrassment.  The 
material  for  one  of  them  was  only  got  into  the  Park  yesterday. 

u  The  materials  for  the  other  arrived  some  weeks  since,  but  instead  of 
a  house  in  sections  ready  to  put  up,  it  was  lumber  from  the  mills  of 
which  to  build  a  house. 

“  Mr.  Clark,  the  carpenter  who  came  over  to  build  the  house,  con¬ 
cluded  that  he  could  not  do  it  either  with  French  tools  or  French  work¬ 
men.  I  sent  him  to  England  to  procure  carpenters  and  tools ;  he 
brought  over  fifteen  workmen,  and  they  are  working  on  the  first  house, 
at  heavy  wages,  and  doing  little,  having  evidently  embraced  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  coming  to  the  Exposition  rather  than  to  work. 

u  I  should  not  have  felt  justified  in  this  course,  but  for  the  recent 
appropriation  in  Congress,  which  was  telegraphed  to  me  as  intended  for 
this  purpose,  and  for  the  importance  apparently  attached  to  this  exhibit 
by  those  who  were  interested  in  sending  it,  which  seemed  to  leave 
me  no  choice,  though  so  large  an  expenditure  for  this  purpose  is  not  in 
accordance  with  my  own  judgment. 

“  The  pressure  of  work  at  this  moment  will  be  accepted  as  my  apology, 

I  hope,  for  so  brief  a  report  on  the  state  of  the  work  at  the  opening.” 


II. 

THE  PROGRESS  AND  CLOSE  OFTHE  EXPOSITION. 


Scientific  Commission;  the  importance  of  obtaining  the  assistance  of  pro¬ 
fessional  AND  SCIENTIFIC  PERSONS  TO  STUDY  AND  REPORT  UPON  THE  EXPOSITION — 

Reports  upon  the  progress  of  science  and  letters  in  France — The  organ¬ 
ization  AND  DUTIES  OF  A  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION — COMMISSION  UPON  WEIGHTS, 
MEASURES,  AND  COINS— INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION  OF  MEASURES,  WEIGHTS,  AND 

coins — Preparation  of  the  catalogue  of  the  United  States  section  and 

PUBLICATION  OF  STATISTICS — FIELD  TRIALS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  MACHINES  AT  BlLLAN- 

court — International  juries,  and  their  organization — New  order  of  awards 
— Apportionment  of  jurors  to  the  United  States — Work  of  class  juries — 
The  distribution  of  prizes — Honorary  distinctions — Exhibition  of  the 
medals  and  diplomas — Prizes  for  reaping  and  mowing  machines— Condition 
Of  the  industrial  arts  indicated  by  the  awards — Commission  of  the  United 
States — Kegulations  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  State — Meetings  and  pro¬ 
ceedings  of  the  commission — Close  of  the  Exposition  and  the  delivery  of 
products — Minerals  donated  to  various  institutions,  and  letters  received 
in  reply— Cereals  collected  by  exchange. 

SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION. 

The  importance  of  obtaining  the  assistance  of  professional  and  scien¬ 
tific  persons  to  study  the  exhibition  and  aid  in  preparing  suitable  reports 
upon  it,  was  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Beckwith  in  his  letter  of  suggestions  to 
Mr.  Bigelow,  April  3,  1865,  printed  upon  p.  15.  The  department  was 
also  addressed  by  Mr.  Bigelow  in  his  dispatch  from  the  United  States 
legation  at  Paris,  September  21, 1865,  as  follows  : 

u  The  circular,  of  which  No.  1  is  a  translation,  has  been  issued  by  the 
Commissioners  of  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1867.  It  provides  for  the 
creation  of  an  international  scientific  commission,  whose  duty  it  shall 
be  to  note  the  recent  advances  made  in  the  sciences  and  arts,  to  con¬ 
tribute  what  they  can  to  diffuse  the  knowledge  of  useful  discoveries,  to 
encourage  international  reforms,  and,  lastly,  to  point  out,  in  special 
publications,  the  useful  results  to  be  derived  from  the  Exposition. 

“  I  invite  your  special  attention  to  the  provisions  of  this  circular,  and 
take  the  liberty  of  suggesting  that  our  government  can  in  no  way  turn 
this  Exposition  to  better  account  than  by  sending  a  few  of  its  cleverest 
men  of  science  to  make  part  of  this  commission.  I  say  its  cleverest, 
because  it  is  not  worth  while  to  send  men  who  would  see  nothing,  and 
therefore  describe  nothing,  which  would  not  be  seen,  and  as  well  or 
better  described,  by  the  French  and  other  foreign  exhibitors. 

u  The  Exposition  will  be  transitory,  but  the  accounts  that  will  be 
written  about  it  have  a  chance  of  enduring.  Europe  will  assign  this 
duty  to  her  choicest  men.  There  is  glory  to  be  won  in  a  successful  com¬ 
petition  with  them.  I  think  the  opportunity  should  not  be  neglected.” 


78 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  following  is  the  translation  of  the  circular  referred  to.  Original 
was  issued  by  the  Imperial  Commission,  and  signed  by  Rouher,  the  min¬ 
ister  of  state  and  vice-president  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  September 
20,  1865  : 

ORDER  ESTABLISHING  THE  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION. 

“  In  accordance  with  the  general  regulations  adopted  by  the  Imperial 
Commission,  7th  July,  1865,  and  approved  by  an  imperial  decree  of  the 
date  of  12th  July,  1865,  w7hich  provides  for  the  institution  of  a  series  of 
studies  and  experiments,  under  the  direction  of  a  scientific  commission, 
and  for  the  publication  of  results  of  general  interest  attained  by  these 
labors,  (Article  63,)  it  is  ordered : 

“  Article  1.  There  is  established,  in  connection  with  the  Imperial 
Commission,  an  international  scientific  commission,  having  for  its  object: 
1st.  To  indicate  the  best  means  of  representing,  at  the  Exposition  of 
1867,  the  recent  advances  made  in  the  sciences,  in  the  liberal  and  indus¬ 
trial  arts.  2d.  To  contribute  to  the  extension  of  the  employment  of 
useful  discoveries,  and  to  encourage  reforms  of  international  interest, 
such  as  the  adoption  of  uniform  weights  and  measures,  identical  scientific 
unities,  &c.  3d.  To  point  out  in  special  publications  the  results  of  gen¬ 
eral  utility  to  be  derived  from  the  Exposition,  and  to  undertake,  if  it  be 
necessary,  the  researches  required  for  their  accomplishment. 

u  Article  2.  The  Scientific  Commission  is  composed  of  Frenchmen,  ap¬ 
pointed  directly  by  the  Imperial  Commission,  and  of  foreigners  appointed 
upon  the  nomination  of  their  respective  countries.  These  appointments 
will  be  made  successively  by  special  orders. 

u  Article  3.  Scientific  organizations,  and,  in  general,  persons  inter¬ 
ested  in  the  progress  of  the  sciences  and  the  arts,  are  invited  to  submit 
to  the  Imperial  Commission  their  opinions  in  regard  to  the  researches  to 
be  undertaken,  and  the  questions  to  be  considered. 

u  Article  4.  The  members  of  the  Scientific  Commission  will  not  be 
expected  to  hold  stated  meetings.  They  can  labor  separately  upon  the 
matters  which  are  given  them  to  treat;  and  can  send,  in  their  own 
names,  the  fruits  of  their  labor  to  the  Imperial  Commission.  It  will 
also  be  permitted  to  them  to  meet  with  their  colleagues  of  all  countries.” 

u  Article  5.  The  memoranda  and  reports  will  be  submitted  before 
the  1st  July,  1867,  to  the  Imperial  Commission,  and  published,  if  neces¬ 
sary,  under  its  direction.  The  whole  will  form  the  collection  of  the 
labors  of  the  Scientific  Commission. 

“  Article  6.  The  councillor  of  state,  Commissioner  General,  is  charged 
with  the  execution  of  these  orders.” 

REPORTS  UPON  THE  PROGRESS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  LETTERS  IN  FRANCE. 

The  following  is  a  translation  of  a  letter  addressed,  December  1,  1865, 
by  M.  Duruy,  the  minister  of  public  instruction,  to  M.  Le  Play,  thecoun- 


ORGANIZATION  OF  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSIONS.  79 

cillor  of  state  and  Commissioner  General  for  the  Universal  Exhibition  of 
1867: 

“  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that,  in  virtue  of  the  approval  given 
by  the  Emperor  to  my  report  of  the  8th  of  November,  the  minister  of 
public  instruction  will  directly  participate  in  the  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867,  by  producing  there  the  works  of  diverse  character  which  are  com¬ 
prised  in  the  mission  with  which  he  is  charged. 

u  He  will  at  first  present  the  best  manner  arising  from  a  substantial 
rule  which  serves  for  the  instruction  of  children  and  of  adults  in  the 
primary  public  schools,  and  in  order  that  we  may  be  able  to  establish 
its  value,  he  will  make  fully  known  also  the  results  of  the  tuition.  In 
addition,  he  will  lay  down  a  series  of  reports  which  will  show,  in  the 
first  part,  the  discoveries  of  scientific  theories,  from  which  emanate 
every  industrial  perfection,  and  on  the  other  part,  the  moral  ameliora¬ 
tions  and  administrative  or  economical  reforms  due  to  the  influence  of 
ideas  that  literature  diffuses,  that  history  verifies  in  the  past,  and  of 
which  political  sciences  provoke  the  application  in  the  present. 

u  It  is  in  the  Classes  89  and  90  that  the  objects  might  be  placed,  which, 
by  appealing  to  the  eye,  can  allow  it  to  appreciate  the  state  of  educa¬ 
tion. 

u  Among  these  objects  will  be  found  some  works  executed  by  the 
pupils  themselves,  such  as  drawings,  modelings,  &c.,  which  it  is  usual 
to  produce  at  every  exposition,  and  of  which  the  most  meritorious  have 
always  gained  some  credit  to  the  schools  who  have  sent  them. 

u  The  most  severe  precautions  will  be  taken  by  my  administration  in 
the  public  schools,  in  order  that  these  objects  may  represent,  with  a  scru¬ 
pulous  fidelity,  the  real  labor  of  the  pupils,  without  the  assistance  of 
teachers,  and  consequently  what  they  will  be  truly  in  a  condition  to  do 
upon  the  day  when  they  will  be  left  to  themselves.  It  will  be  a  true 
standard  of  primary  education. 

u  The  reports  on  the  principal  works  produced  by  the  French  mind 
for  the  past  twenty  years  in  their  intellectual  order,  and  in  their  social 
order,  will  find,  therefore,  their  natural  place  in  the  Class  90,  which 
m^:es  a  part  of  Group  X,  where  the  Imperial  Commission  has  united 
that  which  concerns  the  material  and  moral  progress  of  populations. 

u  The  reports  will  be  made  known  as  follows : 

u  1.  The  progress  accomplished  in  France  by  the  mathematical,  phys¬ 
ical,  and  natural  sciences. 

u  2.  The  progress  accomplished  by  the  moral  and  political  sciences  in 
their  applications  to  the  wants  of  society. 

u  The  character  of  French  letters  that  they  may  study,  at  least  with 
a  view  to  their  style  or  as  a  task  of  literary  criticism,  and  in  their  effects 
upon  the  general  education  of  the  country. 

“  Some  men,  who  are  the  light  and  honor  of  the  Senate,  of  the  Council 
of  State,  of  the  Institute,  and  of  high  education,  have  been  willing  to 
undertake  to  draw  up  these  reports.  Before  speaking  in  the  name  of 


80 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


French  science,  in  presence  of  the  wise  men  of  the  world,  in  an  in- 
closnre  where  every  one  will  judge  each  other,  they  will  study  without 
troubling  the  serenity  of  the  impartial  historian ;  and  in  the  same  way, 
with  a  respect  for  their  own  labor,  they  will  lay  before  their  equals  a 
.  testimony  devoid  of  all  personal  interest. 

“  The  ancients  selected  the  sage  to  seek  the  beautiful,  the  true,  and 
the  perfect.  The  reports  will  tell  whether  the  ancient  formula  is  that  of 
the  modern  sage,  and  whether  French  letters,  faithful  to  the  great  tra¬ 
ditions  of  Corneille  and  of  Moliere,  seeking  always  the  beautiful  in  order 
to  diffuse  the  good,  are  still  a  school  of  manners,  as  the  positive  sciences 
and  the  moral  sciences  are  a  school  of  truth  and  justice. 

u  Before  indicating  the  classifications  of  the  matter  comprised  in  the 
three  divisions  mentioned  before,  I  believe  it,  Monsieur  the  Commissioner 
General,  useful  to  communicate  to  you  some  explanations  relative  to  the 
meaning  and  object  of  this  work.  It  is  of  consequence  to  remark  at 
first,  that  he  is  not  to  draw  up  at  first  an  encyclopedial  resume  of  human 
knowledge.  Proceeding  in  that  way  he  would  miss  the  mark  by  over¬ 
shooting  it.  The  interval  which  separates  us  from  1867  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  calculations  of  all  the  intellectual  riches  of  humanity.  It  is 
already  a  sufficiently  heavy  task  to  measure  their  increase  from  the 
opening  of  the  period  which  the  contemporaneous  generation  completes 
by  its  labors ;  of  that  time  even  they  will  gather  only  the  considerable 
facts  and  results  well  established.  It  is  not  the  object  in  effect  to  write  a 
complete  history  of  each  branch  of  human  knowledge  for  twenty  years. 
The  vain  efforts,  the  abortive  experiments,  the  hypotheses  not  con¬ 
firmed — all  this  scientific  dross,  which  learning  collects  with  curiosity, 
ought  to  be  placed  aside  with  the  facts  which  may  not  have  a  useful 
character  or  a  general  interest. 

u  We  do  not  purpose  to  burden  ourselves  with  making  for  foreign 
countries  a  report  of  the  things  I  have  just  indicated,  though  they  come 
within  the  limit  of  time  prescribed.  We  will  not  be  able,  doubtlessly, 
in  speaking  of  our  progress,  to  abstain  from  touching  upon  that  of  neigh¬ 
boring  nations. 

u  A  joint  responsibility  closely  unites  to-day  the  scientific  labors  §nd 
moral  preoccupations  of  the  different  nations.  Sometimes  the  same  idea 
spontaneously  originates  in  several  countries  at  once  5  sometimes  an 
invention  found  on  one  side  of  the  frontier  has  carried  all  the  fruits 
which  grace  an  accomplished  perfection  to  the  other  side.  Elsewhere, 
several  peoples  following,  perhaps,  our  example,  it  is  necessary  to  leave 
them  the  honor  of  pronouncing  for  themselves  an  authoritative  and  im¬ 
partial  judgment.  France,  in  the  reports  which  she  undertakes,  pro¬ 
poses  exclusively  to  be  occupied  with  herself,  saving  the  exceptions 
which  will  be  indispensable  to  place  in  the  work  a  perspicuous  and  ne¬ 
cessary  justice ;  the  minister  of  public  instruction  using  the  liberty  left 
by  the  liberal  programme  of  the  Imperial  Commission  to  all  those  who 
will  wish,  like  herself,  to  exhibit  in  Class  90  $  and  the  classification 


ORGANIZATION  OF  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSIONS.  81 

which  it  presents  ought  to  be  considered  as  a  simple  memorandum,  of 
which  each  will  make  such  use  as  will  be  convenient  to  him. 

“  The  programme  of  the  subject  to  be  treated  in  the  report  in  ques¬ 
tion  is  determined  principally  in  the  following  manner  : 

“1.  Progress  accomplished  by  the  mathematical,  physical, 
and  natural  SCIENCES. — Geometry,  analysis,  mechanics,  astronomy, 
geodesy.  Physics,  chemistry.  Geology  and  paleontology,  botany,  zo¬ 
ology,  anthropology,  general  physiology,  medicine  and  surgery,  hygiene, 
rural  economy,  and  the  veterinary  art. 

“2.  Progress  accomplished  by  the  moral  and  political 

SCIENCES  IN  THEIR  AGREEMENT  WITH  THE  WANTS  OF  SOCIETY. — 
Public  right,  administrative  right,  legislation — civil  and  penal,  political 
economy,  rights  of  nations. 

“  3.  Character  and  tendency  of  French  letters. — Literature — 
poetry,  drama— philosophic  doctrines,  historical  works,  archaeological 
discoveries. 

“  Around  this  collection  of  reports,  and  as  an  appendix  in  connection 
therewith,  will  be  arranged  some  objects  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  indi¬ 
cating  the  most  interesting  results  of  scientific  missions  and  archaeolo¬ 
gical  researches,  accomplished  in  the  same  period  under  the  auspices  of 
the  administration  of  puplic  instruction. 

“  Accept,  Mr.  Commissioner  General,  the  assurance  of  my  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  consideration.” 

Mr .  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris ,  December  14,  18G5. 

“  Sir  :  *  *  *  I  embrace  this  opportunity  to  allude  to  the  subject  of  a 
scientific  commission,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  and  reporting  upon 
the  Exposition. 

“  The  printed  document  hereto  annexed,  issued  by  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission,  contains  a  decree  forming  a  French  scientific  commission,  and 
gives  general  directions  for  its  guidance. 

“The  Scientific  Commission  is,  first,  to  point  out  to  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  itself  the  best  means  of  exhibiting  the  progress  recently  made 
in  the  sciences  and  arts ;  secondly,  to  co-operate  in  propagating  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  useful  discoveries  and  in  promoting  international  reforms,  such  as 
the  adoption  of  a  uniform  system  of  weights  and  measures ;  and  thirdly, 
to  indicate  the  useful  results  in  general  to  be  drawn  from  the  Exposition, 
and  to  undertake,  if  there  is  occasion,  the  researches  or  experiments 
requisite  to  complete  those  useful  results.  Scientific  bodies,  and  persons 
in  general  who  interest  themselves  in  the  progress  of  sciences  and  arts, 
are  invited  also  to  express  their  views  to  the  Imperial  Commission  on 
the  researches  which  should  be  undertaken  and  the  questions  which 
should  be  examined  by  the  Scientific  Commission. 

“  The  first  part  of  the  labor  of  the  Scientific  Commission,  therefore, 
6  P  E 


82 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


precedes  the  opening  of  the  Exposition,  and  the  results  of  it  should 
reappear  in  the  Exposition  itself ;  the  second  part  may  commence  at  any 
time,  and  does  not  appear  to  be  necessarily  connected  with  the  Exposi¬ 
tion,  but  the  third  part  relates  more  especially  to  the  Exposition ;  and 
the  reports  of  the  commission,  collective  or  individual,  embodying  the 
fruits  of  their  researches,  should  be  sent  in  to  the  Imperial  Commission 
by  the  first  of  July,  1867,  three  months  before  the  close  of  the  Exposition, 
that  they  may  be  published. 

“  The  members  of  the  commission  are  Frenchmen,  but  foreigners  may 
be  added  to  it  upon  their  nomination  by  the  foreign  commissioners,  and 
acceptance  by  the  Imperial  Commission.  And  the  members  of  the  com¬ 
mission  may  unite  in  their  labors  and  reports,  or  work:  separately,  and 
make  separate  reports,  if  they  prefer  it. 

“  I  do  not  perceive  that  any  particular  advantage  would  result  from 
the  addition  of  foreigners  to  this  commission,  as  their  reports  are  to  be 
made  to  the  Imperial  Commission  ;  but  foreign  scientific  commissioners 
might  perhaps  find  it  desirable  at  a  later  period  to  have  one  or  more  of 
their  members  on  the  French  commission,  as  a  channel  of  convenient 
mutual  intercourse. 

“  In  forming  a  scientific  commission  for  the  United  States,  and  giving 
them  instructions,  the  government  will  probably  leave  much  to  the 
judgment  of  the  commission  itself  in  choosing  subjects  of  particular 
inquiry  ;  but  the  best  results  would  probably  be  attained  by  limiting  the 
range  of  inquiry,  and  making  the  study  of  fewer  subjects  more  com¬ 
plete. 

“Among  the  subjects  to  which  attention  might  be  particularly  directed 
with  advantage,  I  venture  to  suggest  the  following : 

“1.  A  comparison  of  the  most  useful  American  products  with  similar 
European  products,  indicating  the  qualities  and  differences  of  each, 
whether  of  superiority  or  inferiority,  pointing  out  in  what  these  differ¬ 
ences  consist,  and  the  causes  of  them. 

u  2.  The  methods  and  processes  by  which  these  useful  products  and 
their  various  qualities  are  produced. 

“  The  design  of  the  Exposition  is  not  limited  to  the  display  of  prod¬ 
ucts,  but  a  prominent  feature  of  its  organization  is  the  attempt  to 
exhibit  or  disclose  as  far  as  possible  methods  and  processes. 

“  Researches  in  this  direction,  which  commence  in  the  Exposition, 
must,  in  many  instances,  extend  beyond  those  limits,  and  will  be  subject 
to  the  facilities  for  inquiry,  greater  or  less,  which  may  be  afforded  outside 
of  the  Exposition.  But  the  utility  of  such  researches  cannot,  I  think,  be 
doubted. 

“  Why  is  gas  for  lightingstreets,  houses,  &c.,so  much  dearer  in  America 
than  in  France? 

“  The  investigation  of  this  subject  would  show,  I  think,  that  there  is 
no  great  difference  in  the  average  cost  of  raw  material  in  both  countries  5 
that  apparatuses  are  as  good  in  one  as  in  the  other;  and  that  the  differ- 


IMPORTANCE  OF  A  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION. 


83 


ence  in  the  price  of  manual  labor  is  but  a  small  element  of  the  cost  of 
gas  in  either  case.  But  the  methods  adopted  in  France  for  utilizing- 
secondary  products,  resulting  from  first  processes,  appear  to  have  intro¬ 
duced  economies  which  make  gas  in  France  cheaper  than  in  America, 
and  that  these  economies  are  applicable  in  America  as  well  as  in 
France. 

u  There  will  be  in  the  Exposition  specimens  of  rails  composed  of  iron 
and  Bessemer  iron  or  steel.  An  inquiry  into  the  method  of  making 
these  rails  would  probably  disclose  several  useful  economies  in  the  pro¬ 
cesses  5  one  of  which  results  from  laying  an  upper  surface  of  steel  on  a 
body  of  inferior  cheap  iron,  which  combination  gives  at  once  solidity, 
weight,  strength,  and  hardness  of  surface,  producing  a  superior  rail  at 
a  cost  which  admits  of  its  introduction  and  use  as  an  economy. 

u  On  a  recent  visit  to  some  of  the  great  founderies  in  the  north  of 
France,  I  was  informed  that  they  were  occupied  with  considerable  orders 
for  England,  which  orders  they  owed  to  the  superior  quality  of  their 
iron,  the  excellence  of  mechanical  work,  and  moderate  cost ;  and  I  was 
surprised  that  such  results  could  be  attained  in  localities  the  most  un¬ 
promising.  Nearly  all  the  raw  material  was  brought  from  great  distances, 
at  great  expense.  Coal  from  England,  Belgium,  and  distant  mines  in 
France ;  iron  ores  from  Spain,  England,  Belgium,  and  several  French 
mines  in  different  localities.  I  was  informed,  and  investigation  would 
probably  prove,  that  under  these  great  disadvantages,  which  are  more 
than  the  equivalent  to  cheapness  of  manual  labor,  good  results  are  at¬ 
tributable,  first,  to  the  thoroughly  scientific  and  careful  analysis  and 
mixtures  of  ores,  by  which  superior  metal  is  produced;  second,  to  the 
excellent  mechanical  education  of  many  of  the  workmen  ;  and  third,  to 
the  economies  introduced  for  utilizing  secondary  products  of  first  pro¬ 
cesses,  which  secondary  products  are  usually  thrown  away. 

u  It  is  observable  that  the  genius  of  every  country  adapts  itself  to 
local  circumstances,  and  takes  its  greatest  development  in  the  direction 
of  its  greatest  wants. 

“  In  America,  where  raw  materials  are  abundant  and  cheap  and  man¬ 
ual  labor  is  dear,  mechanics  and  inventors  and  men  of  science  and  genius 
turn  their  attention  with  great  success  to  the  production  of  <  labor-sav¬ 
ing’  machines  and  methods,  but  exhibit  at  the  same  time  comparative 
indifference  or  wastefulness  in  regard  to  raw  materials. 

u  In  Europe,  where  manual  labor  is  cheap  and  materials  are  dear,  the 
attention  of  the  same  leading  class  of  minds  is  bent  in  the  direction  of 
economies  in  everything  which  relates  to  raw  material,  and  in  constant 
and  successful  efforts  to  utilize  all  secondary  products,  and  in  the  steady 
improvement  and  perfection  of  processes  by  scientific  means. 

“  Guided  by  those  conditions,  each  country  makes  its  own  progress  in 
its  own  way ;  consequently  there  is  something  to  give  as  well  as  to 
receive  on  all  sides,  and  a  universal  exhibition  should  promote  these 
exchanges. 


84 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  If  it  be  true,  in  a  general  sense,  that  tlie  agricultural,  manufactur¬ 
ing,  and  industrial  arts  in  America  are,  on  the  average,  as  fully  devel¬ 
oped  as  they  were  a  few  years  since  in  Europe,  it  is  equally  true  that 
Europe  has  advanced,  and  that  the  relative  positions  are  not  changed ; 
and  the  proof  and  consequence  of  this  is,  that  America  continues  to 
supply  the  raw  materials  and  receive  the  manufactured  products. 

“This  exchange  is  profitable  to  both  sides ;  but  as  long  as  the  shilled 
labor  of  one  man  exchanges  for  the  unskilled  labor  of  two  men,  the  best 
of  the  bargain  will  be  against  us. 

“  The  glory  or  vanity  which  each  nation  may  derive  or  display  in 
exhibiting  its  products  will  result  in  nothing  valuable  if  not  united  with 
the  serious  studies  of  competent  men.  And  however  large  the  field  of 
investigation  which  the  government  may  prescribe  to  the  commission,  I 
hope  their  particular  attention  may  be  directed  to  the  investigation  of 
methods  and  processes,  at  once  the  most  difficult  and  the  most  useful  of 
researches.” 


Professor  Joy  to  Mr.  Derby. 

“Columbia  College,  New  York,  December  6,  18G5. 

“Dear  Sir:  In  my  letter  of  the  4th  instant  I  spoke  of  the  import¬ 
ance  of  the  appointment  by  government  of  a  scientific  commission  to 
report  upon  the  Exposition  of  1867,  and  I  have  since  observed  that  Mr. 
Beckwith  makes  the  same  suggestion  in  his  communication  of  April  3, 
1865.  I  am  glad,  therefore,  that  the  idea  is  likely  to  take  root  and  come 
to  proper  development.  4  The  appointment  of  professional  and  scientific 
persons  to  study  and  aid  in  the  preparation  of  a  suitable  report  of  the 
Exposition,  to  be  subsequently  published/  ought  to  be  made  as  soon  as 
Congress  can  act  upon  the  matter. 

“  The  scientific  committee  will  need  much  time  for  the  consultation  of 
the  reports  of  previous  exhibitions.  They  will  desire  to  carry  on  exten¬ 
sive  private  correspondence,  first,  in  this  country,  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  the  most  recent  information  upon  matters  relating  to  the 
numerous  subjects  likely  to  be  presented  to  them  for  study;  second,  with 
foreign  scientific  and  practical  men  in  order  to  learn  the  best  sources  of 
information.  Without  great  previous  study  no  person  could  prepare  a 
clear  and  luminous  report  of  any  portion  of  the  Exposition  which  would 
be  of  practical  value.  A  report  must  not  be  a  catalogue ;  it  must  sketch 
in  a  few  words  the  history  of  the  department  under  consideration,  state 
its  growth,  point  out  its  success,  and  give  statistics  and  results  in  away 
to  enable  any  one,  after  reading  the  book,  to  invest  money  in  new  enter¬ 
prises  without  the  loss  attendant  upon  a  long  series  of  experiments. 

“  These  reports,  in  able  hands,  would  become  text-books  for  all 
branches  of  industry,  and  would  tend  to  develop  our  resources  as  much 
as  any  papers  Congress  has  as  yet  published. 

“  All  parts  of  the  country  are  equally  interested  in  the  publication 


IMPORTANCE  OF  A  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION.  85 

and  extensive  circulation  of  sucli  documents,  and  tke  wider  this  kind  of 
knowledge  is  disseminated  tke  better  for  tke  country. 

u  Let  there  be  ten  members  of  tke  scientific  committee,  corresponding 
to  tke  ten  groups  of  tke  Exposition,  witk  power  to  appoint  assistants 
wkere  tke  amount  of  material  is  too  great  to  be  fully  studied  by  one 
mind,  viz:  Committees  on — 

“1.  Works  of  art. 

“  2.  Materials  and  tkeir  applications  in  tke  liberal  arts. 

u  3.  Furniture  and  otker  objects  used  in  dwellings. 

“  4.  Garments,  tissues  for  clo tiling,  and  otker  articles  of  wearing 
apparel. 

u  5.  Products,  wrouglit  or  unwrougkt,  of  extractive  industries. 

UG.  Instruments  and  processes  of  common  arts. 

“  7.  Food,  fresk  and  preserved,  in  various  stages  of  preparation. 

“8.  Animals  and  specimens  of  agricultural  establisk  merits. 

“  9.  Live  products  and  specimens  of  korticultural  establiskments. 

u  10.  Objects  exhibited  witk  a  special  view  to  tke  amelioration  of  tke 
moral  and  pkysical  condition  of  tke  population. 

“  It  is  obvious  tkat  ten  men  could  not  do  justice  to  all  tliese  subjects, 
but  it  would  probably  be  better  to  refer  the  matter  to  tkat  number  of 
persons  to  collate  and  prepare  for  publication  tke  reports  of  tke  assist¬ 
ants  they  may  select,  the  number  and  compensation  of  suck  assistants 
to  be  fixed  by  tke  Commissioner. 

u  By  tke  early  appointment  of  tkis  committee  of  ten  tke  Commissioner 
would  kave  tke  advice  and  assistance  of  tke  ablest  men  in  tke  country. 
He  would  be  tkeir  presiding  officer,  if  tke  committee  were  to  be  called 
together,  and  would  kave  tke  right  to  call  upon  them  for  services  at  any 
time. 

“I  would  suggest  tkat  tke  committee  receive  no  compensation  for  their 
services  further  than  a  reimbursement  of  expenses  actually  incurred. 
For  tke  purpose  of  control,  let  there  be  an  amount  fixed,  beyond  which 
expenses  will  not  be  paid. 

u  Tke  committee  not  being  business  men,  could  not  take  charge  of  tke 
collection  and  shipment  of  goods,  but  they  could  greatly  assist  the  agents 
of  each  State  in  bringing  out  the  most  characteristic  and  representative 
articles.  Tke  literary  work  of  tke  commission  could  be  divided  among 
them,  and  thus  matters  would  be  greatly  facilitated. 

u  Tke  members  of  tke  commission  ought  to  be  familiar  with  at  least 
tke  French  language.  A  knowledge  of  German  would  greatly  aid  in  tke 
preparation  of  a  report,  as  the  arts  and  manufactures  of  Germany  as 
represented  in  tke  Exposition  will,  no  doubt,  equal  in  importance  those 
of  any  otker  country.  Immediately  after  Congress  shall  kave  made  tke 
necessary  appropriations,  tke  appointment  of  tke  scientific  committee 
ought  to  be  made  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  the  committee  be 
accredited  to  the  Imperial  Commission  in  Paris,  as  tke  official  scientific 
representatives  of  tke  government  to  the  Exposition. 


86 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  This  committee  would  in  no  way  interfere  with  the  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  various  State  executives,  as  their  duties  are  of  a  differ¬ 
ent  character. 

“  I  would  confide  to  the  committee  a  mission  of  a  somewhat  private 
character,  viz:  the  duty  of  disseminating  knowledge  of  our  country  for 
the  purpose  of  encouraging  emigration. 

“  They  could  accomplish  an  important  work  by  making  known  the  ex¬ 
tent  of  unappropriated  lands  in  this  country,  by  editing  short  statements 
to  be  published  in  French,  on  sheets,  and  placed  conveniently  for  every 
one  to  take  a  copy,  and  by  writing  articles  for  the  newspapers. 

“  The  magnitude  of  the  work  expands  before  me  as  one  idea  follows 
another,  but  I  believe  I  have  hit  upon  the  principal  points,  and  I  shall  be 
gratified  if  the  views  here  expressed  meet  with  your  approbation.77 

Mr.  BecJavith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  December  31,  1865. 

“  Sir  :  I  had  the  honor  to  address  you  on  the  14th  instant,  and  took 
the  liberty  of  making  some  suggestions  on  the  subject  of  a  scientific 
commission  in  connection  with  the  Exposition  of  1867. 

“  I  omitted  on  that  occasion  to  allude  to  a  consideration  which  I  think 
of  importance,  viz :  that  the  members  of  the  scientific  commission  be 
paid  for  their  services. 

There  may  be  individuals  who  are  competent  and  willing  to  serve 
without  remuneration,  but  many  of  those  who  are  best  qualified  by  their 
attainments  and  studious  habits  for  useful  researches  are  actively 
employed. 

“  The  interruption  of  their  engagements  for  a  twelvemonth  would  be 
a  matter  of  moment  to  them,  and  they  are  not  in  general  men  of  fortune 
who  could  afford  so  large  a  contribution  of  time  and  labor  gratuitously. 

“If  therefore  Congress  omits  to  provide  for  their  payment,  the  gov¬ 
ernment  will  be  restricted  in  its  selection  to  those  alone  who  may  volun¬ 
tarily  offer  their  services. 

“  Under  these  circumstances  I  should  much  fear  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  form  a  commission  prepared  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
continuous  labor  and  serious  studies  which  are  indispensable  to  render 
their  researches  thorough  and  entitle  them  to  appear  as  a  national  work# 

“The  labors  of  a  competent  commission  could  not  fail  to  be  of  greaT: 
value  to  the  country,  but  an  exhibition  of  products  without  a  commis¬ 
sion,  or  an  insufficient  one,  would  be  a  vain,  if  not  a  useless  display, 
because  *it  would  fail  or  fall  short  in  its  educational  effects,  which  are  the 
proper  object  of  an  exhibition.  > 

“Large  sums  are  expended  by  civilized  nations  on  voyages  of  geo¬ 
graphical  exploration  and  discovery  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  with 
beneficial  results.  But  scientific  and  industrial  explorations  among  each 
other  would  yield  still  better  results. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  A  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION. 


87 


“A  commission  of  tliis  kind  from  Europe  to  America  at  the  present 
day  could  not  fail  to  bring  back  a  great  deal  of  useful  knowledge  which 
does  not  now  exist  in  Europe,  and  will  be  a  long  time  in  reaching  here, 
but  no  such  movement  is  contemplated. 

“  The  self-complacency  of  nations  is  in  proportion  to  their  unacquaint¬ 
ance  with  each  other,  and  the  aversions  which  spring  from  this  are  a 
great  obstacle  to  ameliorations. 

“An  evidence  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  obstinate  perpetuity  of  the 
cumbrous  systems  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins,  the  unification  of 
which  would  promote  the  diffusion  of  statistical  and  economical  knowl¬ 
edge,  like  a  common  language,  simplify  and  facilitate  exchanges  and 
commerce,  diminish  their  cost,  and  produce  savings  of  great  aggregate 
importance. 

“But  while  the  march  of  improvements  in  individual  nations  is  con¬ 
stant  and  rapid,  the  transmission  of  those  improvements  from  nation  to 
nation  is  slow. 

“  New  knowledge  of  many  kinds  is  a  long  time  in  getting  into  books, 
after  which  it  may  become  an  article  of  merchandise,  but  much  always 
remains,  less  attractive  as  an  object  of  commercial  speculation,  but  more 
useful,  and  is  left  unwritten  to  make  its  way  by  indirect  channels,  cir¬ 
culating  with  persons  and  with  the  general  movement  of  commercial 
intercourse. 

“  The  transmission  might  however  be  immediate  and  direct ;  nothing 
is  more  practicable,  and  if  international  exhibitions  should  give  rise  to 
international  scientific  explorations  they  will  have  accomplished  their 
highest  function. 

“  Scientific  commissions  may  then  supersede  exhibitions,  and  divert 
the  cost  of  them  to  less  cumbrous  and  more  effective  methods,  for  these 
expensive  collections  of  products,  now  so  much  in  vogue  and  in  fact  so 
useful,  are  not  indispensable  to  the  investigations  in  question,  but  only 
necessary  as  leading  to  these  researches  which  previously  had  no 
organized  and  established  existence,  and  are  still  far  from  being  per¬ 
fected. 

“  It  is  thus  evident,  I  think,  that  the  real  purpose  and  object  of  exhi¬ 
bitions  cannot  be  attained  without  the  aid  of  competent  scientific  com¬ 
missioners,  and  I  hope  the  government  and  Congress  will  incline  to  this 
view  of  the  subject.” 

THE  ORGANIZATION  AND  DUTIES  OF  A  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  January  31,  186G. 

“  Sir  :  The  commissions  constituted  by  the  principal  nations  of  Europe,, 
in  connection  with  the  Exposition,  comprise  fifty  or  sixty  members  each. 
They  are  divided  into  sub-committees,  to  which  are  attributed  separate 
duties,  such  as  the  preliminary  work  of  forming  the  exhibition,  its  sub- 


88 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


sequent  installation  and  superintendence,  serving  on  international  juries, 
studying  the  Exposition  in  a  scientific  sense,  and  reporting  upon  it,  &c. 

u  The  labors  of  these  large  commissions  will  be  facilitated  by  their 
proximity  to  the  work;  that,  and  inexpensive  journeys,  with  frequent 
and  brief  visits  to  the  Exposition,  will  enable  them  to  make  observa¬ 
tions  and  memoranda  which  can  be  elaborated  and  perfected  at  home  in 
their  respective  residences,  surrounded  by  the  conveniences  of  libraries, 
apparatus,  and  the  aids  pertaining  to  their  habitual  occupations.  The 
large  personal  and  office  expenses  necessary  to  the  prolonged  residence 
in  Paris  of  a  commission  so  numerous  will  be  thus  diminished.  But 
this  method  is  not  fully  applicable  to  the  United  States,  and  I  have  not 
thought  it  expedient  on  this  occasion  to  ask  for  so  large  an  appropria¬ 
tion  as  a  continued  residence  of  a  commission  so  numerous  would 
require.  Yery  good  results  may  be  obtained  at  less  cost. 

“  The  resolutions  presented  to  Congress  on  the  21st  of  December  pro¬ 
posed  appropriations  for  a  scientific  commission  of  ten  members,  corre¬ 
sponding  to  the  ten  groups  of  products.  But  this  number,  unassisted, 
will  not  be  sufficient.  It  will  devolve  on  them  not  only  to  make  the 
requisite  studies  and  reports,  but  to  serve  on  international  juries.  The 
latter  service,  indeed,  though  requiring  much  time,  will  afford  them  the 
best  opportunities  for  information  resulting  from  the  investigations, 
experiments,  and  discussions  of  the  juries.  But  they  will  not  be  equal  to 
the  work  without  assistants,  and  they  can  be  obtained  at  moderate  cost. 

u  The  services  of  scientific  and  professional  assistants,  draughtsmen, 
&c.,  can  be  engaged,  whose  special  studies,  colloquial  knowledge  of 
continental  languages,  familiarity  with  the  continental  nomenclature 
of  the  sciences  and  industrial  arts,  together  with  their  personal  acquaint¬ 
ances,  access  to  sources  of  information,  and  works  of  authority  and 
local  knowledge  in  general,  will  render  their  services  as  assistants 
highly  efficient.  The  Scientific  Commission,  thus  supplemented,  will  be 
equal  to  the  work  required  of  it,  and  more  useful  labor  can  be  accom¬ 
plished  at  less  cost  in  this  way  than  in  any  other. 

u  I  take  the  liberty,  therefore,  to  recommend  this  subject  to  the  con¬ 
sideration  of  the  government,  and  to  suggest  that  discretion  be  given 
to  the  Scientific  Commission  within  such  limits  of  expenditure  as  the 
government  may  determine.  First,  to  accept  of  such  professional  assist¬ 
ants  as  may  voluntarily  offer  without  pay,  for  a  long  or  short  period  of 
time  5  and  secondly,  to  employ  professional  assistants,  and  pay  them  for 
their  services. 

u  With  regard  to  the  management  of  the  exhibition,  it  will  be  doubtless 
ifiaced,  in  a  general  sense,  in  charge  of  the  General  Commission,  which 
will  comprise  the  Special  Agent,  the  Commissioner  General,  and  the 
Scientific  Commission ;  and  the  work  could  be  conveniently  divided 
among  them  as  follows  : 

“  The  minister  of  the  United  States,  being  the  Special  Agent,  should 
preside  at  the  opening  ceremonies  of  the  Exposition,  and  continue  to  be 


IMPORTANCE  OF  A  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION.  89 

tlie  channel  of  communication  between  the  United  States  Commission 
and  the  French  government. 

“  The  Scientific  Commission  should  undertake  the  scientific  researches 
and  reports;  also  the  jury  duties  and  the  various  experiments,  essays, 
and  trials  of  machinery,  &c.,  which  may  be  invited,  or  which  they  may 
institute,  and,  in  addition,  should  be  charged  with  advisory  duties, 
which  will  be  hereinafter  mentioned. 

“  The  Commissioner  General  should  be  charged  with  the  general 
superintendence  and  care  of  the  exhibition,  and  with  the  disbursement 
and  accounts,  and  he  will  be  the  channel  of  communication  between  the 
United  States  Commission  and  the  Imperial  Commission,  as  provided 
by  the  imperial  regulations.  * 

“The  numerous  national  exhibitions  will  all  be  conducted  in  conformity, 
first,  with  the  imperial  regulations ;  and,  secondly,  in  conformity  with  their 
own  regulations,  respectively,  which  will  be  supplementary  to  the  imperial 
regulations.  The  imperial  regulations  (for  example)  make  a  general 
provision  for  a  police  applicable  to  persons  and  property,  and  a  guard 
for  the  protection  of  property ;  but  much  detail  is  left  to  the  commis¬ 
sioners  general,  respectively,  to  provide  for  the  daily  sweeping,  cleaning, 
aud  proper  condition  of  their  respective  sections;  in  providing  experts, 
linguists,  &c.,  in  case  of  need,  to  attend  in  the  compartments  for  the 
safety  of  property,  and  to  give  such  explanations  and  information 
respecting  products  as  may  be  necessary  or  desirable.  All  details  of 
this  kind — and  they  are  numerous — are  left  to  the  respective  commis¬ 
sioners  general,  and  both  the  work  and  employes  required  are  under 
their  orders,  subject  to  the  imperial  regulations. 

“  Preparations  should  be  made  in  advance  by  the  Commissioner  Gen¬ 
eral  for  the  reception  and  bonding  of  the  products  on  their  arrival,  for 
their  inland  transport  and  installation  in  the  Exposition,  where  they 
will  remain  in  his  charge  during  the  Exposition,  and  finally  at  its  close 
be  returned  by  him  to  the  United  States,  or  delivered  to  owners  who 
may  apply  for  them  here,  they  first  paying  the  duties  and  charges,  and 
releasing  them  from  bond,  at  which  point  the  control  and  responsibility 
of  the  United  States  government  will  cease. 

“  The  suggestions  above  made  in  regard  to  employes  to  take  care  of, 
or  to  give  explanations  to  visitors  in  regard  to,  any  products  in  particular 
which  may  require  it,  are  not  intended  to  prevent  exhibitors ;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  exhibitors  should  be  invited  to  be  present  at  all  times  them¬ 
selves,  or  to  provide  at  their  own  expense  proper  persons  to  take  care 
of,  expose,  and  explain  their  own  products,  as  their  interest  may  require 
such  service,  being  subject  to  the  general  regulations. 

“  The  expenses  of  scientific  assistants  and  other  details,  herein  alluded 
to,  will  not,  in  my  judgment,  involve  further  appropriations  of  money 
than  I  have  heretofore  suggested,  should  the  larger  sums  named  be  pro¬ 
vided. 

“  The  foregoing  suggestions  are  made  in  view  of  the  imperial  regula- 


90 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tions,  and  are  so  modified  as  to  be  in  conformity  with  them,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  provide  for  the  actual  necessities  of  the  Exposition,  and  for 
the  execution  of  the  work  proposed  to  be  done.” 

SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION  UPON  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  June  29,  1866. 

u  Sir  :  I  had  the  honor  to  address  you  on  the  14th  December  last  in 
relation  to  the  Scientific  Commission  formed  by  the  French  government 
and  charged  with  various  labors.  The  commission  was  directed  in 
particular  to  promote  international  co-operation  in  the  propagation  of 
the  use  of  new  and  important  discoveries,  and  for  the  adoption  of  a 
uniform  system  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins. 

“I beg  now  to  advise  you  of  the  steps  which  have  since  been  taken. 
At  the  instance  of  the  Imperial  Commission  meetings  have  been  held, 
composed  of  members  of  the  Scientific  Commission,  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission,  and  the  foreign  commissioners,  for  the  purpose  of  consultation 
regarding  proper  measures  to  be  adopted  in  connection  with  the  Exposi¬ 
tion  of  1867,  for  drawing  public  attention  to  the  subject  of  uniformity  in 
weights,  measures,  and  coins. 

u  The  following  suggestions  were  made  by  the  English  scientific  as¬ 
sociation  and  approved  by  the  meetings  : 

u  1st.  To  form  a  collection  of  the  weights,  measures,  and  coins  of  all 
nations,  to  be  exhibited  in  the  Palace  of  the  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867. 

u  2d.  To  organize  an  international  committee  charged  especially  with 
the  formation  and  exhibition  of  this  collection  of  weights,  measures,  and 
coins,  and  to  devise  the  most  efficacious  methods  of  promoting  uni¬ 
formity. 

a  3d.  In  accordance  with  these  views  the  Imperial  Commission  appro¬ 
priated  the  space  requisite  for  the  exhibition  of  weights  and  coins  in  the 
Exposition  palace,  and  formed  a  special  committee  connected  with  their 
Scientific  Commission,  which  special  committee  is  the  commencement  of 
the  International  committee  alluded  to  to  be  charged  with  the  subject. 

u  I  annex  hereto  three  documents,  numbered  1,  2,  and  3. 

u  No.  1  contains  a  brief  report  of  the  preliminary  meetings  before 
mentioned. 

u  No.  2  contains  the  approval  of  the  proceedings  of  the  minister  of 
state,  and  a  decree  constituting  a  special  committee,  giving  the  names 
and  professions  of  the  persons  appointed,  which  committee  forms  the 
nucleus  of  the  International  Committee  on  Weights,  Coins,  &c.,  to  be 
constitute  1. 

61  No.  3  is  a  letter  from  this  special  committee  asking  my  adhesion  to 
the  project  in  principle,  and  desiring  me  to  take  the  further  necessary 
proceedings. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


91 


“  It  will  be  observed  that  article  five  of  the  decree  provides  that  addi¬ 
tional  members  may  be  added  to  the  International  Committee  by  the 
foreign  commissioners  of  those  nations  which  take  part  in  the  exhibition 
of  weights,  measures,  and  coins. 

u  At  the  particular  request  of  the  Imperial  Commission  I  now  present 
the  subject  for  the  consideration  of  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
and  respectfully  solicit  their  co-operation  in  the  formation  of  the  col¬ 
lection  of  national  weights,  measures,  and  coins  to  be  exhibited,  and  in 
appointing  or  authorizing  the  appointment  of  commissioners  to  be  added 
to  the  International  Committee  above  named,  and  charged  with  the  par¬ 
ticular  business  herein  described. 

“  I  have  read  with  great  pleasure  the  recent  proceedings  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  relating  to  the  introduction  of  the  metrical  decimal 
system  into  the  United  States,  and  I  observe  that  those  proceedings 
provide  for  a  commission  to  be  charged  with  the  subject  of  a  common 
unit  of  coin. 

“  If  the  general  purposes  and  method  of  proceeding  herein  reported 
receive  the  approval  of  the  govern  ment,  I  would  venture  to  suggest  that 
the  commissioner  to  be  appointed  under  the  congressional  authority 
alluded  to  be  directed  to  prepare  the  proposed  exhibition  of  weights, 
measures,  and  coins,  and  that  he  be  nominated  to  the  aforesaid  Interna¬ 
tional  Committee.  , 

“  This  arrangement  will  place  the  commissioner  at  once  in  direct 
relation  with  professional  and  learned  persons  occupied  with  coinage 
and  analogous  subjects,  and  best  qualified  to  co-operate  with  him  in  the 
accomplishment  of  his  particular  object. 

“The  committee  is  now  organized  according  to  the  usual  forms  on  this 
side,  to  give  additional  weight  to  its  proceedings,  and  it  is  probable  that 
its  numbers  and  nationalities  will  be  increased  to  an  extent  that  will 
comprise  much  ability  and  appropriate  knowledge,  and  produce  an 
influence  favorable  to  the  objects  of  its  labor.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  July  17,  1866. 

“  Sir  :  I  had  the  honor  to  address  you  on  the  29th  June,  with  docu¬ 
ments  relating  to  weights,  measures,  and  coins. 

“  I  beg  now  to  wait  on  you  with  two  legislative  documents  which  are 
of  interest. 

“  Document  No.  216  contains  the  project  of  a  law  emanating  from  the 
council  of  state,  and  submitted  for  the  consideration  of  the  Corps  Legis- 
latif,  which  is  designed  to  place  the  coinage  of  the  empire  in  harmony 
with  the  recent  monetary  convention  between  Fiance,  Belgium,  Italy, 
and  Switzerland,  and  gives  an  exposition  of  the  motives  of  the  conven¬ 
tion  and  the  law. 

“  Document  No.  282  contains  the  report  of  the  committee  of  the  Corps 
Legislatif  on  the  proposed  law,  suggests  amendment,  and  presents  the 


£2 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


law  as  finally  adopted,  on  the  13tli  June,  1866,  together  with  the  mone¬ 
tary  convention. 

u  It  results  from  these  proceedings  that  a  uniform  system  of  coinage 
is  established  in  the  four  countries  named — uniform  as  regards  the  unit, 
the  metallic  standards,  and  the  value  of  the  pieces  to  be  coined.  Each 
country  retains  the  double  standard  of  gold  and  silver,  with  the  relative 
value  of  1  to  15£. 

“  The  composition  of  gold  coin  remains  in  the  proportion  of  (t9q)  nine 
parts  of  fine  gold  to  one  of  alloy,  and  the  coinage  of  gold  is  restricted 
to  pieces  of  the  valfie  of  one  hundred  francs,  fifty  francs,  twenty  francs, 
ten  francs,  and  five  francs. 

“The  composition  of  the  silver  five-franc  pieces  remains  in  the  propor¬ 
tion  of  (t9q)  nine  parts  fine  silver  to  one  of  alloy;  but  the  composition  of 
silver  coin  of  smaller  values  is  reduced  from  t9q  to  (835  parts  fine 
silver  to  165  parts  of  alloy,)  a  reduction  in  value  of  about  seven  per  cent* 
u  The  coinage  of  this  class  is  restricted  to  pieces  of  the  value  of  two 
francs,  one  franc,  fifty  centimes,  and  twenty  centimes,  and  limited  in 
amount  to  six  francs  per  head  of  population,  which  should  give  about 
32,000,000  francs  for  Belgium,  239,000,000  francs  for  France,  111,000,000 
francs  for  Italy,  and  17,000,000  francs  for  Switzerland. 

“  This  inferior  money  is  a  legal  tender  between  individuals  to  the 
amount  of  fifty  francs  in  a  single  payment,  and  receivable  for  dues  to 
the  government  without  limit.  It  follows  from  these  measures  that  the 
unit  of  the  monetary  system  (one  franc  of  the  standard  of  t9q)  will  cease 
to  be  coined;  but  it  retains  a  nominal  existence;  it  remains  money  of 
account  and  is  still  the  unit  of  the  monetary  system,  and  the  measure  of 
all  values,  though  it  has  no  material  existence  except  in  its  multiples,  of 
which  the  quintuple  or  five-franc  piece  is  the  smallest  coin. 

u  The  reduction  in  the  value  of  small  silver  coin  brings  the  standard 
of  this  class  in  harmony,  I  believe,  with  the  small  silver  coin  of  the 
United  States,  under  the  law  of  1850.  If  this  be  so,  the  metallic  stand¬ 
ards  both  of  the  gold  and  silver  coin  of  the  United  States  are  now  in 
harmony  with  those  of  the  four  countries  named,  and  the  standards 
being  in  harmony  and  the  system  all  decimalized,  it  only  remains  to  har¬ 
monize  the  coin  in  order  to  produce  reciprocal  circulation.  For  this  pur¬ 
pose  a  common  unit  does  not  appear  to  me  to  be  necessary.  However 
numerous  the  systems,  if  the  standards  are  equal  and  the  system  deci¬ 
malized,  it  is  only  necessary  that  the  unit  of  each  be  capable  of  expres¬ 
sion  in  the  multiples  or  sub-multiples  of  the  others  to  produce  the  uni¬ 
formity  of  coinage  requisite  for  reciprocal  circulation. 

u  Coining  a  unit  of  either  system  will  then  be,  of  necessity,  coining  at 
the  same  time  a  unit  multiple — a  sub-multiple  of  all  the  systems — and 
these  conditions  are  much  easier  of  attainment  than  a  common  unit. 
Nor  is  it  of  moment  what  names  may  be  given  to  coin  in  different  coun¬ 
tries,  nor  how  numerous  the  varieties,  or  various  their  values ;  they  will 
all  be  aliquot  decimal  parts  of  a  common  system,  the  coin  of  each  refer- 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS.  93 

able  to  the  unit  of  its  own  system,  and  referable  with  equal  facility  to 
the  multiples  or  sub-multiples  of  the  units  of  the  other  systems. 

“To  attain  this  result,  no  substitution  of  the  unit  of  one  country  for 
that  of  another  country  is  needed,  because  no  common  unit  is  required. 
That  great  difficulty  may  be  obviated  by  very  slight  modifications  of 
existing  units,  and  modification  is  the  easy  way  of  all  reforms. 

“Our  gold  dollar,  for  example,  is  equal  to  517  centimes;  a  reduction 
of  seventeen  centimes  (3J  cents)  would  leave  it  au  exact  multiple  of  the 
French  unit,  or  franc,  and  the  equivalent  of  five  francs.  A  reduction  of 
twelve  centimes  (2J  cents)  in  the  value  of  the  British  sovereign  would 
leave  it  a  multiple  of  the  franc,  and  the  equivalent  of  twenty-five  francs, 
and  consequently  a  multiple  of  the  dollar,  and  equivalent  to  five  dollars, 
nearly. 

“In  like  manner,  a  small  change  in  the  standard  of  British  gold — from 
tVo6o  to°A‘ — would  complete  the  uniformity  of  the  standard  of  gold 
coin;  for  nearly  the  whole  civilized  world,  except  England,  has  adopted 
the  standard  of  t9q. 

“Modifications  of  this  kind  are  not  difficult;  they  are  common.  They 
produce  no  inconvenience  to  the  public ;  they  do  not  disturb  business, 
nor  trench  upon  prejudices;  they  come  in  almost  imperceptibly,  and  in 
this  case  would  leave  the  unit  of  each  national  system,  the  great  tra¬ 
ditional  measure  of  value,  in  effect  undisturbed,  with  all  their  mottoes, 
emblems,  and  effigies,  and  with  all  the  impregnable  habits  of  mind,  and 
even  the  superstitions,  which  cluster  around  them. 

“The  tenacity  with  which  nations  and  peoples  hold  to  their  traditional 
measures  of  value  is  remarkable,  and,  whether  it  springs  from  a  principle 
or  a  prejudice,  it  is  a  fact  so  firmly  fixed  that  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate; 
nor  is  it  worth  the  labor,  if  a  common  language  of  values  can  be  other¬ 
wise  attained.” 

Mr.  Beclcwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris,  September  6,  18CG. 

“Sir:  I  have  not  been  informed  whether  the  government  would  con¬ 
sent  to  participate  in  the  proceedings  proposed  in  my  letter  of  the  29th 
June,  relative  to  weights,  measures,  and  coins. 

“  I  beg  now  to  place  before  you  a  letter  on  the  subject  from  M.  Mathieu, 
president  of  the  committee,  together  with  a  plan  of  the  proposed  struc¬ 
ture  for  the  international  exposition  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins, 
with  explanations  relating  to  the  proposed  collection. 

“I  took  leave  to  suggest  in  my  previous  letter  that  the  commissioner 
charged  with  the  subject  of  a  common  unit  of  coin  might  advantageously 
be  associated  with  this  committee. 

“I  have  nort  been  able  to  learn  whether  such  a  commissioner  was 
appointed  by  Congress;  but  I  think  it  would  be  useful  to  take  part  in 
the  proposed  exhibition  and  in  the  proceedings  of  the  international  com¬ 
mittee. 


94 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  The  expense  on  this  side,  as  set  forth  in  the  accompanying  papers, 
is  small,  (about  $300,)  and  I  cannot  doubt  that  some  member  of  the 
commission  for  the  Exposition  already  named  would  like  to  be  charged 
with  the  exhibition  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins,  and  be'  added  to 
the  international  committee  alluded  to,  if  the  government  thinks  proper 
to  make  this  appointment. 

“  I  trust  your  excellency  will  think  favorably  of  this  proposal,  and 
enable  me  to  inform  M.  Mathieu  of  the  co-operation  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States  in  the  useful  aims  of  this  commission.” 

M.  Mathieu  to  Mr.  Beckwith. 1 

“Paris,  September  4, 1866. 

“Sir:  In  reference  to  our  circular  of  the  25th  June,  relative  to  the 
international  exhibition  of  measures,  weights,  and  coins,  I  have  the 
honor  to  send  you,  in  the  name  of  the  committee,  a  project  to  fix  the 
participation  requested  of  each  country,  and  respectfully  ask  you  to  sub¬ 
mit  it  to  the  United  States  Commission,  with  the  following  explanations: 

“This  project  was  examined  on  the  25th  instant  at  a  conference  in 
which  the  commissioners  and  delegates  present  in  Paris  took  part,  and 
the  discussion  showed  the  necessity  of  the  concurrence  of  twenty  states 
or  groups  of  states,  and  the  great  probability  that  this  participation 
would  be  obtained  by  reason  of  the  importance  of  bringing  together  all 
the  bases  of  exchange. 

“The  outside  estimate  is  30,000  francs,  and  the  expense  of  installment 
is  1,500  francs  for  each  state. 

“The  Imperial  Commission  gives  this  assessment  for  France,  and,  as 
the  spaces  for  the  different  states  are  to  be  of  the  same  dimensions,  the 
committee  proposes  to  guarantee  the  same  quota  of  1,500  francs  to  the 
United  States  Commission. 

“  The  site  for  the  special  exhibition  of  measures,  weights,  and  coins 
is  isolated,  (in  the  center  of  the  grand  entry,)  and  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  needs  all  information  as  soon  as  possible,  to  settle  it  definitely ; 
and  the  construction  of  the  tower  of  iron  and  glass  must  be  executed 
with  all  the  carefulness  required  by  its  destination  and  situation,  so  as 
to  be  one  of  the  first  objects  that  strikes  the  view  of  visitors. 

“  It  is,  therefore,  highly  necessary  to  arrive  at  a  definite  conclusion 
immediately,  and  we  request  the  United  States  Commission  to  inform 
us  of  its  decision  as  soon  as  possible. 

“  The  inclosed  photograph  shows  the  nature  of  the  building  planned 
by  the  committee.  The  detailed  programme  of  the  series  of  measures, 
weights,  and  coins  to  be  sent,  will,  of  course,  be  considered  hereafter  by 
the  full  committee.  In  order  to  arrange  this  programme,  as  well  as  to 
fix  the  details  of  installment,  it  is  desirable  for  the  United  States  to 
appoint  a  person  to  represent  them  in  the  committee,  and  we  request 


1  Translation. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


95 

« 

that  he  he  designated,  and  his  name  sent  to  us  when  the  terms  of  our 
proposition  are  accepted. 

“  In  regard  to  the  series  of  weights  and  measures,  in  case  the  United 
States  Commission  will  immediately  collect  a  set,  we  must  recommend 
the  most  common  form,  made,  however,  with  the  greatest  possible  care, 
so  that  the  result  of  the  comparison  of  the  series  in  1867,  without  pre¬ 
tending  to  the  degree  of  exactness  of  scientific  comparisons  on  legal 
standards,  may  offer  that  precision  required  in  the  practice  of  commer¬ 
cial  exchanges. 

“As  to  coins,  it  is  only  necessary  to  exhibit  a  double  series  of  the  cur¬ 
rent  coin  of  the  latest  issue. 

“International  exhibition  of  measures,  weights,  and  coins. — 
The  exhibition  is  to  take  place  in  a  glazed  iron  tower,  accessible  from 
the  inside  and  outside.  It  is  divided  vertically  into  twenty  equal  sec¬ 
tions,  allotted  to  the  different  states  or  groups  of  states.  The  frieze 
and  cornice  have  each  section  ornamented  with  the  arms,  emblems,  and 
colors  of  the  different  countries.  A  double  stairway  will  lead  from  the 
interior  to  the  balconies  of  the  first  and  second  story.  The  ground-floor 
is  for  measures,  weights,  and  coins.  Measures  of  length  are  placed  ver¬ 
tically  in  a  circular  rack  near  the  partition.  The  weights  are  placed 
on  pyramid  stands.  The  coins,  in  a  double  series,  for  the  face  and 
reverse,  are  placed  in  frames  against  the  wall,  on  a  level  with  the 
eyes;  and  the  shelf  marked  4  displays  the  same  coins  of  different 
countries  on  the  same  level.  Measures  of  capacity  occupy  the  base¬ 
ment.  Road  and  field  measures  can  be  represented  on  the  floor  of  the 
outside  gallery  in  a  uniform  reduced  scale. 

“  The  first  story  is  appropriated  to  paper  money  and  documents. 
Paper  money,  postage  stamps,  and  trade  marks  are  placed  on  the  walls. 
The  inside  of  the  glazed  partitions  has  shelves  or  frames  for  pictures, 
manuals,  and  documents  of  all  kinds  relating  to  systems  of  measures, 
weights,  and  coins,  and  to  methods  of  conversion. 

“  The  second  story  is  for  measures  of  angles  and  time.  Angular  divi¬ 
sions  of  the  circle  and  sphere  are  represented  upon  a  globe,  and  the  cir¬ 
cles  supporting  it ;  and  if  any  exhibitor  will  take  the  expense  of  making 
a  clock,  the  globe  turning  on  its  axis  may  serve  for  it,  with  two  hands 
and  a  dial  at  the  poles  indicating  the  hours  from  noon  to  sunrise.  The 
glazed  cage  surmounted  by  the  globe  contains  the  calendars  and 
almanacs.  The  portions  of  .the  world  where  the  different  systems  of 
measures,  weights,  and  coins  are  used  are  shown  by  different  colors 
upon  the  globe.77 

Mr.  Seward  to  Mr.  Beckwith. 

“  Department  of  State,  October  4,  1866. 

“  Sir  :  I  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  communication  of  the 
6th  ultimo,  relative  to  the  proposed  participation  by  the  United  States 


96 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


iii  the  proceedings  described  in  your  letter  to  me  of  the  29th  of  June 
last,  for  the  promotion  of  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  system  of  weights, 
measures,  and  coins. 

“  I  have  to  inform  you  in  reply,  that  Samuel  B.  Buggies,  esq.,  one  of 
the  ten  scientific  commissioners,  will  be  charged  with  the  subject  of  a 
common  unit  of  coin,  and  will  be  authorized  to  co-operate  with  the  com¬ 
mittee,  of  which  M.  Mathieu  is  president,  in  the  manner  which  you  sug¬ 
gest. 

“  Mr.  Buggies  represented  the  United  States  at  the  late  statistical 
congress  at  Berlin,  and  has  already  been  in  correspondence  with  the 
international  committe,  organized  on  that  occasion,  upon  this  important 
subject,  to  which  he  has  devoted  much  study.  A  copy  of  your  com¬ 
munication  now  under  reply  will  be  forwarded  to  him,  and  he  will  be 
requested  to  enter  into  correspondence  with  you.  Any  letter  addressed 
to  him,  which  may  be  sent  to  the  care  of  Mr.  Derby,  the  general  agent 
at  New  York,  will  reach  his  hands.” 

Mr.  Seward  to  Mr.  Buggies. 

“  Department  of  State,  October  9,  1866. 

“  Sir  :  You  are  hereby  officially  designated  to  take  charge  of  that 
branch  of  the  representation  of  the  United  States  which  relates  to  the 
question  of  the  adoption  of  a  uniform  system  of  weights,  measures,  and 
coins,  and  you  are  authorized  to  co-operate  with  the  committee,  of  which 
M.  Mathieu  is  chairman,  in  the  manner  suggested  in  Mr.  Beckwith’s  dis¬ 
patch  of  the  6th  ultimo.  You  will  enter  at  once  into  correspondence 
with  Mr.  Beckwith  on  the  subject.” 

Mr.  Buggies  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“New  York,  December  20, 1866. 

“  Sir  :  The  Department  of  State  having  designated  the  undersigned, 
by  written  instructions’ of  the  9th  of  October  last,  ‘to  take  charge  of  that 
branch  of  the  representation  at  the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris,  in 
1867,  which  relates  to  the  question  of  a  uniform  system  of  weights, 
measures,  and  coins,’  and  ‘to  co-operate  with  the  special  committee  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  government  of  France,  of  which  M.  Mathieu  (member  of 
the  Bureau  of  Longitudes)  is  chairman,’  the  undersigned,  on  the  13th  of 
October  last,  in  entering  on  the  discharge*  of  the  special  duty  thus  com¬ 
mitted  to  him,  asked  leave,  in  his  communication  of  that  date  to  the 
Department  of  State,  to  ‘invoke  the  co-operation  of  any  or  all  of  the 
eminent  individuals  with  whom  he  is  associated  in  the  commission  au¬ 
thorized  by  Congress.’  The  Department  having  approved  this  request, 
the  undersigned  has  invited  the  counsel  and  co-operation  of  Mr.  James 
H.  Alexander,  of  Maryland,  he  being  one  of  the  twenty  commissioners 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  This  selection  was 
made  in  view  of  the  pre-eminent  qualifications  of  Mr.  Alexander,  in  his 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


97 


well-known  scientific  attainments,  and  liis  long  and  careful  study  of  the 
particular  subject  of  uniform  weights,  measures,  and  coins,  so  fully 
manifested  in  the  published  works  which  he  has  already  given  to  the 
world. 

“It  is  gratifying  to  add  that  the  association  of  Mr.  Alexander  in  this 
important  duty  has  met  the  special  approbation  of  the  honorable  Mr. 
McCulloch,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  who  has  given  permission  to  carry 
to  Paris,  for  exhibition,  the  standards  of  national  weights  and  measures 
now  in  charge  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey,  with  such  of 
the  balances  and  other  scientific  apparatus  as  may  be  needed  for  their 
full  illustration.  A  similar  application  will  be  made  to  the  Director  of 
the  Mint  for  a  series  of  all  our  national  coins  now  in  actual  use,  to  which 
it  is  proposed  by  the  undersigned  to  add,  with  the  aid  and  co-operation 
of  Mr.  Alexander,  a  full  collection  of  all  our  former  coins,  particularly 
including  those  which  were  issued  by  the  separate  States  during  the 
period  in  our  national  history  preceding  the  adoption  of  the  articles  of 
confederation  in  1781,  and  reaching  back,  as  far  as  practicable,  into  our 
colonial  era. 

“  Such  an  exhibition,  it  is  believed,  will  conclusively  show  the  value 
of  our  united  government  in  unifying  or  extinguishing  the  multiform 
and  widely  varying  measures  of  money,  which  otherwise  would  have 
overspread  our  continental  republic  from  ocean  to  ocean.  It  will  do 
more :  it  will  demonstrate,  by  visible  example,  the  transcendent  import¬ 
ance  of  the  higher  problem  of  unifying  the  varying  coins  of  the  numer¬ 
ous  nations  of  the  civilized  world,  which  is  to  be  discussed  in  the  coming 
concourse  at  Paris. 

“In  that  discussion  the  salutary  influence  of  our  1  Old  Confederation,’ 
followed  by  the  American  Union,  in  simplifying  the  coins  of  our  Western 
World,  will  doubtless  be  considered  in  comparison  with  the  recent  politi¬ 
cal  consolidation  of  Northern  Germany,  under  the  guiding  hand  of  Bis¬ 
marck,  and  its  probable  effects  in  reducing  the  heterogeneous  coinage 
of  that  hitherto  fragmentary  portion  of  Europe  to  one  common  national 
system. 

“Without  entering  prematurely  into  the  broad  field  of  scientific  in¬ 
quiry  embraced  in  the  subject  of  uniform  weights,  measures,  and  coins, 
it  will  be  evident  that  many  questions  must  arise,  not  only  scientific,  but 
commercial  and  political  in  character.  Especially  must  this  be  the  case 
with  respect  to  a  uniform  coin  or  unit  of  money,  in  the  adjustment  of 
which  commercial  habits  and  national  prejudices  must  inevitably  modify 
any  decision  on  grounds  purely  scientific. 

“The  general  proposition  that  the  prosperity  and  civilization  of  man¬ 
kind  would  be  greatly  advanced  by  the  use  of  a  common  coin  of  uniform 
fineness,  no  one  will  deny ;  but  we  shall  be  met  at  the  threshold  by  the 
question,  wliat  shall  be  the  weight  of  this  unit  of  money ;  and  especially 
by  the  inquiry,  from  Avhich  of  the  various  systems  of  coinage  now  in  use 
by  the  different  nations  shall  that  unit  be  selected?  not  to  speak  of  a 
7  P  E 


98 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


proposition  which  may  be  presented  for  a  new  unit  wholly  irrespective 
of  any  existing  system. 

“These  questions  were  discussed  at  considerable  length  in  the  Inter¬ 
national  Statistical  Congress  at  Berlin,  in  1863,  but  were  found  so  diffi¬ 
cult  of  solution  that  a  ‘special  congress’  was  recommended  by  that  as¬ 
sembly,  at  which  they  might  be  more  carefully  and  deliberately  exam¬ 
ined.  The  disturbed  state  of  the  interior  of  Europe,  with  other  causes, 
has  hitherto  prevented  the  convocation  of  this  ‘  special  congress  ;  ’  but  it 
is  hoped  and  expected  that  the  ‘concourse  of  nations’  at  the  coming 
Exposition  at  Paris  will  practically  afford  the  opportunity  for  such  a 
convention. 

“From  present  indications  it  is  fully  evident  that  the  projects  to  be 
proposed  by  scientific  men  from  different  portions  of  the  world,  pro¬ 
foundly  involving  not  only  the  value  but  the  accuracy  of  the  present 
metre,  will  be  numerous  and  conflicting ;  but  it  is  probable,  to  say  the 
least,  that  the  discussion  will  at  last  be  practically  narrowed  to  the  sin¬ 
gle  inquiry :  Shall  the  British  pound  sterling,  or  the  French  franc,  or  the 
German  thaler,  or  the  Bussian  ruble,  or  the  American  dollar,  be  selected 
as  the  common  unit  of  money  ? 

“In  deciding  such  a  question,  necessarily  involving  so  much  of  na¬ 
tional  feeling,  we  shall  need  at  Paris  something  more  than  abstract 
science.  We  shall  need  the  counsel  and  co-operation  to  their  full  extent 
of  our  most  eminent  bankers,  ship-owners,  merchants,  and  manufactur¬ 
ers.  It  is  true  that  their  opinions,  with  some  of  the  results  of  their 
varied  experience,  might  be  partially  collected  by  active  correspondence ; 
but  all  such  opinions  should  be  subjected  to  the  legitimate  and  modify¬ 
ing  influence  of  personal  conference  and  mutual  comparison  in  actual 
open  convention. 

“In  many  respects  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  joint  resolution  #of 
Congress  under  which  the  United  States  Commission  to  Paris  has  been 
appointed  should  have  expressly  excluded  members  of  Congress,  and 
‘every  person  holding  an  appointment  or  office  of  honor  or  trust  under 
the  United  States;’  thereby  depriving  the  country  of  the  services  of  all 
the  members  of  the  national  legislature,  and  of  many  others  in  public 
employment,  civil  and  military,  whose  counsel  and  co-operation  would 
have  been  in  the  highest  degree  valuable  and  important.  Without  any 
invidious  distinction  we  may  surely  refer  to  the  chairmen  of  the  proper 
committees  in  the  Senate  and  in  the  House  of  Bepresentatives,  whose 
experience  and  well-directed  intelligence  recently  carried  through  the 
present  Congress  the  important  acts  for  the  partial  establishment  in  the 
United  States  of  the  ‘metric  system,’  commencing,  in  truth,  a  new  era 
in  our  commercial  history. 

“The  undersigned  would,  therefore,  venture  respectfully  to  suggest, 
in  behalf  of  himself  and  any.  other  commissioner  or  commissioners  asso¬ 
ciated  or  to  be  associated  with  him  on  this  special  committee,  the  expe¬ 
diency  and  propriety  of  their  being  allowed,  under  proper  limitations, 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  COMMISSIONERS. 


99 


to  invite  the  co-operation  as  associates  in  the  committee  of  at  least  five 
of  their  fellow-countrymen  of  well-established  ability,  and  not  included 
in  the  present  commission. 

“It  will  be  seen  at  page  56  of  the  third  supplemental  circular,  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Department  of  State,  that  the  special  committee  appointed 
by  the  imperial  government  embraces  five  distinguished  individuals; 
four  of  whom  are  members  of  the  Institute  of  France,  and  one  an  assayer 
in  the  mint.  In  justice  to  the  special  committee  to  represent  the  United 
States,  it  ought  to  embrace  at  least  an  equal  number. 

“  A  similar  suggestion  for  increasing  the  numbers  in  all  the  branches 
of  the  national  representation  at  Paris  will  be  found  in  an  able  and  in¬ 
teresting  .letter  from  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  esq.,  of  New  York,  one  of  the 
best  informed  and  most  intelligent  manufacturers  in  our  country,  a  copy 
of  which  is  herewith  furnished.  Its  clearly-conceived  and  well-expressed 
convictions,  as  well  as  the  facts  adduced  in  illustration,  are  well  worthy 
of  the  attention  of  the  commissioners,  if  not  of  the  government.  They 
are  certainly  in  harmony  with  the  general  wish  and  expectation  of  the 
patriotic  and  far-seeing  citizens  of  the  United  States  that  the  opportu¬ 
nity  so  unusual,  afforded  by  this  Universal  Exposition,  the  great  occa¬ 
sion  of  the  present  century  not  only  for  exhibiting  to  the  world  the  varied 
elements  of  our  national  strength,  but  for  vastly  increasing  their  value 
by  careful  study  and  full  reports  of  the  industries  of  other  and  older 
nations,  may  not  be  lost  through  any  want  of  prompt  and  adequate  sup¬ 
port  by  the  government  of  the  United  States.” 

Mr.  Hewitt  to  Mr.  Haggles. 

“New  York,  December  18,  1866. 

“My  Dear  Sir:  I  have  found  no  time  to  make  a  suitable  reply  to 
your  request  that  I  would  give  you  my  views  as  to  the  best  mode  of 
making  the  coming  Exposition  of  Industry,  at  Paris,  of  real  value  to  the 
people  of  the  United  States.  I  cannot,  however,  allow  the  opportunity 
to  pass  without  submitting  briefly  a  few  suggestions,  which  your  own 
experience  will  enforce  in  the  proper  quarters. 

“These  international  exhibitions  of  industry  are  peculiar  to  the  present 
age,  and  a  practical  recognition  of  the  claims  of  labor  on  the  attention 
of  governments,  as  the  real  foundation  of  national  greatness.  To  the 
people  of  the  United  States  they  have  a  special  interest,  as  marking  the 
steady  progress  in  Europe  of  the  cardinal  ideas  which  underlie  our  polit¬ 
ical  system. 

“But  in  addition  to  this  rather  theoretical  view  of  their  significance, 
these  exhibitions  are  of  the  greatest  practical  importance  to  us,  if  we 
avail  ourselves  of  all  the  advantages  which  they  offer. 

“  First  an  opportunity  is  offered  to  make  known  to  the  intelligence 
and  capital  of  Europe  the  great  natural  advantages  of  this  continent,  for 
the  cheap  production  of  the  great  staples  of  human  industry.  The  Expo- 


100 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


sition  collects  together,  at  one  time  and  in  one  place,  the  most  intelligent 
and  enterprising  men  of  all  nations,  who  come  either  as  commissioners 
or  visitors.  There  is  unusual  freedom  from  restraint  in  personal  inter¬ 
course,  and  more  can  be  imparted  and  secured  in  a  few  months  than 
could  otherwise  be  possible  with  years  of  effort. 

“  However  great  may  ha\e  been  our  need  heretofore  for  capital  and 
skilled  labor  to  develop  our  resources,  the  late  civil  war  has  left  one -half 
of  the  country  in  so  devastated  a  state  that  our  existing  means  are  totally 
inadequate  to  the  work  of  restoration.  We  want  labor,  skill,  and  capi¬ 
tal  from  abroad,  in  order  to  restore  the  i  waste  places’  of  the  South  at  the 
earliest  possible  moment. 

“The  resources  of  the  Southern  States,  especially  in  the  way  of  coal 
and  iron,  are  almost  unknown  in  Europe,  and  but  little  understood  even 
at  home.  There  will  not  be  another  opportunity  for  ten  years  to  bring 
this  knowledge  to  the  comprehension  of  Europe,  and  to  lose  ten  years  in 
the  present  age  is  to  throw  away  an  empire.  It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of 
the  highest  national  concern  that  the  commissioners  who  represent  this 
country  shall  be  able  to  make  known  to  the  representatives  of  other  na¬ 
tions  the  immense  natural  resources  which  in  this  country,  and  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  Southern  States,  offer  such  rich  rewards  to  enterprise  and 
capital. 

“  Secondly,  the  commissioners  should  be  men  of  such  technical  knowl¬ 
edge  in  the  various  departments  of  industry  that  all  improvements  can 
be  detected,  described,  and  imparted  by  proper  drawings  and  models  to 
our  own  mechanics  who  cannot  visit  the  Exposition.  It  is,  doubtless, 
unreasonable  to  expect  to  secure  such  an  official  representation  as  would 
best  accomplish  this  object ;  but  power  should  be  given  to  the  board  of 
commissioners  appointed  by  the  general  government  to  add  to  their 
number  the  name  of  every  American  of  special  technical  knowledge  who 
either  expects  to  visit  the  Exposition,  or  will  agree  to  do  so  if  appointed. 

“This  is  not  only  just  and  proper,  and  in  accordance  with  the  spirit 
of  our  institutions,  but  in  no  other  way  can  the  results  of  the  Exposition 
be  made  of  permanent  value  to  this  country.  Every  such  commissioner 
would,  of  course,  be  detailed  to  examine  the  special  department  with 
which  he  is  conversant,  and  make  a  full  and  accurate  report  of  the  result 
of  his  observations.  In  this  way  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  whole 
ground  will  be  covered  ;  and  the  reports,  when  collected  and  published, 
will  convey  to  the  nation  a  larger  amount  of  technical  knowledge  than 
could  be  procured  in  any  other  way. 

“It  is  idle  to  expect  that  mere  visitors,  as  such,  will  either  procure  or 
make  known  this  information.  I  was  a  visitor  at  the  English  exhibition 
of  1862.  I  was  free  to  examine  the  results  of  labor,  skill,  and  ingenuity 
which  were  there  collected  together.  But  to  understand  the  processes 
by  which  these  results  were  procured,  it  was  necessary  to  visit  the  work¬ 
shops  and  the  factories.  To  mere  visitors  those  places  were  closed,  but 
to  commissioners  every  door  was  open.  At  Sheffield,  for  example,  I  had 


IMPORTANCE  OF  SPECIAL  TECHNICAL  REPORTS. 


101 


the  greatest  possible  difficulty  in  getting  access  to  the  establishments 
where  the  new  processes  for  making  steel  were  carried  on ;  and  several 
times,  when  I  was  pleading  my  claims  for  admission,  I  saw  foreign  com¬ 
missioners  admitted,  with  smiling  faces,  on  the  mere  production  of  their 
letters  of  appointment. 

“  Allow  me  to  say  that  there  is  no  branch  of  business,  however  trivial, 
which  will  not  be  greatly  benefited  by  a  knowledge  of  the  methods  em¬ 
ployed  abroad  in  the  same  department  of  industry.  The  nation  that  pos¬ 
sesses  the  best  tools  and  the  best  processes  will  be  the  most  poiverful  and  the 
most  highly  civilized.  This  is  the  true  explanation  of  the  present  position 
of  Great  Britain.  Her  commercial  supremacy  rests  on  her  steamships, 
and  the  superiority  of  these  ships  is  due  to  her  tools  and  her  skill  in 
using  them.  Great  Britain  builds  the  best  engines,  and  hence  her  indus¬ 
try  is  more  thoroughly  and  economically  administered  than  that  of  any 
other  country.  We  want  the  knowledge,  and  we  want  it  diffused  over 
all  departments  of  business  in  which  our  people  are  employed.  For 
want  of  this  knowledge  we  are  always  years  in  arrear  of  our  foreign  com¬ 
petitors,  even  in  the  processes  which  affect  the  production  of  staple  raw 
materials,  such  as  iron,  wool,  silk,  and  even  cotton. 

“In  Sweden  the  use  of  sulphury  ores  has  been  made  practicable  by  a 
new  process  of  roasting.  Here  they  are  totally  rejected,  and  it  is  gener¬ 
ally  supposed  that  they  cannot  be  used,  and  yet  the  Swedish  process  will 
greatly  enlarge  the  business  here,  and  reduce  the  cost  of  making  iron. 
Again,  the  Bessemer  process  makes  but  slow  progress  here,  from  want 
of  the  proper  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  results  in  Europe.  We  lose 
every  day  by  the  delay,  and  this  lack  of  knowledge  extends  to  nearly 
every  branch  of  business. 

“Hence  I  urge — and  this  is  the  main  object  of  this  hasty  and  imper¬ 
fect  letter — that  you  will  press  on  Congress  the  propriety  of  giving  the 
commissioners  power  to  add  to  their  number  all  such  persons  as  may 
have  special  technical  skill,  who  will  agree  to  go  to  Paris  at  their  own 
cost,  and  prepare  for  the  commission  a  full  and  accurate  report  on  the 
special  department  for  which  the  appointment  is  made.” 

In  compliance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  the  19th  December, 
1866,  the  progress  made  in  collecting  the  products,  and  the  weights? 
measures,  and  coins  of  the  United  States,  for  exhibition,  was  reported 
by  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  transmitted  in  a  message  of  the  Presi¬ 
dent,  January  18, 1867,  and  was  published.1  A  portion  of  the  foregoing 
correspondence  is  reprinted  from  that  document.  Other  letters  from 
My.  Buggies  will  there  be  found,  and  a  full  report  from  him  upon 
the  proceedings  of  the  committee  on  weights,  measures  and  coins,  and 
of  the  International  Monetary  Conference,  was  transmitted  by  the  De¬ 
partment  to  the  Senate,  December  17, 1867,  in  compliance  with  the  reso¬ 
lution  of  the  6th  of  December.2  The  subject  has  also  been  more  fully  re¬ 
viewed  and  discussed  in  the  Beport  upon  the  Precious  Metals. 

1  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  5,  39th  Congress,  2d  session. 

2  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  14,  40th  Congress,  2d  session. 


102 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


CATALOGUE  AND  STATISTICS. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  July  31,  1866. 

“I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  7th 
instant,  with  a  copy  of  the  resolution  of  Congress  No.  52,  a  copy  of  the 
circular  of  the  Department  of  State  of  the  6th  July,  addressed  to  the 
governors  of  States,  and  directions  for  me  to  make  provision  for  the  re¬ 
ception  of  such  additional  products  as  may  be  sent  in  to  Mr.  Derby 
hereafter. 

“I  have,  in  conformity,  explained  the  situation  to  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission.  They  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  latest  date  which  could 
be  safely  given  for  closing  the  catalogue  would  be  the  1st  September, 
but  they  finally  consented  to  the  15th  September.  I  have,  therefore, 
agreed  to  close  the  catalogue  on  the  15th  September,  and  to  deliver  it  to 
them  on  or  before  the  1st  October,  and  have  advised  Mr.  Derby  of  this 
agreement. 

“It  was  feared  that  default  would  occur  with  Prussia  and  Austria, 
but  the  catalogue  of  the  former  was  sent  in  a  few  days  since,  and  the 
catalogue  of  Austria  came  in  to-day,  one  hundred  and  seventy  pages, 
well  arranged  and  well  printed.” 

PREPARATION  OF  A  STATISTICAL  SUMMARY. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris,  September  22,  1866. 

“The  annexed  letter  from  M.  Le  Play,  conseiller  d’etat,  proposes  the 
publication,  in  connection  with  the  catalogues  of  the  Exposition,  of  brief 
statistical  information,  which  will  be  useful  and  interesting. 

“The  statements  desired  can  probably  be  compiled,  from  materials  in 
the  Department  of  the  Interior,  in  a  short  space  of  time  and  without 
great  labor,  as  they  will  not  require  new  researches.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  follow  exactly  the  programme  presented ;  statements  which  cannot 
be  conveniently  and  readily  made,  such  as  the  one  which  I  have  marked 
fourth,  may  be  omitted ;  others  thought  useful  may  be  added;  and  I 
would  suggest,  in  addition,  a  synopsis  of  the  present  national  banking 
system,  which  is  a  new  institution  worthy  of  notice. 

“  The  opportunity  thus  presented  of  diffusing  among  the  people  sta¬ 
tistical  knowledge  regarding  the  United  States,  authenticated  by  the 
government  and  sanctioned  by  imperial  authority  on  this  side,  is  rare, 
and  I  hope  it  will  be  considered,  in  your  estimation,  of  sufficient  import¬ 
ance  to  warrant  the  preparation  of  the  requisite  statements,  and  that 
they  may  be  made  as  soon  as  possible,  on  account  of  the  time  required 
for  translations  and  printing  and  the  short  period  which  remains  for  it.’; 


103 


CATALOGUES,  AND  STATISTICAL  INFORMATION. 

M.  Le  Play  to  Mr.  Beckwith.1 

“  Paris,  September  14, 1866. 

“  I  had  the  honor  to  address  you  on  the  24th  August,  with  specimens 
of  the  general  catalogue  of  the  Exposition. 

“The  Imperial  Commission  now  desires  to  add  to  the  catalogue  of  each 
country  statistical  information  relative  to  the  territory,  population,  pro¬ 
ductive  force,  naval  force,  military  force,  and  financial  organization. 

“  In  connection  with  the  minister  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  pub¬ 
lic  works,  the  Imperial  Commission  is  now  preparing  for  France  a  simi¬ 
lar  statement,  which  may  serve  as  a  programme  for  other  countries,  as 
follows : 

“Territory. — Geographical  position.  Seas,  mountains,  and  princi¬ 
pal  rivers.  Administrative  divisions  and  principal  cities.  Superficial 
area;  development  of  coasts  and  frontiers;  extent  of  principal  basins  or 
valleys.  Ways  of  communication — extent  of  roads;  railroads  and  tele¬ 
graphs  ;  canals  and  navigable  rivers ;  surface  and  circumference  of  lakes 
and  inland  seas. 

“Population. — Whole  population;  population  by  race,  sex,  and 
religion ;  by  language,  professions,  and  occupations ;  population  of  prin¬ 
cipal  cities ;  average  increase  of  population  since  1855 ;  emigration  and 
immigration. 

“  Productive  force. — Quantity  and  value  of  the  annual  products 
of  agriculture,  of  forests,  of  hunting  and  fishing,  of  mines  and  minerals, 
of  textiles,  and  of  manufactures  of  various  kinds. 

“Commerce. — Actual  value  of  imports  consumed  in  the  country; 
value  of  exports  being  the  produce  of  the  country;  aggregate  imports 
and  aggregate  exports. 

“  Interior  transportation.  —  Transportation  on  roads,  canals, 
rivers,  interior  seas,  and  lakes ;  coasting  trade;  railroad  traffic ;  number 
of  letters  and  number  of  telegraphic  messages. 

“Maritime  navigation. — Number  and  tonnage  of  vessels  entered 
and  cleared  under  the  national  flag;  the  same  under  foreign  flags. 

“  Army. — Effective  force  of  standing  army  and  of  militia. 

“Marine. — Personal  force  and  material  force  of  the  navy  and  of  the 
mercantile  marine. 

“Finance. — Receipts  and  expenditures  forming  the  budget  of  the 
state ;  local  receipts  and  expenditures  of  states,  provinces,  departments, 
and  communes. 

“  This  programme  contains  the  elements  necessary  to  a  comparison,  in 
an  economical  point  of  view,  of  the  relative  force  and  wealth  of  nations 

Fourth.  “  Nevertheless,  to  respond  more  fully  to  the  idea  of  the  Em¬ 
peror,  who  has  instituted  a  new  Order  of  Recompenses  for  the  Exposi¬ 
tion  of  1867,  it  will  be  useful  to  add  to  the  above  statistical  information 
a  succinct  account  of  any  special  industrial  institutions  which  have 
developed,  in  a*  remarkable  manner,  harmony  among  the  different 


Translation. 


104 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


classes  of  producers,  and  the  material,  moral,  and  intellectual  well¬ 
being  of  the  workmen. 

“The  Imperial  Commission  thinks,  Monsieur  le  commissaire,  that 
the  United  States  will  be  willing  to  prepare,  by  the  1st  of  October,  a 
statement  on  the  basis  analogous  to  that  which  I  now  have  the  honor  to 
present  to  you,  adopted  by  France. 

“  A  collection  of  similar  documents  relative  to  each  country  will  prove 
a  useful  complement  to  the  catalogues,  for  the  study  of  visitors  to  the 
Exposition. 

“  I  have  only  to  add  that  the  intention  is  not  a  voluminous  work,  but 
a  short  notice,  and  the  more  summary,  the  better  it  will  enter  into  our 
plans.” 


PRINTING  AND  PUBLICATION  OF  THE  CATALOGUES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  January  18,  1867. 

“  Sir  :  The  publication  of  catalogues  of  the  Exposition  being  a  matter 
of  importance,  I  submit  a  brief  explanation  of  the  existing  circum¬ 
stances  relating  to  it  r 

“First.  The  general  plan  of  the  Imperial  Commission  proposed  to 
publish  an  official  catalogue  in  French,  leaving  other  nations  free  to 
publish  their  own  catalogues,  each  in  its  owu  and  other  languages  except 
French,  if  they  chose,  and  proposed  also  to  sell  the  official  catalogue  at 
a  low  price,  less  than  the  cost,  which  they  would  be  enabled  to  do  by 
deriving  a  profit  from  advertisements  permitted  to  be  inserted  in  the 
catalogue,  which  propositions  were,  in  general,  considered  satisfactory. 

“  Second.  The  Imperial  Commission  then  contracted  or  sold  a  contract 
to  a  publisher  conceding  to  him  the  right  to  print  and  sell  the  official 
catalogues  at  a  fixed  price.  '  They  also  sold  and  conceded  to  him  the 
right  of  advertisement  in  the  catalogues,  limiting  the  quantity  of 
advertising  space,  but  leaving  the  price  of  advertisements  unlimited, 
and  to  be  settled  between  the  contractor  and  the  advertisers. 

“The  right  of  advertisements  was  apportioned  among  nationalities, 
and  these  rights  were  resold  by  the  contractor  to  sub  contractors  or 
speculators,  who  offer  them  in  turn  to  advertisers  in  different  countries 
at  prices  which  may  be  agreed  upon  between  them. 

“  The  original  contracts  of  the  Imperial  Commission  are  construed  by 
the  holders  as  conceding  to  them  exclusive  rights  in  regard  to  the  pub¬ 
lication  of  catalogues,  and  in  regard  to  advertisements,  and  that  conse¬ 
quently  the  publication  and  sale  of  catalogues  or  advertisements  by 
other  nationalities  is  an  infringement  of  their  rights. 

“  Differences  of  opinion  between  the  Imperial  Commission  and  the 
contractor  for  the  official  catalogues  have  arisen,  and  are  the  subject  of 
friendly  adjudication  in  the  courts,  which  differences  have  not  yet  been 
decided. 


CATALOGUES,  AND  STATISTICAL  INFORMATION. 


105 


u  I  have  not  followed  this  litigation  so  closely  as  to  be  able  to  state, 
with  legal  accuracy,  the  exact  points  of  difference  between  the  Imperial 
Commission  and  the  contractor,  and  may  not  have  correctly  indicated  it, 
but  accuracy  in  this  is  not  essential  to  my  present  purpose. 

u  Third.  The  contracts  made  by  the  Imperial  Commission  were,  how¬ 
ever,  of  a  nature,  as  construed  by  themselves,  to  trench  upon  the  general 
plan  suggested  in  my  first  paragraph,  and  were  consequently  the  subject 
of  reclamations  by  foreign  commissioners. 

“  The  Imperial  Commission  admitted  that  other  nations  had  still  the 
right  to  print  and  sell  their  own  catalogues  in  their  own  language,  but 
they  thought  that  if  the  foreign  commissions  desired  to  advertise  in 
their  own  catalogues,  and  to  print  them  in  other  than  their  own  language, 
that  this  would  infringe  upon  the  rights  conceded  to  the  aforesaid  con¬ 
tractors,  and  that  such  publications  should  therefore  be  the  subject  of 
agreements  between  the  foreign  commissions  and  the  said  concession¬ 
aries. 

u  The  foreign  commissions,  in  general,  were  not  of  this  opinion,  but 
thought  they  were  entitled  to  publish  their  own  catalogues  in  any  lan¬ 
guage  they  might  choose,  and  to  advertise  in  them  for  their  own  profit,  as 
a  method  of  defraying  expenses,  on  the  same  principle  as  that  adopted 
by  the  Imperial  Commission. 

u  The  questions  thus  raised  are  not  yet  definitively  settled,  but  are  the 
subject  of  frequent  discussion,  and  I  have  no  doubt  will  be  soon  defi¬ 
nitively  disposed  of  as  between  the  Imperial  Commission  and  foreign 
commissions,  though  I  am  not  confident  that  they  can  now  be  so  adjusted 
as  to  avoid  all  difficulties  with  the  contractors. 

u  Fourth.  My  object  in  presenting  these  remarks  is  to  bring  to  your 
notice  the  actual  situation  in  regard  to  the  catalogues.  It  is  very 
desirable  to  print  them  in  at  least  three  languages,  English,  French,  and 
German ;  we  are  lamentably  in  arrears  in  preparing  our  catalogue,  and 
my  great  anxiety  is  to  perfect  it  in  time  to  be  published  for  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  Exposition  on  the  1st  of  April,  when  the  jury  work  will  com¬ 
mence,  which  cannot  be  properly  done  without  catalogue  in  hand. 

u  It  should  thus  be  published  in  the  French  language,  but  I  have  not 
any  funds  for  its  publication  and  gratuitous  distribution  in  English  or 
any  other  language. 

“  I  have  relied  on  the  conviction  that  the  right  of  sale  and  advertise¬ 
ment,  which  I  consider  included  in  the  programme  of  the  Imperial 
Commission  of  the  22d  of  August,  would  defray  the  expenses  of  publi¬ 
cation  in  our  own  and  other  languages  than  French,  which  resource, 
however,  was  placed  in  question,  and  is  still  in  suspense,  as  above 
stated. 

u  If,  therefore,  Congress  should  not  appropriate  money  for  the  publi¬ 
cation  and  gratuitous  distribution  of  the  catalogue,  in  our  own  and  other 
languages  than  French,  we  shall  not  be  provided  with  such  catalogues 
unless  by  the  means,  before  mentioned,  of  income  from  advertisements 


106 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


and  sales ;  and  believing  that  to  be  a  proper  method  I  am  disposed  to 
adopt  it.  But  I  think  it  would  be  going  beyond  my  duty  to  do  so  with¬ 
out  first  presenting  the  situation  and  soliciting  your  directions,  or,  at 
least,  the  expression  of  your  opinion  for  my  guidance/ 

“  My  proposition  is  to  print  and  sell  the  catalogue  in  English  and  in 
German,  and  to  render  accounts  of  the  expenditures  and  of  the  receipts 
from  sales  and  advertisements  and  to  carry  the  balance  of  that  account, 
be  it  a  debit  or  credit,  into  the  general  account  of  the  Exposition.” 

AGRICULTURAL  MACHINES  AT  BILLANCOURT. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  May  17,  1867. 

“  Sir  :  In  respect  to  the  experiments  to  be  made  with  agricultural 
implements  at  Billancourt,  the  trial  of  plows  has  already  taken  place. 

“  We  have  several  varieties  in  the  Exposition,  and  I  regret  to  be 
obligf  d  to  state  that  none  of  our  exhibitors  gave  any  directions  or  made 
any  preparations  to  put  their  plows  to  the  trial,  and  consequently  none 
of  them  took  part  in  the  competition. 

44  The  competition  of  mowers  will  commence  on  the  23d  instant,  and 
that  of  reapers  will  take  place  in  the  last  half  of  July. 

“Several  of  our  exhibitors  will  take  part  in  these  competitions. 
They  are  now  training  their  horses,  and  will,  I  trust,  be  well  prepared 
for  the  contest. 

44  I  have  authorized  John  P.  Reynolds,  esq.,  secretary  of  the  State 
Agricultural  Society  of  Illinois,  and  commissioner  from  that  State,  to 
superintend  these  trials,  and  have  obtained  from  the  Imperial  Commis¬ 
sion  the  appointment  of  Mr.  Reynolds  as  a  juror  on  these  experiments, 
that  the  interests  and  machines  of  our  exhibitors  may  be  fairly  appre¬ 
ciated.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

44  Paris,  August  2, 1867. 

44  Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  report  the  result  of  the  final  field  trials  of 
reaping  machines  and  mowing  machines,  which  commenced  on  the 
imperial  farm  of  Eouilleuse,  on  the  26th  July,  but,  being  interrupted  by 
bad  weather,  were  terminated  at  Vincennes  on  the  31st  ultimo. 

u  The  number  of  mowers  entered  for  competition  was  seventeen,  and 
of  reapers  sixteen,  being  the  products  of  several  nationalities. 

44  The  superiority  of  the  American  machines  soon  became  apparent, 
and  it  was  evident  that  the  chief  contest  would  be  among  themselves. 

44  The  decision  of  the  jury  is  as  follows  : 

“Mowing — the  ‘W.  A.  Wood  mower/  No.  1;  ‘I.  G.  Perry  mower/ 
No.  2;  4  C.  H.  McCormick  mower/  No.  3. 

44  Reaping — 4  C.  H.  McCormick/  No.  1 ;  4  Seymour,  Morgan  &  Allen/ 
No.  2 :  4  W.  A.  Wood/  No.  3. 


DUTIES  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURY. 


107 


“  These  results  will  add  to  our  successes  probably  two  more  gold, 
two  silver,  and  two  bronze  medals.  None  of  the  other  machines  are 
rated  higher  than  houorable  mention  or  bronze.’7 

INTERNATIONAL  JUKY  AND  THE  AWARDS. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  June  24,  1866. 

Sir  :  The  document  hereto  annexed,  marked  No.  1,  contains  the 
project  of  the  Imperial  Commission  for  distributing  800,000  francs  in 
prizes  among  exhibitors,  for  the  organization  of  international  juries  to 
award  the  prizes,  describes  the  nature  and  value  of  the  awards,  the 
manner  of  composing  the  juries,  the  regulations  for  their  guidance,  and 
the  dates  for  the  commencement  and  completion  of  their  work. 

“  Document  No.  2  contains  the  report  of  the  minister  of  state  upon 
document  No.  1,  and  an  imperial  decree  approving  the  report  and  legal¬ 
izing  the  project  of  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“  The  principal  new  feature  of  the  plan  is  developed  in  that  part  of 
the  report  of  the  minister  relating  to  section  four  of  the  project,  which 
appropriates  ten  prizes  of  10,000  francs  each,  and  one  capital  prize  of 
100,000  francs,  not  for  the  excellence  of  material  products  exhibited, 
but  for  local  establishments  which  are  most  successful  by  their  organ¬ 
ization  and  management  in  promoting  the  prosperity  and  harmony  and 
the  moral  and  intellectual  well-being  of  the  operatives.77 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURY. 

The  following  is  a  translation  of  regulations  fixing  the  kind  of  prizes, 
and  organizing  the  juries  for  distributing  them,  discussed  the  8th  of 
June,  1866,  and  approved  by  imperial  decree  the  9th  of  June,  1866. 

“Title  first.— General  dispositions. 

u  Article  1.  The  sum  of  800,000  francs  is  appropriated  for  prizes  to 
be  awarded  at  the  Universal  Exposition  for  1867. 

“Art.  2.  An  International  Jury  is  appointed  to  adjudge  the  premiums. 
The  International  Jury  is  composed  of  six  hundred  members,  distributed 
among  the  different  nations  according  to  the  space  occupied  by  the 
products  of  each.  The  result  of  the  distribution  is  laid  down  in  tables 
A  and  B,  annexed  to  the  present  regulation. 

“Art.  3.  The  French  members  of  the  International  Jury  of  Awards  are 
appointed  by  the  Imperial  Commission.  The  foreign  members  are 
appointed  respectively  by  the  national  commissions  of  each  country. 
All  appointments  must  be  made  previous  to  the  1st  of  December,  1866. 
The  Imperial  Commission,  after  consultation  with  the  foreign  commis¬ 
sions,  shall  assign  the  members  of  the  jury  to  classes. 

“Art.  4.  The  International  Jury  must  finish  its  labors  between  the  1st 


108 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


of  April  and  the  14th  of  May,  1867.  However,  as  regards  Classes  52, 
67  to  88,  and  95,  the  duties  of  the  jury  shall  continue  during  the  Expo¬ 
sition. 

“Art.  5.  The  formal  distribution  of  the  prizes  is  fixed  for  the  1st  of 
July,  1867. 

“  Title  second. — Groups  op  works  of  art. 

“Art.  6.  The  prizes  at  the  disposal  of  the  International  Jury  for 
works  of  art  are  arranged  as  follows :  17  grand  prizes,  each  valued  at 
2,000  francs ;  32  first  prizes,  each  valued  at  800  francs;  44  second  prizes, 
each  valued  at  500  francs ;  46  third  prizes,  each  valued  at  400  francs. 

“Art.  7.  The  prizes  in  article  six  are  distributed  as  follows,  among 
the  four  sections  of  the  fine  arts  arts,  corresponding  to  the  classes  of 
Group  I: 

“First  section,  (Classes  1  and  2  united :)  8  grand  prizes,  15  first  prizes, 
20  second  prizes,  and  24  third  prizes. 

“  Second  section,  (Class  3 :)  4  grand  prizes,  8  first  prizes,  12  second 
prizes,  and  12  third  prizes. 

“  Third  section,  (Class  4 :)  3  grand  prizes,  6  first  prizes,  8  second  prizes, 
and  6  third  prizes. 

“  Fourth  section,  (Class  5 :)  2  grand  prizes,  3  first  prizes,  4  second 
prizes,  and  4  third  prizes. 

“Art.  8.  The  jury  for  the  groups  of  works  of  art  is  composed  of  sixty- 
three  members.  The  numeral  proportion  of  the  French  and  foreign 
members  in  each  of  the  four  sections  is  indicated  by  table  A,  annexed 
to  the  regulations.  The  French  members  of  the  four  sections  are  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  Imperial  Commission  among  the  members  of  the  jury  of 
admission.  They  will  be  chosen  equally  from  the  three  lists  forming 
the  jury,  instituted  according  to  the  decision  of  the  12th  of  May,  1866. 
The  exhibitors  who  are  members  of  the  International  Jury  for  works  of 
art  are  not  excluded  from  the  competition  for  prizes.  Each  of  the  four 
sections  is  presided  over  by  one  of  its  members  selected  by  the  Imperial 
Commission.  Two  of  the  presidents  are  French. 

“Art.  8.  The  four  sections  may  assemble  to  propose  modifications  in 
the  distribution  of  prizes,  if  necessary,  as  designated  in  article  seven. 
The  Imperial  Commission  selects  one  of  its  members  to  preside  at  the 
meeting  of  the  four  sections. 

“  Title  third. — The  nine  groups  of  agricultural  and  indus¬ 
trial  PRODUCTS. 

“Art.  10.  The  prizes  at  the  disposal  of  the  International  Jury  for  the 
agricultural  and  industrial  products  are  arranged  as  follows  : 

“Grand  prizes  and  awards  in  silver  to  the  total  value  of  250,000 
francs. 

“One  hundred  gold  medals,  worth  1,000  francs  each. 

“  One  thousand  silver  medals. 


DUTIES  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURY. 


109 


“  Three  thousand  bronze  medals. 

“Five  thousand  honorable  mentions,  at  least.  All  the  medals  are  of 
the  same  form. 

“Art.  11.  The  grand  prizes  are  awards  of  merit  for  inventions  or  im¬ 
provements  in  the  quality  of  products  and  mode  of  manufacture. 

“Art.  12.  The  prizes  mentioned  in  article  ten,  for  the  nine  groups  of 
agriculture  and  industry,  are  adjudged  by  the  class  juries,  the  group 
juries,  and  the  superior  counsel. 

“Art.  13.  The  numerical  proportion  of  the  French  and  foreign  mem¬ 
bers  in  each  of  the  class  juries  is  fixed  by  table  A,  annexed  to  the 
present  regulations. 

“  Art.  14.  Each  class  jury  meets  from  the  1st  of  April,  1867.  At  its 
first  meeting  it  elects  a  president,  a  vice-president,  and  secretary.  A 
secretary  must  be  appointed  before  the  10th  of  April. 

“Art.  15.  Class  juries  may  add  members  or  select  experts  from  the 
other  classes  of  the  International  Jury,  or  outside ;  in  the  latter  case 
the  selection  must  be  approved  by  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“Art.  16.  Exhibitors  who  have  been  made  members  of  the  Interna¬ 
tional  Jury  cunnot  be  competitors  for  prizes.  Exhibitors  in  a  class  jury 
as  members  or  experts  are  also  excluded  from  competition  in  products 
of  the  class  of  which  they  are  to  be  judges.  However,  the  Imperial 
Commission  may  authorize  certain  exceptions  to  the  exclusions  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 

“Art.  17.  The  foreign  commissions  are  requested  to  select  delegates 
for  the  class  juries  to  furnish  information  to  the  jury  about  the  exhibitors 
of  their  country.  The  place  of  residence  of  these  delegates  must  be 
made  known  to  the  Imperial  Commission  before  the  20th  of  March, 
1867.  The  same  duties  are  performed  for  the  French  Section  in  each 
class  jury  by  the  corresponding  committee  of  admission. 

“Art.  18.  Between  the  1st  and  14th  of  April,  each  class  jury  of 
Groups  II,  III,  IV,  Y,  YI,  and  X  shall  examine  the  products,  and  class 
the  exhibitors  deserving  prizes,  without  distinction  of  nationality.  The 
class  jury  then  makes  out  a  list  of  exhibitors  excluded  by  article  sixteen, 
and  proposes  proper  exceptions.  It  then  classes  the  assistants,  masters, 
and  workmen,  without  distinction  of  nationality,  to  be  recommended 
for  services  to  agriculture  or  industry,  or  for  their  participation  in  the 
production  of  remarkable  objects  at  the  Exposition.  The  class  lists, 
signed  by  the  members  who  made  them,  shall  be  filed  by  the  reporter 
with  the  Commissioner  General,  by  the  14th  of  April  at  latest.  Class 
juries  of  Classes  52  and  95  only  furnish  the  information  necessary  to  fix 
the  number  of  awards  for  those  classes,  and  propose  associates  to  assist 
in  the  examination  of  the  objects  exhibited.  If  a  class  jury  has  not 
presented  the  lists  by  the  14tli  of  April,  the  Imperial  Commission  shall 
attend  to  it. 

“Art.  19.  Between  the  1st  and  14th  of  April  each  class  jury  of 
Groups  VII,  VIII,  and  IX  makes  out  a  list  of  associates  to  assist  in  the 


110 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


examination  of  the  products  during  the  Exposition,  and  furnishes  infor¬ 
mation  to  fix  the  number  of  awards. 

“Art.  20.  The  presidents  and  reporters  of  the  class  juries  are  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  group  juries ;  in  case  of  absence  of  the  president,  the  vice- 
president  shall  take  his  place.  One  president  and  two  vice-presidents 
are  appointed  outside  of  the  members  for  each  group  jury.  The 
arrangement  of  presidents  and  vice-presidents  of  group  juries,  among 
different  nations,  is  designated  by  the  table  B,  annexed  to  the  present 
regulations.  In  accordance  with  article  three,  the  French  president 
and  vice-presidents  are  appointed  directly  by  the  Imperial  Commission ; 
the  foreign,  by  the  national  foreign  commissions.  The  secretary  of  each 
group  jury  is  appointed  by  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“Art.  21.  Between  the  15th  and  28th  of  April  each  group  jury  of 
Groups  II,  III,  IV,  V,  VI,  and  X  examines  the  claims,  fixes  the  lists 
of  classification  drawn  up  by  the  class  juries,  and  writes  the  award  after 
the  proper  name.  For  Classes  52  and  95,  only  the  number  of  prizes  is 
designated.  It  joins  in  turn  each  class  jury  in  its  deliberations,  but  only 
has  a  deliberative  vote.  These  preliminary  operations  of  the  group 
juries  must  close  and  the  result  be  communicated  to  the  Commissioner 
General  by  the  28th  of  April,  at  the  latest.  If  it  is  not  done  by  that 
time  the  Imperial  Commission  will  attend  to  it. 

“Art.  22.  Between  the  15th  and  22d  of  April  each  group  jury  of 
Groups  VII,  VIII,  and  IX  makes  out  the  lists  of  associates  presented 
by  the  class  juries  and  makes  known  the  number  of  awards  of  each  class 
to  the  Commissioner  General. 

“Art.  23.  The  president  and  vice-presidents  of  the  group  juries  are 
called  to  constitute  the  superior  council  of  the  jury.  One  of  the  vice- 
presidents  of  the  Imperial  Commission  shall  be  president  of  that  council. 
The  assistant  secretary  of  the  Imperial  Commission  shall  aid  the  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  council. 

“Art.  24.  Between  the  29th  of  April  and  the  5th  of  May  the  superior 
council  divides  the  total  number  of  awards  among  the  different  groups. 
The  council,  if  deemed  necessary  to  increase  the  number  of  medals,  may 
propose  to  the  Imperial  Commission  to  apply  50,000  francs  for  that  pur¬ 
pose  out  of  the  sum  for  the  grand  prizes  and  silver  sets.  These  duties 
of  the  superior  council  must  be  concluded  by  the  5th  of  May  at  the 
latest. 

“Art.  25.  A  report  on  the  exhibition  of  agricultural  and  industrial 
products  shall  be  published  under  the  direction  and  care  of  a  committee 
proposed  by  the  superior  council  and  appointed  by  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission. 

“Art.  26.  Between  the  6th  and  12th  of  May  each  group  jury  men¬ 
tioned  in  article  twenty-one  shall  divide  the  awards  fixed  by  the  superior 
council  among  the  proper  classes.  The  result  of  this  labor  shall  be  sent 
to  the  Commissioner  General  by  the  14th  of  May  at  the  latest. 

“Art.  27.  During  the  Exposition  the  Imperial  Commission  will  name 


DUTIES  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURY. 


Ill 


temporary  associates  every  fifteen  days,  to  aid  the  class  juries  in  their 
examinations  of  the  products,  processes  or  instruments  of  labor  in  Classes 
67  to  88  presented  for  competition  in  the  next  two  weeks.  These  asso¬ 
ciates  are  chosen  from  the  lists  made  out  by  article  twenty-two.  On  the 
second  day  of  each  fortnight  each  temporary  committee  will  class  the 
exhibitors,  assistants,  and  workmen  it  thinks  worthy  of  prizes,  and 
arrange  them  in  four  lists,  under  the  titles,  first  prize,  second  prize,  third 
prize,  honorable  mention,  of  partial  competition.  That  list  may  be  made 
public  at  once. 

“Art.  28.  Between  the  15th  and  20th  of  October  the  group  juries  of 
Groups  VII,  VIII,  and  IX,  after  the  arrangement  of  prizes  and  honor¬ 
able  mentions  of  the  temporary  committees,  in  conformity  with  the  pre¬ 
ceding  article,  shall  make  a  total  list  of  exhibitors  for  each  class,  as  well 
as  a  list  of  assistants  and  laborers,  and  will  award  the  prizes  the  supe¬ 
rior  council  has  assigned  to  them.  The  diploma  has  a  list  of  the  prizes 
and  honorable  mentions  of  the  different  temporary  committees  to  the 
laureate  during  the  Exposition. 

“Art.  29.  Class  juries  of  Classes  52  and  95  shall  present  the  proposals 
relative  to  awards  which  the  group  jury  has  reserved  for  them  to  the 
Imperial  Commission  by  the  20th  of  October.  The  Imperial  Commission 
confirms  these  proposals. 

“  Title  fourth. — Xew  order  of  awards. 

“Art.  30.  A  different  order  of  awards  is  created  in  favor  of  persons, 
establishments,  or  localities,  where,  by  special  institutions,  good  harmony 
has  been  promoted  among  those  who  carry  on  the  same  labors,  and  the 
material,  moral,  and  intellectual  well-being  has  been  secured  among  the 
operatives.  These  awards  are :  ten  prizes  of  100,000  francs  and  twenty 
honorable  mentions.  One  grand  prize  of  100,000  francs  may  be  given  to 
the  person,  establishment,  or  locality,  above  all  the  rest  in  this  respect. 

“Art.  31.  A  special  jury  shall  judge  of  the  merits  in  this  case,  and 
determine  the  number  and  form  of  the  prizes  to  be  awarded.  One  of 
the  vice-presidents  of  the  Imperial  Commission  shall  preside  over  it. 
The  members  shall  be  twenty-five,  the  president  included.  The  distri¬ 
bution  among  different  nations  is  fixed  in  table  B.  The  functions  of 
secretary  shall  be  performed  by  the  secretary  of  the  Imperial  Commis¬ 
sion. 

•“  Art.  32.  In  default  of  nominations  before  the  1st  of  December,  1866, 
as  provided  by  article  3,  the  Imperial  Commission  will  select  foreign 
judges  from  among  the  persons  accredited  to  it  by  the  different  govern¬ 
ments. 

“  Art.  33.  The  number  of  members  present  necessary  to  make  the 
jury  decision  valid  is  fixed  at  eighteen.  The  prizes  and  honorable  men- 
*  tions  are  decided  by  a  majority  vote.  The  grand  prize  must  have  a  vote 
of  two-thirds. 

“  Art.  34.  The  petitions  and  documents  designating  a  person  for  the 


112 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


new  order  of  awards,  or  an  establishment  or  locality,  must  be  addressed 
to  the  councillor  of  state,  Commissioner  General,  before  the  1st  of  Decem¬ 
ber,  1866. 

“  Art.  35.  The  jury  will  hold  its  first  session  the  1st  of  December, 
1866,  to  fix  the  rules  for  demands  and  to  begin  their  examination. 

“  Art.  36.  At  a  second  and  last  session,  between  the  15th  of  April 
and  the  14th  of  May,  1867,  the  jury  will  finally  fix  the  distribution  of 
the  prizes.  These  prizes  will  be  distributed  at  the  same  time  as  the 
other  prizes — that  is,  on  the  1st  of  July,  1867. 

“Done  and  deliberated  by  the  Imperial  Commission  on  the  7th  of 
June,  1866.” 

REPORT  IN  SUPPORT  OF  THE  DECREE  IN  REGARD  TO  RECOMPENSES. 

Monsieur  E.  Kouher,  minister  of  state,  vice-president  of  the  Imperial 
Commission,  made  a  report  to  the  Emperor,  attached  to  the  preceding 
decree,  of  which  the  following  is  a  translation  : 

“  Sire  :  In  the  name  of  the  Imperial  Commission  I  have  the  honor  to 
submit  to  your  Majesty  a  project  for  a  regulation  of  the  recompenses  to 
be  awarded,  according  to  established  tradition,  at  the  Universal  Exposi¬ 
tion  for  1867. 

“  This  regulation  fixes  the  nature,  the  number,  and  the  mode  of 
awarding  the  recompenses ;  it  comprises  four  titles : 

“  The  first  title  determines  the  general  dispositions  relative  to  the 
value  of  the  recompenses  and  the  organization  of  the  jury. 

“  The  second  title  answers  to  article  22  of  the  general  regulations,  and 
relates  particularly  to  the  group  of  the  works  of  art.  Its  arrangement 
is  similar  to  that  used  at  the  annual  exhibition  of  the  fine  arts. 

“Title  three  answers  to  article  62  of  the  general  regulations,  and 
relates  especially  to  the  nine  groups  of  agriculture  and  industry.  The 
dispositions  of  this  title  are  similar  to  those  of  1855,  and  tend  to  equalize 
the  different  degrees  of  recompense,  to  facilitate  execution,  and  to  get 
the  jury’s  decision  in  six  weeks.  The  limit  of  this  delay  is  rigorously 
required  by  the  date  of  the  distribution  of  recompenses,  fixed  for  the  1st 
of  July,  1867.  Special  dispositions  reserve  for  certain  subdivisions  of 
the  jury  the  decision  on  products  that  are  renewed  often  during  the 
Exposition,  but  cannot  be  decided  on  till  the  close. 

“  These  parts  of  the  regulations  for  recompenses  offer  nothing  new,  and 
I  confine  myself  to  a  summary.  But  the  dispositions  of  title  four  con¬ 
stitute  an  important  innovation,  to  which  I  must  call  your  Majesty’s 
attention. 

“  Preceding  exhibitions  have  not  shown  all  the  merits  that  are  due  to 
agriculture  and  industry.  The  prosperity  of  those  branches  is  not  only 
shown  by  the  good  quality  of  the  products  and  the  improvements  in 
their  elaboration,  but  it  also  depends  upon  the  comfortable  circumstances  * 
of  the  producers  and  their  friendly  relations.  These  circumstances  have 
been  considered  in  preceding  exhibitions,  but  the  Imperial  Commission 
has  thought  proper  to  create  a  new  order  of  recompenses,  as  useful  and 


THE  NEW  ORDER  OF  AWARDS. 


113 


in  conformity  with  the  principles  inspiring  so  many  acts  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  Emperor.  These  recompenses  shall  he  awarded  to  persons, 
establishments,  or  localities,  where,  by  an  organization  or  special  insti¬ 
tution,  good  harmony  has  been  promoted  among  those  who  carry  on 
the  same  work,  and  the  material,  moral,  and  intellectual  well-being  of 
the  operatives  assured. 

“This  well-being  and  harmony  of  which  we  , wish  to  find  the  best 
examples  for  your  Majesty,  is  produced  under  very  various  forms.  The 
local  customs  and  secular  traditions  in  certain  countries  maintain  union 
among  different  kinds  of  producers ;  in  other  regions  intelligent  efforts 
remedy  the  spirit  of  antagonism  that  prevails.  Here,  workmen  who 
have  become  masters  in  their  trades  find  all  the  elements  of  success  in 
themselves ;  in  other  countries,  confined  to  large  factories,  they  leave 
all  care  to  their  patrons.  Producers  sometimes  apply  themselves  ex¬ 
clusively  to  agricultural  labor  or  to  manufactures:  often  the  two  kinds 
of  industry  are  combined.  But,  in  the  midst  of  this  diversity  of  condi¬ 
tions,  well-being  and  harmony  offer  the  same  result  ;  they  assure  public 
peace  to  the  producers  of  all  kinds,  and  to  the  locality  enriched  by  their 
work.  Apparent  characteristics  everywhere  prove  the  existence  of  the 
two  merits  we  propose  to  recompense.  An  inquiry  of  the  prefects  of  the 
empire,  made  some  years  ago  by  your  Majesty’s  orders,  gave  many  ex¬ 
amples  that  might  be  quoted  at  the  competition  instituted  by  title  four 
to  great  advantage. 

“  The  merits  of  competitors  will  be  decided  by  a  jury  composed  of 
eminent  persons  belonging  to  the  different  countries  represented  at  the 
Exposition.  The  Imperial  Commission  thinks  this  jury  should  reject 
every  previous  system,  and  found  its  judgment  entirely  on  facts. 

u  The  value  of  the  recompenses  should  be  proportionate  to  the'  social 
importance  of  the  competition. 

u  The  commission,  therefore,  proposes  to  your  Majesty  to  award  ten 
prizes  of  the  total  value  of  100,000  francs,  with  twenty  honorable  mentions. 

u  One  grand  indivisible  prize  of  100,000  francs  might  also  be  awarded 
to  the  person  or  locality  distinguished  by  extraordinary  superiority. 
This  competition  opens  a  new  branch  in  exhibitions ;  it  will  cause  a 
healthy  rivalry  between  different  nations,  and  will  offer  problems  that 
have  not  yet  been  advantageously  solved. 

u  If  your  Majesty  designs  to  approve  the  considerations  which  form 
the  object  of  this  report,  and  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  deliberations 
of  the  Imperial  Commission  of  the  7th  of  June,  1866,  I  beg  you  will  sign 
the  annexed  decree.”  *  *  *  * 

THE  NEW  CLASS  OF  PRIZES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Usher. 

u  Paris,  December  3, 1866. 

“  Sir  :  The  documents  issuedby  the  Imperial  Commission  relating  to 

the  various  classes  of  prizes  were  published  by  the  government  at  Wash- 
8  p  E 


114 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ington  in  June  last,  (3d  series,  page  43,)  but  the  new  class  of  prizes  does 
not  seem  to  have  attracted  much  attention  in  the  United  States. 

u  The  new  class  is  nevertheless  most  important  of  all.  It  is  not  com¬ 
posed  of  the  material  products  of  industry,  but  relates  to  the  source  of 
all  industrial  products,  viz.,  the  producers.  It  is  composed  of  the  per¬ 
sons,  establishments,  or  localities  which  have  developed  in  a  remarkable 
manner  good  order  and  harmony,  and  the  material,  moral,  and  intellectual 
well-being  of  the  workmen  and  laborers-. 

u  The  prizes  are  comparatively  large — ten  of  10,000  francs  each,  and 
one  of  100,000  francs — which  indicates  the  importance  attached  to  the 
subject. 

u  Material  improvement  precedes  all  other  improvements,  and  is  the 
source  of  them. 

u  Associations  and  organizations  which  combine  the  sciences  and  in¬ 
dustrial  arts  with  labor  and  skill,  augmenting  the  productiveness  of 
both  in  an  eminent  degree,  and  at  the  same  time  improving  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  laborers,  are  among  the  most  important  institutions  of  the 
time,  and  they  are  without  parallel  in  any  past  civilization. 

“  This  new  quality  is  that  they  not  only  make  the  rich  richer,  but  they 
make  the  poor  richer — a  result  which  was  never  before  studied  nor  at¬ 
tained  ;  and  in  place  of  industrial  populations  devoted  to  immorality  and 
poverty,  we  have  now  thriving  communities  acquiring  property  and 
education,  and  rising  constantly  in  their  material,  moral,  and  intellect¬ 
ual  condition. 

u  These  organizations  are  not  the  result  of  accident  or  the  mere  growth 
of  time,  but  they  are  the  combined  product  of  the  ablest  thinkers,  the 
best  judgments,  highest  motives,  superior  science,  the  practical  skill, 
and  the  solid  knowledge  of  the  age. 

u  Each  country  makes  its  own  development  in  conformity  with  its 
condition  and  its  wants,  and  the  attempt  to  bring  together  the  most  suc¬ 
cessful  of  these  institutions,  to  be  carefully  studied  and  compared  by 
competent  men,  cannot  fail  to  be  instructive  and  useful. 

“We  have  many  industrial  establishments  which,  properly  presented, 
might  compete  successfully  for  the  prizes ;  but,  whether  successfully  or 
not,  they  could  not  fail  to  improve  by  the  competition. 

u  The  reports  of  these  should  contain  their  organization,  administra¬ 
tion,  capital,  number  of  hands  of  both  sexes,  their  ages,  wages,  schools, 
libraries,  churches,  charities,  publications,  sanitary  regulations,  plans, 
marriages,  births,  deaths,  savings  and  accumulations,  investments,  quan¬ 
tity  and  value  of  raw  products,  value  and  quantity  of  manufactured 
products,  dividends,  and,  in  fine,  all  the  important  facts  relating  to  these 
small  communities  as  if  they  were  states. 

u  These  should  be  tabulated  and  briefly  and  accurately  stated,  to  facil¬ 
itate  the  understanding  of  them  and  the  comparisons. 

u  Similar  reports  will  be  sent  in  from  all  civilized  countries,  and  will 
be  submitted  to  the  study  of  a  special  jury  of  twenty-five  men,  selected 


THE  NEW  ORDER  OF  AWARDS.  115 

for  the  purpose  from  the  different  nations,  and  whose  labor  has  no  con¬ 
nection  with  class  juries  on  products. 

“This  jury  commenced  their  work  on  the  1st  December  instant,  and 
will  continue  it  through  the  winter,  that  they  may  complete  their  reports 
and  render  their  verdict  in  May,  in  time  for  the  general  distribution  of 
prizes  on  the  1st  July  next. 

“  Our  representative  on  this  special  duty  is  Charles  C.  Perkins,  esq., 
of  Boston,  a  gentleman  whose  cultivation,  general  knowledge,  studious 
habits,  and  acquaintance  with  continental  languages,  qualify  him  for 
the  labor,  and  whose  circumstances  permit  him  to  devote  the  requisite 
time  to  it. 

“  The  reports,  in  conformity  with  the  regulations,  should  all  have  been 
sent  in  by  the  1st  of  December;  but  the  jury  resolved  at  their  first  meet¬ 
ing  to  remain  open  a  short  time  longer,  and  will  probably  fix  the  last 
day  for  receiving  reports  at  their  next  meeting,  of  which  I  will  notify 
you.  If  this  subject  appears  to  you  of  sufficient  interest  to  call  for  your 
exertions,  be  assured  that  any  reports  which  you  may  send  me,  if  received 
in  time,  will  be  clearly  and  amply  developed  to  the  jury  by  Mr.  Perkins, 
and  receive  the  consideration  they  may  merit ;  but  I  need  not  dwell  on 
the  necessity  of  immediate  action.” 

APPOINTMENT  OF  JURORS  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Mr.  Beclcwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  April  8, 1867. 

“  Sir  :  It  was  not  in  my  power  to  report  definitively  on  the  nomination 
of  jurors  before  the  26th  March,  when  the  list  was  completed  and  closed. 

“  The  number  of  class  jurors  is  six  hundred,  who  are  divided  among 
nationalities  on  the  basis  of  the  relative  space  occupied  by  each  nation 
in  the  Palace  of  the  Exposition. 

“  The  apportionment  was  made  in  June,  1866,  (reserving  fifteen  jurors 
for  subsequent  distribution,)  and  the  number  which  this  method  gave 
to  the  United  States  was  eight. 

“  I  applied  for  an  increase  of  this  number,  and,  of  the  fifteen  reserved, 
four  were  subsequently  added  to  our  list,  which  gave  us  twelve  class 
jurors. 

“  The  juries  are  international  (or  mixed)  and  each  jury  comprises  from 
four  to  fifteen  members.  There  are  ninety-four  classes  of  products,  and 
ninety -four  separate  juries,  consequently  there  are  eighty-two  classes 
on  which  we  have  no  juryman,  our  number  being  but  twelve. 

“Jurymen  are  presumed  to  be  acquainted  with  the  products  of  their 
own  country  in  general,  and  to  have  a  special  knowledge  of  the  products 
of  the  class  on  which  they  are  placed,  the  chief  service  they  can  render 
being  to  make  known  to  their  associate  jurymen  the  nature,  quality, 
uses,  and  importance  of  these  particular  products,  that  they  may  be 
rightly  appreciated  and  compared,  and  accurately  judged. 


116 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  Tlie  most  important  products  of  nearly  all  competing  nations  fall  into 
a  few  classes,  and  there  is  naturallv  great  urgency  among  all  to  place 
their  jurymen  on  these  important  classes,  but  this  being  impracticable 
there  must  be  some  disappointments. 

“  The  Imperial  Commission  desired  each  foreign  commission  to  send 
in  a  list  indicating  the  classes  on  which  they  would  prefer  to  place  their 
jurymen,  or  else  the  order  of  preference,  but  stating  at  the  same  time  that 
these  indications  could  only  be  taken  in  a  general  sense  as  a  guide  in 
making  allotments,  and  that  it  would  doubtless  be  impossible  to  fully 
comply  with  them. 

“Some  of  the  important  classes  on  which  I  desired  to  place  jurors 
were  conceded  to  me,  some  equally  or  more  important  were  not  con¬ 
ceded,  and  three  or  four  classes  were  assigned  to  me  which  I  did  not  ask 
for  and  which  are  of  no  particular  value  to  us. 

“  A  similar  result  occurred  to  others,  and  the  distribution  of  classes 
on  the  whole  produced  among  the  foreign  commissions  a  great  deal  of 
dissatisfaction,  but  I  think  I  should  add  that  in  my  opinion  this  could 
not  have  been  altogether  avoided. 

“  Mr.  Derby  was  diligent  in  sending  me  early  information  in  respect 
of  the  persons  who  were  qualified  to  act  as  jurors,  who  were  willing  to 
do  so,  and  who  would  be  here  in  time. 

“  But  unfortunately  very  few  of  the  gentlemen  thus  indicated  con¬ 
sidered  themselves  particularly  qualified  for  the  classes  which  were 
finally  assigned  to  us,  and  I  have  had  much  difficulty  in  making  up  a 
list  of  qualified  jurors  who  could  be  relied  on  to  be  present  in  time  for 
the  work.  Indeed,  I  have  been  obliged  to  nominate  some  for  classes 
which  they  themselves  did  not  wish  to  aecept,  but  consented  to  do  so 
because  they  saw  that  it  was  impossible  for  me  to  do  better. 

“  The  following  is  the  definitive  list : 

“  Group  I,  Classes  1  and  2  united :  Paintings  in  oil,  water  colors, 
pastels,  and  designs — J.  W.  Hoppin,  esq.,  New  York. 

“  Group  I,  Class  3 :  Sculptures,  bas  reliefs,  medallions,  cameos,  en¬ 
graved  stones,  &c. — Hon.  J.  P.  Kennedy,  Baltimore,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner. 

“Group  I,  Class  4:  Architecture  and  architectural  designs. — R.  M. 
Hunt,  esq.,  New  York,  architect. 

“Group  I,  Class  5:  Engravings,  polychromes,  lithographs,  crayons, 
&c. — Frank  Leslie,  esq.,  New  York,  United  States  Commissioner. 

“Group  II,  Class  9:  Proofs  and  materials  for  photography  on  paper, 
glass,  wood,  cloth,  enamel,  &c.,  instruments,  materials,  &c. — W.  A. 
Adams,  esq.,  Ohio,  United  States  Commissioner. 

“Group  II,  Class  11 :  Apparatus  and  instruments  of  the  medical  art, 
trusses,  surgical  instruments  specially  adapted  to  the  army  and  the 
navy,  &c. — J.  R.  Freese,  esq.,  New  Jersey,  United  States  Commissioner. 

“Group  II,  Class  12:  F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.  D.,  New  York,  United 
States  Commissioner. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JURORS  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES.  117 

«  Group  III,  Class  20  :  Various  kinds  of  fine  cutlery — William  Slade, 
esq.,  Ohio,  United  States  Commissioner. 

“Group  VI,  Class  51:  Materials  of  chemistry,  pharmacy,  tanning,  of 
glass,  gas,  &c. — Professor  J.  P.  Lesley,  Pennsylvania,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner. 

“Group  VI,  Class  59 :  Motors,  generators,  shafts,  pulleys,  steam- 
pipes,  &c. — Ch.  R.  Goodwin,  esq.,  Boston,  United  States  Commissioner. 

“Group  VI,  Class  54:  Machine  tools  and  mechanical  apparatus  in 
general;  plaDing  machines  for  iron  and  wood;  elevators,  pumps,  ma¬ 
chines,  and  tools  of  all  sorts  worked  by  steam,  gas,  water,  &c. — J.  E: 
Holmes,  esq.,  New  Hampshire,  now  residing  in  England ;  associate  juror 
in  this  class  with  Mr.  Holmes,  Mr.  Debauvais,  machinist,  of  New  Y ork. 

“Group  VI,  Class  57 :  Machines  of  all  kinds  for  sewing,  embroidery, 
&e.,  in  cloth,  stuffs,  and  leather ;  tacking,  pegging,  nailing  machines,  &c. — 
H.  Q.  d’Aligny,  esq.,  Michigan,  United  States  Commissioner. 

“One  special  juror  on  the  new  order  of  prizes — Charles  C.  Perkins, 
esq.,  of  Boston. 

“One  vice-president  of  Group  V,  comprising  minerals  and  raw  prod¬ 
ucts  of  many  kinds — Professor  J.  Lawrence  Smith,  Kentucky,  United 
States  Commissioner. 

“Fourteen  in  all  on  the  jury  list. 

“  It  will  be  observed  that  we  have  no  class  jurors  on  agricultural  ma¬ 
chines,  nor  on  agricultural  products,  &c.,  where  I  was  extremely  anxious 
to  have  them.  I  should  have  been  much  gratified  if  I  could  have  trans¬ 
ferred  three  jurors  from  Group  I  to  Groups  V  and  VII.  Failing  to  ob¬ 
tain  from  the  Imperial  Commission  an  allotment  on  these  classes,  I 
endeavored  to  effect  an  exchange  by  negotiation  with  other  commissions, 
(which  is  permitted,)  but  found  none  who  were  not  more  tenacious  of  the 
classes  I  desired  to  obtain  than  desirous  of  the  classes  I  wished  to  relin¬ 
quish,  and  I  could  not  effect  the  exchange. 

“I  repeat,  therefore,  that  I  am  not  satisfied  with  the  distribution ;  but 
this  feeling  prevails  in  general,  and  I  must  acknowledge  the  evident 
desire  of  tire  Imperial  Commission  to  be  fair  and  impartial,  and  to  give 
satisfaction  as  far  as  possible  in  a  matter  wherein  the  complete  satisfac¬ 
tion  of  each  commissioner,  in  conformity  with  his  own  judgment  and 
wishes,  was  impossible. 

“It  is  possible,  also,  that  I  exaggerate  the  importance  which  properly 
belongs  to  this  subject,  being  influenced,  perhaps,  more  by  feeling  than 
by  judgment.  I  have  witnessed  the  efforts  of  the  foreign  commissions 
to  obtain  the  services  of  competent  and  skillful  men  for  jurors,  and  most 
of  them  being  near  their  own  countries,  with  great  facilities  of  commu¬ 
nication,  they  have  been  able  to  assemble  a  body  of  able  and  experienced 
men  for  each  class  of  products,  whose  investigations,  it  is  impossible  to 
doubt,  will  be  thorough,  and  their  verdict  impartial  and  sound.” 


118 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


WORK  OF  CLASS  JURIES. 

Mr.  Bechwitli  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris,  May  17,  1867. 

“  Sir  :  I  had  the  honor  to  address  you  on  the  3d  of  April,  with  a  brief 
statement  of  the  condition  of  our  section  of  the  Exposition  at  the  open¬ 
ing,  and  suggested  that  fully  a  month  would  be  required  to  complete  it, 
which  estimate  was  nearly  correct. 

“  The  work  of  the  class  juries  commenced  on  the  2d  of  April,  and  was 
continued  daily  till  completed. 

“The  necessity  of  getting  the  packages  all  opened,  and  the  products 
in  a  condition  to  be  examined  by  the  juries,  is  obvious.  For  this  pur¬ 
pose  I  employed  a  force  as  numerous  as  could  work  to  advantage.  The 
juries  being  also  numerous,  ninety-four  in  number,  (counting  six  hundred 
members,)  their  visits  were  incessant  in  different  classes  and  different 
parts  of  the  section,  and  the  necessity  of  attending  to  them  delayed  the 
work  of  placing  the  products,  it  being  more  important  to  bring  them 
under  the  inspection  of  the  juries  while  it  was  possible,  and  to  complete 
the  final  placing  with  more  care  afterward. 

“  The  number  of  our  exhibitors  is  from  seven  hundred  to  eight  hun¬ 
dred,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  up  to  this  date  only  sixty-four  exhibitors 
have  appeared,  and  ninety-six  agents ;  and  many  of  the  agents  being 
parties  residing  in  Paris,  take  little  interest  in  the  business  with  which 
they  are  charged,  and  pay  little  or  no  attention  to  it.  It  is  usual  for 
exhibitors  to  be  present  with  their  products  in  person,  or  by  agents  who 
understand  the  products,  and  whose  business  and  interest  it  is  to  make 
known  their  qualities  to  the  juries,  that  they  may  receive  proper  appre¬ 
ciation.  But  the  absence  of  exhibitors,  and  absence  of  substitutes  pro¬ 
vided  by  them,  left  the  jury- work  in  a  great  measure  to  me ;  and  consid¬ 
ering  it  of  great  moment  to  the  exhibitors,  absent  as  well  as  present,  I 
made  the  fullest  provision  for  it  in  my  power,  and  gave  my  whole  atten¬ 
tion  to  it  while  it  lasted. 

“  Our  products  have  therefore  been  well  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
juries;  their  reports,  when  published,  will  show  this,  and  show  also,  I 
think,  that  they  have  been  fairly  and  intelligently  appreciated. 

“But  exhibitors  are  anxious  in  presence  of  jurors;  each  is  conscious 
of  the  value  of  his  particular  products,  and  naturally  apprehensive  that 
time  enough  will  not  be  given  to  them.  It  seldom  happens  indeed  that 
jurors  spend  as  much  time  on  a  single  exhibit  as  the  exhibitor  desires. 
The  jurymen  are  chiefly  experts,  and  do  not  require,  or  think  they  do 
not,  as  much  time  for  accurate  appreciations  of  products  as  the  producer 
may  think  necessary.  It  also  occurs  frequently  that  the  exhibitor  or 
agent  is  not  present,  and  cannot  be  found  when  the  jury  comes  to  his 
class,  and  the  work  goes  on  without  him. 

“This  is  unsatisfactory,  and  leads  to  numerous  reclamations,  to  which 
the  juries  have  been  in  general  attentive  and  accommodating;  but  in 


AWARDS  AND  HONORARY  DISTINCTIONS. 


119 


most  of  the  numerous  cases  of  recall  which  I  have  had  occasion  to  make, 
they  have  proved  to  be  of  small  importance  beyond  satisfying  the  exhib¬ 
itor,  the  juries  having  shown  generally  that  their  work  had  been  prop¬ 
erly  done ;  and  I  conclude  my  remarks  on  this  laborious  part  of  the  work 
with  an  expression  of  confidence  that  the  result  will  prove  satisfactory.” 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  PRIZES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seivard. 

“Paris,  July  2,  1867. 

“  The  promulgation  of  the  awards  and  distribution  of  medals,  which  is 
the  principal  event  of  the  Exposition,  took  place  yesterday  in  the  Palais 
de  l’lndustrie,  in  the  presence  of  an  audience  composed  of  all  nations, 
and  numbering  about  seventeen  thousand  persons. 

“The  awards  to  our  exhibitors  were  mentioned  in  my  letter  of  the  28th 
ultimo,  and  are  now  published  in  detail  by  the  Imperial  Commission,  and 
copied  generally  in  the  daily  journals. 

“  The  proclamation  of  the  awards  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  brilliant 
and  imposing  pageant,  but  the  event  was  suggestive  of  more  grave  and 
important  considerations. 

“Formerly  the  dignity,  wealth,  and  fashion  of  surrounding  nations 
met  on  the  plains  of  France,  ‘in  tents  of  cloth  of  gold/  to  honor  arms  by 
mimic  war  and  feats  of  personal  prowess  in  the  tournament ;  but  at  that 
period  toil  was  remitted  to  serfs,  and  labor  was  degraded. 

“To-day  the  civilized  world  assembles  on  the  same  ground  to  do  honor 
to  labor. 

“We  have  been  accustomed  to  read  with  admiration,  real  or  romantic, 
the  accounts  of  the  fetes  of  the  Celestial  Empire,  where  the  ruler  conde¬ 
scends  annually  to  hold  the  plow  in  honor  of  husbandry.  Yesterday 
an  assembly  of  all  nationalities,  numbering  seventeen  thousand  persons, 
including  rulers,  peasants,  and  every  class, 'put  their  hand  to  the  plow, 
and  did  homage  to  labor,  skill,  and  science,  which  are  the  bases  of  civili¬ 
zation  and  progress. 

“The  participation  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  this  great 
competition,  and  the  rank  which  the  products  of  their  industry  hold,  as 
determined  by  the  deliberate  judgment  of  ninety -four  international  juries 
who  have  decreed  awards  to  more  than  one-half  of  our  exhibitors,  justify 
expressions  of  cordial  congratulation  and  satisfaction.” 

HONORARY  DISTINCTIONS. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris,  July  5,  1867. 

“  Sir  :  The  volumes  containing  the  official  report  of  awards  to  exhib¬ 
itors  should  have  been  published  by  the  Imperial  Commission  on  the  1st 


120 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


of  July,  but  I  am  not  yet  able  to  send  it  to  you,  as  it  is  still  in  the 
press. 

“I  intended  also  to  allude  more  fully  to  tlie  grand  prix  awarded  to 
Mr.  Hughes,  to  Mr.  Gyrus  W.  Field,  to  the  Sanitary  Commission,  and 
the  prix  (equivalent  to  a  grand  prix)  to  M.  Chapin,  in  the  new  Order  of 
Recompenses ;  but  wishing  to  state,  in  the  language  of  the  report,  the 
grounds  of  the  awards,  I  am  compelled  to  await  its  publication. 

44  I  have  now  to  report  the  honorary  distinctions,  in  connection  with 
the  Exposition,  conferred  by  the  government  on  the  following  persons  : 


Mr.  Elias  Howe,  Jr.  :  - 

Mr.  Chickering  :  -  - 


Mr.  Mulat  :  -  -  -  - 

Mr.  J.  P.  Kennedy  :  -  - 
Mr.  J.  Lawrence  Smith  : 
Mr.  S.  B.  Ruggles  :  -  - 

Mr.  C.  C.  Perkins  :  -  - 
Mr.  C.  R.  Goodwin  :  -  - 
Mr.  Robert  Berney  :  - 


Inventor  of  the  sewing  machine,  and  founder 
of  the  great  and  important  industry  rep¬ 
resented  by  that  machine. 

A  respectable  house  of  long-standing  and 
importance,  continuing  from  father  to  son, 
which,  by  ability  and  great  study  to  im¬ 
prove  their  work,  have  contributed  to  raise 
the  standard  of  this  class  of  products  to  a 
high  level  in  the  United  States. 

Architect  and  engineer  in  the  United  States 
Section  of  the  Exposition. 

United  States  Commissioner  and  member  of 
the  International  Jury,  Group  I,  Class  3. 

United  States  Commissioner  and  vice-presi¬ 
dent  of  Jury  for  Group  V. 

United  States  Commissioner  and  member  of 
the  committee  on  weights,  coins,  and  mea¬ 
sures. 

Member  of  the  special  jury  on  the  new  Order 
of  Recompenses. 

United  States  Commissioner,  machinist,  and 
member  of  the  jury,  Group  YI,  Class  52. 

United  States  Commissioner. 


44  To  the  preceding,  the  honorary  distinction  of  4  Chevalier  de  la  legion 
d’honneur.’  To : 

Mr.  K.  M.  Beckwith,  Commissioner  General,  the  honorary  distinction 
of  4  Officier  de  la  legion  d’honneuiY 

u  The  honorary  distinctions  above  named  have  been  received  subject 
to  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  which  may  be  applicable  to  them  and 
to  the  action  of  the  government  and  Congress. 

44 A  membership  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  is  not  a  title  of  any  kind,  or  a 
name  by  which  men  are  called,  but  it  confers  the  distinction  which 
attaches  to  the  membership  of  a  numerous  and  respectable  association, 
as  a  membership  of  the  Institute  or  of  the  Royal  Society. 

44 1  am  not  aware,  therefore,  whether  clause  7,  section  9,  of  the  Consti¬ 
tution,  is  applicable  to  it,  or  whether  Congress  has  ever  considered  the 
subject  and  decided  it. 


AWARDS  AND  HONORARY  DISTINCTIONS. 


121 


“But  I  desire  for  my  guidance  (and  in  this  I  doubt  not  of  the  cordial 
concurrence  of  my  associates)  an  expression  of  opinion  from  the  govern¬ 
ment  in  regard  to  the  propriety  of  accepting  this  distinction  ;  and  if  not 
otherwise  directed,  I  shall  embrace  an  early  opportunity  of  soliciting  the 
action  of  Congress  on  the  subject. 

“The  Exposition  is  international ;  its  aims  and  effects,  both  national 
and  moral,  are  international  ;  its  courtesies  are  international  ;  and  the 
services  connected  with  it  are  necessarily  in  the  ^ame  spirit. 

“The  awards,  therefore,  to  be  appropriate,  should  be  of  the  same  in¬ 
ternational  character  $  and  if  the  government  and  Congress  approve  the 
acceptance  of  these  distinctions,  they  will  thus  impart  to  them  the  ele¬ 
ment  which  is  requisite  to  complete  their  proper  character  and  value.” 

EXHIBITION  OF  THE  MEDALS  AND  DIPLOMAS  AWARDED  TO  THE 
UNITED  STATES  EXHIBITORS. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  November  18,  1867. 

“The  great  number  of  awards,  and  the  preparation  of  the  stamps  for 
imprinting  the  name  of  each  person  on  his  medal  as  well  as  on  his 
diploma,  protracts  the  labor,  and  though  the  delivery  of  awards  has 
commenced,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  completed  before  February  or  March. 

“  Many  of  our  successful  exhibitors  have  not  visited  the  Exposition, 
and  of  those  who  have  done  so  most  of  them  have  now  returned  to  the 
United  States. 

“  It  will  be  necessary,  therefore,  for  me  to  transmit  the  awards,  when 
received,  to  the  government  or  its  agents  for  right  delivery,  and  in 
doing  this  I  beg  to  suggest,  for  your  consideration,  the  utility  and  expe¬ 
diency  of  an  exhibition  of  the  awards  at  the  seat  of  government  for  a 
limited  time  before  their  final  distribution. 

“  The  collection  of  medals  and  diplomas  thus  exposed  will  make  a  visi¬ 
ble  display  of  some  of  the  results  of  the  Exposition,  which,  I  think, 
cannot  fail  to  be  gratifying  to  the  government  and  to  Congress,  and  ben¬ 
eficial  to  the  exhibitors  and  to  the  country. 

“  Iu  making  this  suggestion  I  assume  that  the  recipients  of  awards 
will  be  pleased  with  this  course,  which  I  infer  from  the  nature  of  the 
proposal  and  from  the  uniform  opinion  of  those  with  whom  I  have 
spoken  on  this  subject. 

“  The  additional  expenditure  required  will  be  small,  and  will  be  kept 
within  the  limits  of  the  appropriations  already  made  for  the  exhibition. 

“  I  venture  to  hope,  therefore,  that  you  may  consider  an  exposition  of 
the  trophies  a  becoming  and  appropriate  method  of  concluding  a  com¬ 
petitive  international  exhibition  of  the  products  of  industry,  and  that 
you  will  be  willing  to  assent  to  the  proposal.” 


122 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


PRIZES  FOR  REAPING-  AND  MOWING  MACHINES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“Paris,  January  6,  1868. 

“  The  adjustments  of  awards  and  delays,  in  their  distribution  have 
prevented  me  from  sending  you  a  complete  list  showing  the  final  result, 
and  I  am  still  unable  to  do  so,  the  work  being  not  yet  completely  fin¬ 
ished. 

“A  distribution  of  awards  was  made  by  his  Imperial  Majesty  yester¬ 
day,  in  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries,  to  the  successful  exhibitors  in 
Groups  YIII  and  IX,  which,  with  previous  additions  and  adjustments, 
will  increase  the  number  in  the  United  States  Section,  reported  in  the 
letter  which  I  had  the  honor  of  addressing  to  you  on  the  24th  June  last, 
from  two  hundred  and  sixty-two  to  two  hundred  and  ninety-one. 

“  The  superiority  of  the  reaping  machines  of  Mr.  McCormick,  and  the 
mowing  machines  of  Mr.  Walter  A.  Wood,  over  all  others  exhibited, 
established  by  repeated  experiments  in  the  field  during  the  season, 
together  with  the  acknowledged  importance  and  great  utility  of  those 
machines,  have  secured  for  Mr.  McCormick,  from  the  International  Jury, 
a  grand  prix ;  to  Mr.  W.  A.  Wood  a  gold  medal  and  an  object  of  art; 
and  from  the  Emperor,  to  each  of  those  gentlemen,  the  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.” 

CONDITION  OF  THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS  INDICATED  BY  THE  AWARDS. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  January  21,  1868. 

#####  #  *  # 

“  I  beg  to  solicit  your  attention  to  the  tabular  statement  alluded  to 
on  page  6  of  the  preface,1  as  expressing  briefly  the  opinion  of  six  hun¬ 
dred  international  jurors,  in  a  form  that  indicates  the  relative  condition 
of  the  mechanical,  manufacturing,  and  industrial  arts  and  productive 
industries  in  the  principal  countries  of  the  world,  so  far  as  that  can  be 
determined  by  an  inquest  of  competent  jurors.  The  table  has  been 
made  with  care  and  accuracy,  and  I  believe  is  reliable. 

“  That  the  products  of  England  should  recede  to  the  position  of  eighth 
on  the  list,  is  a  conclusion  that  perhaps  will  not  be  readily  accepted. 

“  But  it  is  widely  known  that  great  changes  have  been  going  on  since 
the  first  exhibition  in  1851. 

“England,  it  wras  admitted,  excelled  especially  in  machinery  and  in 
nearly  every  department  of  the  working  of  metals. 

“  But  her  methods,  her  forms,  and  her  models  have  been  adopted  and 
reproduced  in  many  countries  on  the  continent,  and  it  is  now  contended 
that  the  better  provision  in  the  latter  for  industrial,  mechanical,  and 
scientific  education  supplies  a  greater  number  of  superior  producers, 


Vide  preface  to  the  “  General  Survey  of  the  Exposition.1 


CONDITION  OF  THE  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS.  123 

and  that  English  models  and  methods  have  been  perfected  and  carried 
beyond  the  originals. 

u  These  observations  are  not  limited  to  the  metallic  department,  but 
are  applied  also  to  woolen  fabrics  and  to  nearly  all  the  higher  manu¬ 
factures  of  cotton,  while  the  supremacy  in  silks,  linens,  designs,  dyes, 
and  finish  was  already  continental. 

u  It  is  also  remarked  that  the  principal  progress  in  English  products 
is  in  the  department  of  pottery,  in  which  she  has  adopted  continental 
forms,  colors,  and  designs,  and  improved  her  work,  but  content  with  her 
great  aggregate  production  and  great  commerce,  has  generally  remained 
stationary  in  regard  to  quality,  while  others  have  advanced ;  and  that 
this  change  was  strikingly  visible  in  the  exhibition  of  1862,  in  which 
England  was  no  longer  in  advance,  and  hardly  maintained  her  level, 
having  now  distinctly  fallen  behind. 

u  It  is  also  remarked,  in  addition,  that  while  these  relative  changes 
and  equalizations  of  the  industrial  arts  have  been  going  on,  there  has 
not  been  much  invention,  but  that  progress  is  chiefly  noticeable  in  the 
perfecting  of  previous  inventions,  designs,  and  methods,  and  that  for 
any  new  combinations  which  are  creative  and  striking  it  is  necessary  to 
look  to  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic ;  that  the  great  revolutions  going 
on  in  war  ships,  guns,  and  small  arms,  and  the  remodeling  of  navies 
and  armies  are  of  American  origin,  and  that  the  American  Section  of 
the  Exposition  was  more  fertile  than  any  other  in  the  original,  the  inven¬ 
tive,  the  peculiar,  and  the  new. 

u  I  need  not  express  any  opinion  as  to  the  accuracy  or  inaccuracy  of 
these  general  views,  but  I  reproduce  them  because  I  have  heard  them 
expressed  during  the  Exposition  by  many  Europeans  connected  with  it 
and  largely  engaged  themselves  in  manufactures  and  industry,  and 
because  these  opinions  appear  to  correspond  in  a  general  sense  with  the 
table  of  results  to  which  I  invited  your  attention. 

u  But  admitting  the  accuracy  of  these  indications,  the  value  of  them 
might  be  readily  over-estimated. 

u  In  an  international  competition  many  of  the  products  exposed  are 
made  for  show,  and  their  qualities  are  in  some  degree  meretricious.  If 
the  products  of  England,  under  these  circumstances,  take  the  position 
suggested  by  the  awards,  it  does  not  follow  that  she  has  not  preserved 
the  medium  of  practical  sense,  and  that  her  products  are  not  best 
adapted  to  the  wants,  the  means,  and  the  consumption  of  the  mass  of 
mankind,  on  which  her  great  commerce  is  based.” 

COMMISSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

JOINT  RESOLUTION  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  INDUSTRIAL  EXPOSITION  AT 

PARIS,  FRANCE. 

“  Whereas  the  United  States  have  been  invited  by  the  government  of 
France  to  take  part  in  a  Universal  Exposition  of  the  productions  of  agri- 


124 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


culture,  manufactures,  and  the  fine  arts,  to  be  held  in  Paris,  Prance,  in 
the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven :  Therefore, 

uBe  it  resolved  by  the  Senate  and  Rouse  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled ,  That  said  invitation  is  accepted. 

“  Sec.  2.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  the  proceedings  heretofore 
adopted  by  the  Secretary  of  State  in  relation  to  the  said  Exposition,  as 
set  forth  in  his  report  and  accompanying  documents  concerning  that 
subject,  transmitted  to  both  houses  of  Congress  with  the  President’s 
message  of  the  eleventh  instant,  are  approved. 

“Sec.  3.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  the  general  agent  for  the  said 
Exposition  at  New  York  be  authorized  to  employ  such  clerks  as  may  be 
necessary  to  enable  him  to  fulfill  the  requirements  of  the  regulations  of 
the  Imperial  Commission,  not  to  exceed  four  in  number,  one  of  whom 
shall  receive  compensation  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  hundred  dollars  per 
annum,  one  at  sixteen  hundred  dollars,  and  two  at  fourteen  hundred 
dollars. 

“  Sec.  4.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  the  Secretary  of  State  be, 
and  is  hereby,  authorized  and  requested  to  prescribe  such  general  regu¬ 
lations  concerning  the  conduct  of  the  business  relating  to  the  part  to  be 
taken  by  the  United  States  in  the  Exposition  as  may  be  proper. 

“Approved  January  15,  1866.” 

The  sixth  portion  of  the  first  section  of  the  joint  resolution  approved 
July  5,  1866,  provided  “for  the  traveling  expenses  of  ten  professional 
and  scientific  commissioners,  to  be  appointed  by  the  President,  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  at  the  rate  of  one  thousand 
dollars  each — ten  thousand  dollars — it  being  understood  that  the  Presi¬ 
dent  may  appoint  additional  commissioners,  not  exceeding  twenty  in 
number,  whose  expenses  shall  not  be  paid;  but  no  person  interested, 
directly  or  indirectly,  in  any  article  exhibited  shall  be  a  commissioner; 
nor  shall  any  member  of  Congress,  or  any  person  holding  an  appoint¬ 
ment  or  office  of  honor  or  trust  under  the  United  States  be  appointed  a 
commissioner,  agent,  or  officer  under  this  resolution.” 

The  following  is  that  part  of  the  supplementary  joint  resolution  ap¬ 
proved  March  12,  1867,  which  provided  for  the  appointment  of  twenty 
honorary  commissioners : 

“  Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  Rouse  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  in  Congress  assembled , 

“I.  That  the  Commission  of  the  United  States  at  the  Universal  Expo¬ 
sition  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
shall  consist  of  the  Commissioner  General  and  honorary  commissioner, 
whose  appointment  was  approved  by  the  joint  resolution  of  January 
twenty-two,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-six ;  also  of  the  thirty  commis¬ 
sioners  whose  appointment  was  provided  for  by  the  joint  resolution  of 
July  five,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-six;  and  of  twenty  commissioners, 
whose  appointment  is  hereinafter  provided  for. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSION. 


125 


“II.  That  the  Commissioner  General  shall  be  the  president  of  the  com¬ 
mission  thus  constituted,  with  a  vote  on  all  questions  that  may  arise. 

“III.  That  the  commission  shall  meet  at  Paris  as  early  as  possible 
before  the  opening  of  the  Exposition,  upon  the  call  of  the  Commissioner 
General,  and,  when  properly  organized,  shall  make  such  rules  and  regu¬ 
lations  as  may  be  necessary  for  efficient  action,  with  power  to  elect  a 
vice-president  from  their  own  number,  who,  in  the  absence  of  the  Com¬ 
missioner  General,  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  commission,  and 
to  appoint  committees  and  chairmen  of  groups. 

“  IV.  That  the  commission  may  designate  additional  persons,  not  ex¬ 
ceeding  twenty  in  number,  being  citizens  of  the  United  States,  known 
to  be  skilled  in  any  branch  of  industry  or  art,  who  are  hereby  authorized 
to  attend  the  Exposition  in  behalf  of  the  United  States  as  honorary 
commissioners  without  compensation. 

“  V.  That  the  commission  may  employ  a  secretary  and  clerks  for  the 
commission,  the  necessary  scientific  assistants  and  draughtsmen,  and 
may  engage  suitable  rooms  for  the  commission. 

“VI.  That  no  commissioner  shall  act  as  agent  for  the  show  or  sale  of 
any  article  at  the  Exposition,  or  be  interested,  directly  or  indirectly,  in 
any  profits  from  any  such  article.” 

LETTERS  OF  APPOINTMENT  TO  COMMISSIONERS. 

Letters  were  addressed  by  the  Secretary  of  State  in  the  following 
form  to  the  gentlemen  appointed  as  commissioners,  and  to  the  ten  pro¬ 
fessional  and  scientific  commissioners : 

To  Commissioners  ivithout  compensation. 

“Department  of  State, 

“  Washington , - ,  1866. 

“Sir:  The  joint  resolution  approved  on  the  5th  of  July,  1866,  a  copy 
of  which  is  annexed,  authorizes  the  President  to  appoint  twenty  com¬ 
missioners,  who  shall  serve  without  compensation,  to  attend,  on  behalf 
of  the  United  States,  the  Universal  Exposition  to  be  held  at  Paris, 
Prance,  in  the  year  1867,  commencing  on  the  1st  of  April,  and  closing- 
on  the  31st  of  October,  in  that  year. 

“These  appointments  are  intended  as  honorary  distinctions  for  gen¬ 
tlemen  who  are  eminent'  for  their  patriotism  and  for  scientific  or  profes¬ 
sional  attainments,  or  familiarity  with  some  special  branch  of  industry, 
and  whose  means  enable  them  to  serve  gratuitously.  Persons  so 
appointed  are  required  to  aid  the  Commissioner  General  and  the  Scien¬ 
tific  Peporting  Commission  in  accumulating  and  arranging  valuable 
information  at  the  Exposition,  in  conformity  with  such  regulations  as 
may  be  prescribed  by  this  Department. 

“  The  President  directs  me  to  offer  to  you  an  appointment  as  one  of 
the  twenty  commissioners  thus  authorized,  provided  you  are  not  inter¬ 
ested,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  any  article  to  be  exhibited  at  the  Expo- 


126 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


sition,  and  shall  not,  during  your  service  as  sucli  commissioner,  hold  any 
other  appointment  or  ctffice  of  honor  or  trust  under  the  United  States. 

“  You  are  requested  to  reply  to  this  letter  at  your  earliest  convenience, 
and,  should  you  accept  the  appointment,  to  inform  me  of  the  place  of 
your  birth. 


To  scientific  and  professional  commissioners. 

“  Department  of  State, 

Washington , - ,  1866. 

“  Sir:  The  President  directs  me  to  offer  you  an  appointment  as  one  of 
the  ten  scientific  and  professional  commissioners  of  the  United  States  to 
the  Paris  Universal  Exposition,  mentioned  in  sixth  clause  of  the  first 
section  of  the  joint  resolution  of  the  5th  of  July,  1866,  a  copy  of  which 
is  annexed,  provided  that  you  are  not  interested,  directly  or  indirectly, 
in  any  article  to  be  exhibited  at  the  Exposition,  and  that  you  shall  hold 
no  other  appointment  or  office  of  honor  or  trust  under  the  United  States 
during  your  term  of  service  as  said  commissioner. 

“In  the  event  of  your  appointment  you  will  be  required  to  attend  the 
Exposition  during  the  period  for  which  it  shall  remain  open,  and  to  co- 
operate  with  the  Commissioner  General  in  the  preparation  of  reports 
upon  it,  in  conformity  with  such  regulations  as  may  be  prescribed  by 
this  Department.  You  will  be  allowed  for  the  payment  of  traveling  ex¬ 
penses  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,, which  is  the  only  allowance  or 
compensation  provided  by  law. 

“  You  are  requested  to  reply  to  this  letter  at  your  earliest  convenience, 
and,  should  you  accept  the  appointment,  to  inform  ine  of  the  place  of 
your  birth. 


Instructions  to  commissioners. 

“Department  of  State, 

“  Washington , - ,  1867. 

“Sir:  I  inclose,  for  your  information,  a  copy  of  the  several  joint 
resolutions  relating  to  the  participation  of  the  United  States  in  the 
Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867.  Pursuant  to  the  third  clause  of  the 
first  section  of  the  resolution  approved  on  the  12th  instant,  the  commis¬ 
sioners  are  required  to  meet  at  Paris  as  early  as  possible  before  the  open¬ 
ing  of  the  Exposition,  upon  the  call  of  the  Commissioner  General.  As 
that  resolution  was  not  passed  and  approved  until  the  12th  instant,  suf¬ 
ficient  time  is  not  allowed  for  the  transmission  of  a  copy  to  the  Commis¬ 
sioner  General,  and  the  issue  of  a  call  by  him  for  the  assembling  of  the 
commissioners  at  Paris,  which  would  enable  them  to  reach  that  capital 
before  the  opening  of  the  Exposition,  the  date  appointed  for  which  is  the 
1st  of  April  next. 

“  It  is  important  that  as  full  and  as  early  a  meeting  as  possible  of  the 
commission  at  Paris  shall  be  held;  and  I  therefore,  on  behalf  of  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSION. 


127 


Commissioner  General,  request  your  attendance  at  that  city  at  your 
earliest  convenience,  and  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  issued  by 
this  Department  on  the  20th  of  August  last,  under  the  authority  of  the 
joint  resolution  approved  on  the  15th  of  January,  1866,  a  copy  of  which 
regulations  has  already  been  forwarded  to  you. 

REGULATIONS  ISSUED  BY  THE  DEPARTMENT. 

The  annexed  is  a  copy  of  the  regulations  for  the  guidance  of  officers 
of  the  United  States  connected  with  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867,  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  State : 

“  Chapter  I. — The  commissioners  will  make  a  report  presenting  a 
brief  general  survey  of  the  Exposition,  and  a  similar  report  upon  the 
character  and  condition  of  the  American  exhibition. 

“  They  will  make  special  reports  upon  inventions,  and  upon  the  various 
products  displayed  which  are  most  advanced  in  the  sciences,  in  the  arts, 
and  in  industry,  giving  a  practical  description  of  the  methods  and  pro¬ 
cesses  connected  with  such  products. 

“  Similar  reports  will  be  made  upon  mineral  and  agricultural  products 
of  importance,  and  upon  raw  materials  and  manufactures  of  great  gen¬ 
eral  use,  or  displaying  remarkable  skill  and  merit ;  upon  implements, 
machines,  tools ;  on  metallurgy,  and  the  extractive  arts  in  general ;  on 
the  products  of  chemistry,  and  the  preparations  of  food  and  clothing ; 
and  on  any  other  subject  connected  with  the  Exposition,  and  relating  to 
the  material,  moral,  and  intellectual  well-being  of  the  nation. 

u  To  accomplish  this  work  the  commissioners  will  proceed  as  follows : 

“  First.  On  or  before  the  opening  of  the  Exposition,  1st  April,  1867, 
they  will  assemble  in  Paris,  and  meet  for  the  purpose  of  organization,  at 
which  meeting  the  Commissioner  General  will  preside. 

“Second.  The  commissioners  will  then  constitute  themselves  a  com¬ 
mittee,  and  proceed  to  elect  a  presiding  officer  and  secretary  for  com¬ 
mittee  meetings,  which  will  be  held  as  often  as  in  their  opinion  the  work 
may  require. 

“  Third.  At  these  meetings  the  committee  will  decide,  from  time  to 
time,  on  the  subject  for  special  reports,  and  designate  the  persons  who 
will  undertake  the  investigation  and  studies  each  report  will  require. 

“  Fourth.  Each  report  will  be  made  on  the  responsibility  of  the  person 
charged  with  it,  and  he  will  sign  his  name  to  it. 

“  Fifth.  The  commissioners  who  may  be  nominated  on  international 
juries  will  perform  that  service. 

“  Sixth.  There  will  be  regular  meetings  of  the  whole  commission  as 
often  as  once  a  month,  at  which  meetings  the  Commissioner  General  will 
preside. 

u  Seventh.  The  committee  will  report  at  these  meetings  the  progress 
made,  and  the  reports  which  have  been  completed  will  be  read  to  the 
meeting  by  their  authors,  and  then  delivered  to  the  Commissioner  Gen- 


128 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


eral  for  transmission  to  the  Department  of  State,  (or  disposed  of  as  the 
Department  may  direct.) 

“  Eighth.  The  meeting  shall  not  he  competent  to  reject  any  report ; 
hut  observations  may  be  made  on  each  report  by  any  commissioner,  and 
he  may  reduce  his  remarks  to  writing  and  send  them  with  the  report,  if 
he  so  desire.  It  will  be  in  order  to  decide  upon  subjects  for  special 
reports  at  the  general  meetings,  as  well  as  in  meetings  in  committee. 

“  Ninth.  The  Commissioner  General  is  entitled  to  call  upon  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  commission  for  their  advice  and  assistance  in  his  depart¬ 
ment.  Their  assistance  so  given  will  be  voluntary,  and  their  counsel 
advisory. 

“Tenth.  A  brief  record  of  the  proceedings  of  the  general  meetings 
will  be  kept  for  transmission  to  this  Department. 

“  Chapter  II.  The  Commissioner  General  is  charged  with  the  super¬ 
vision  and  management  of  the  exhibition. 

“  He  will  receive  the  products  on  their  arrival  in  France  and  place 
them  for  exhibition,  and  he  will  conduct  the  exhibition  in  conformity 
with  the  regulations  of  the  Imperial  Commission. 

“The  employes,  whether  paid  by  him  or  by  exhibitors,  and  all  persons 
engaged  in  explaining  or  exhibiting  products,  or  occupied  on  the  prem¬ 
ises,  will  be  under  his  direction ;  also  the  application  of  motive  force  to 
machinery. 

“  First.  The  1  over  head  gear/  straps,  pulleys,  &c.,  for  machinery  in 
action,  together  with  the  materials  and  laborers  for  working  the  ma¬ 
chinery  and  keeping  it  in  order,  will  be  at  the  expense  of  the  owners  of 
the  machines. 

“  Second.  The  Commissioner  General  will  provide  laborers  for  keeping 
the  apartments  in  order,  linguists  for  explanations,  and  subsidiary  police 
or  guards  for  the  protection  of  property  and  preservation  of  order ;  the 
number  of  persons  to  be  so  employed  is  left  to  his  judgment,  he  having 
regard  to  the  necessities  and  to  the  funds  for  this  purpose  placed  at  his 
disposal.  Exhibitors  may  introduce  employes  in  connection  with  their 
products,  at  their  own  expense,  but  they  shall  not  so  introduce  them 
without  the  consent  of  the  Commissioner  General,  and  such  employes 
will  be  under  his  direction. 

“Third.  The  government  will  not  be  responsible  for  damages,  thefts, 
or  destruction  of  property,  and  insurance  against  all  contingent  risks  to 
property,  either  in  the  Exposition  or  in  transitu ,  is  left  to  the  care  and 
cost  of  the  owners  respectively. 

“  Fourth.  With  the  closing  of  the  Exposition  in  conformity  with  the 
regulations  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  the  government  control  and 
charge  of  the  property  will  cease,  and  the  Commissioner  General  will 
deliver  the  products  to  the  order  of  the  respective  owners,  who  will 
receipt  for  them;  which  delivery  will  be  made  at  the  place  of  exhibition. 
Property  not  applied  for  and  removed  by  the  owners  within  the  period 
fixed  by  the  regulations  of  the  Imperial  Commission  for  that  purpose 


THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSION.  129 

will  be  at  tbe  risk  of  the  owners,  and  subject  to  the  charges  which  may 
accrue  upon  it. 

“  Fifth.  The  Commissioner  General  will  be  responsible  for  the  public 
money  placed  at  his  disposal,  and  will  render  the  accounts  of  his  expendi¬ 
tures  to  this  Department,  in  conformity  with  the  act  of  Congress.” 

MEETINGS  OF  THE  COMMISSON. 

Mr.  Beclcwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris  April  12,  1867. 

u  I  have  the  honor  to  report  that  a  meeting  of  the  United  States  Com¬ 
missioners  to  the  Paris  Exposition  was  called  by  me  at  this  office,  in 
conformity  with  the  act  of  Congress,  on  the  29th  March,  and  that  the 
following  commissioners  were  present:  Messrs.  Euggles,  Evans,  D’Al- 
igny,  F.  Leslie,  Slade,  Seymour,  Kennedy,  Goodwin,  J.  P.  Lesley,  Berney, 
Norton,  Smith,  Valentine,  Beckwith — 14. 

“  The  Commissioner  General  presided.  William  Slade,  esq.,  was  re¬ 
quested  to  act  as  secretary  pro  tempore,  and  business  was  commenced  by 
the  reading  of  the  acts  of  Congress  and  the  regulations  of  the  Secretary 
of  State  constituting  the  commission  and  directing  its  organization  and 
its  labors. 

“  The  meeting  then  proceeded  to  the  election  of  a  vice-president,  which 
resulted  in  the  unanimous  choice  of  S.  B.  Buggies,  esq.,  to  that  office. 
Committees  were  appointed  on  by-laws  and  on  the  selection  of  suitable 
rooms  for  the  regular  meetings  of  the  commission,  whereupon  the  meet¬ 
ing  adjourned  to  the  following  Tuesday,  2d  of  April,  at  2  o’clock. 

“  Several  meetings  have  since  been  held,  which  were  occupied  chiefly 
with  discussions  on  the  appointment  of  committees,  the  choice  of  new 
members,  and  other  measures,  which  have  not  yet  resulted  in  completing 
the  organization  of  the  commission  for  work. 

“  I  append  hereto  a  list  of  the  commissioners  who  have  arrived  since 
the  first  meeting,  and  a  list  of  those  still  absent : 

“  Since  arrived. — Messrs.  Barnard,  Budd,  Mudge,  Stevens — 4. 

“Still  absent. — Messrs.  Bowen,  Hewitt,  Stewart,  Freese,  Adams, 
Jones,  Archer,  Mcllvaine,  Winchester,  Leathermann,  Garrison,  Sweat, 
Leconte— 13.” 

ATTENDANCE  OF  COMMISSIONERS. 

Mr.  Beclcwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  December  11,  1867. 

“  I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  herewith  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  com¬ 
missioners  appointed  by  the  government,  who  have  been  present  in  Paris 
at  any  time  during  the  Exposition ;  a  list  of  the  honorary  commissioners 
elected  by  the  previous  commissioners,  with  the  dates  of  their  election, 
and  explanatory  remarks:  and  a  tabular  statement  showing  the  number 
9  P  E 


130 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


and  dates  of  the  sessions  held  by  the  commission,  with  a  record  of  the 
attendance  of  each  member. 

“  I  transmit  also  to  your  address  a  volume  containing  the  minutes  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  commission,  recorded  by  the  secretary  of  the 
commission,  Mr.  L.  F.  Mellen. 

“  List  of  commissioners  appointed  by  the  government  who  have  been 
present  at  any  time  during  the  Exposition. — Messrs.  Slade,  Evans,  Nor¬ 
ton,  Stevens,  Kennedy,  Euggles,  Bowen,  Berney,  D’Aligny,  Barnard, 
Seymour,  Freese,  Goodwin,  Mudge,  F.  Leslie,  Budd,  Valentine,  Smith, 
Hewitt,  J.  P.  Lesley,  Garrison,  Stewart,  Beckwith,  Archer. 

“List  of  honorary  commissioners  elected  under  the  joint  resolution  of 
Congress  of  the  12th  March,  1867. — Messrs.  Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  of  New 
York,  elected  29th  April ;  George  S.  Hazard,  of  Buffalo,  elected  29th 
April ;  W.  S.  Auchincloss,  of  New  York,  elected  6th  May  ;  William  J. 
Flagg,  of  Ohio,  elected  9th  May  ;  Alexander  Thompson,  of  New  York, 
elected  9th  May;  Professor  William  B.  Rogers,  of  Boston,  elected  9th 
May,  (declined  to  accept;)  Professor  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  of  New  York,  elected 
9th  May;  Professor  J.  T.  Frazer,  of  Philadelphia,  elected  9th  May; 
Messrs.  B.F.  Nourse,  of  Boston,  elected  9th  May,  (resigned;)  L.  F.  Mellen, 
of  Alabama,  elected  9th  May;  M.  P.  Wilder,  of  Boston,  elected  9th  May ; 
J.  P.  Reynolds,  of  Illinois,  elected  13th  May;  J.  H.  Chadwick,  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  elected  26th  May ;  Thomas  McElrath,  of  New  York,  elected 
8th  June;  Patrick  Barry,  of  Rochester,  elected  6th  July;  William  E. 
Johnston,  M.  D.,  of  Paris,  elected  13th  July;  Professor  J.  W.  Hoyt,  of 
Wisconsin,  elected  10th  August.” 


THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSION, 


131 


Record  of  sessions  and  attendance  of  each  member. 


Names  of  commis¬ 
sioners. 

March  29. 

April  2. 

|  April  3. 

April  10. 

j  April  15. 

|  April  22. 

|  April  29. 

|  May  6. 

|  May  9. 

|  May  13. 

|  May  20. 

|  May  26. 

|  June  8. 

CO 

% 

|  July  13. 

|  August  10. 

|  September  5. 

|  October  4. 

|  October  7. 

|  October  8. 

October  10. 

|  October  14. 

|  October  18. 

|  October  21. 

|  October  23. 

|  October  25. 

|  October  28. 

|  October  29. 

|  October  30. 

|  October  31. 

Attendances  of 
each  commiss’r.  1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

28 

23 

22 

21 

21 

19 

16 

16 

16 

15 

15 

14 

12 

11 

11 

10 

10 

9 

8 

8 

7 

7 

6 

6 

6 

5 

5 

4 

4 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

l 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

V 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

J 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Barnard .  . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Morse 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Freese 

1 

1 

Goodwin 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Mudge 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Thnmpsnn 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Leslie  F 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Budd 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Johnson 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Valentine  . . . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Smith . 

Flagg  . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Hewitt . 

1 

1 

1 

1. 

Lesley,  J.  P 

1 

1 

1 

Auchincloss  .... 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Wilder 

Reynolds . 

1 

Hazard 

1 

1 

Stewart . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Cowdin . 

Garrison . 

Nourse . 

1 

Archer . 

1 

Chadwick . 

1 

Frazer  . 

Barry . 

McElrath . 

Hoyt . 

Total* . 

13 

17 

14 

12 

13 

11 

10 

13 

15 

18 

18 

I  I  I 

1319  2211 

1  1  1 

12 

6  11 

11 

1  6 

7 

8 

7 

9 

7 

9 

H 

14 

h 

I16 

L 

— 

1  1  1 

*  The  total  number  of  meetings  was  thirty. 


CLOSE  OF  THE  EXPOSITION  AND  DELIVERY  OF  OBJECTS. 
Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  November  2,  18G7., 

uTlie  circumstances  attending  tbe  close  of  the  Exposition  were  as^ 
follows : 

u  On  the  29th  October  the  Imperial  Commission  published  in  the  Mon- 
iteur  the  notice  hereto  annexed,  to  the  effect  that  the  rumors  of; 


132 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


a  prolongation  were  unfounded,  and  that  the  Exposition  would  be  defin¬ 
itively  closed  on  the  31st  October. 

u  On  the  same  day  letters  were  addressed  by  the  Imperial  Commission 
to  the  foreign  commissioners,  inviting  them  to  a  conference  with  the  Im¬ 
perial  Commission  on  the  30th. 

u  The  conference  was  presided  over  by  the  minister  of  state,  assisted 
by  the  two  vice-presidents,  the  minister  of  commerce  and  public  works, 
and  the  minister  of  the  Emperor’s  household. 

u  The  minister  of  state  informed  the  meeting  that  the  applications  for 
the  prolongation  of  the  Exposition  for  two  weeks,  from  sources  entitled 
to  great  respect,  had  become  so  numerous  and  pressing,  that  he  thought 
it  his  duty  to  consult  the  foreign  commissioners  on  the  subject,  hoping 
to  find  their  views  in  accord  with  the  public  wishes,  and  suggesting  that 
if  the  continuation  of  the  Exposition  for  so  long  a  period  was  not 
thought  advisable,  perhaps  a  shorter  period  might  be  agreed  upon,  and 
a  portion  of  the  proceeds  during  that  time  applied  to  public  charities. 

u  A  brief  discussion  followed,  in  which  several  members  of  the  Impe¬ 
rial  Commission  and  several  of  the  foreign  commissioners  expressed 
their  views.  At  this  point  the  foreign  commissioners  desired  permission, 
which  was  granted,  to  retire  and  deliberate  by  themselves  and  report 
the  result  of  their  deliberation  to  the  Imperial  Commission. 

u  The  great  majority  of  foreign  commissioners,  on  coming  together, 
appeared  to  be  in  favor  of  the  prolongation ;  some  were  opposed  to  it; 
and  of  the  latter  the  commissioners  of  Prussia,  England,  Russia,  Austria, 
and  the  United  States  were  in  the  outset  of  one  opinion,  viz  : 

u  1.  That  they  were  without  authority  from  their  respective  govern¬ 
ments  to  assent  to  a  prolongation. 

“  2.  That  the  regulations  confirmed  by  imperial  decree  of  the  12th 
July,  1865,  fixing  the  close  of  the  Exposition  on  the  31st  October,  form 
the  contract  between  the  Imperial  Commission  and  the  exhibitors,  and 
cannot  be  departed  from  without  the  consent  of  the  exhibitors,  which  it 
is  now  too  late  to  obtain.  It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  assent  to  a  pro¬ 
longation  ;  but  the  two  first  days  of  November  being  religious  fetes, 
and  the  third  Sunday,  not  much  work  can  be  done ;  hence  it  is  prac¬ 
ticable  to  consider  the  Exposition  closed  on  the  31st,  in  conformity  with 
the  contract,  allow  exhibitors  to  take  possession  of  their  products,  com¬ 
mence  the  delivery  of  such  as  are  sold,  the  taking  down  and  packing  of 
those  not  sold,  and  in  general  to  begin  the  work ;  it  is  desirable  at  the 
same  time  to  admit  the  public  at  the  usual  price  during  the  three  days 
of  fete,  as  it  will  not  materially  embarrass  the  little  work  which  can  be 
done,  and  will  create  a  considerable  fund,  to  be  given  to  the  poor  of 
Paris. 

u  These  views,  after  considerable  discussion,  were  agreed  to  by  the 
foreign  commissioners  in  general,  reported  to  the  Imperial  Commission, 
and  in  substance  accepted  by  them  as  developed  in  the  annexed  notice 
from  the  Moniteur,  in  which  an  appeal  is  also  made  by  the  Im- 


THE  CLOSING  OF  THE  EXPOSITION.  133 

perial  Commission  to  the  exhibitors  to  favor  the  charitable  object  of  the 
three  days  as  far  as  their  convenience  will  permit. 

“In  conformity  with  this  arrangement,  the  sale  and  delivery  of  prod¬ 
ucts,  the  introduction  of  packing  boxes  and  workmen,  and  the  prepara¬ 
tion  for  a  general  demolition  of  the  Exposition  are  going  on,  in  presence 
of  visitors,  whose  admission  will  terminate  on  the  3d  instant. 

“  To  avoid  any  misapprehension,  I  beg  to  state  distinctly  that  no  dis¬ 
position  nor  wish  was  shown  to  modify  the  implied  contract  resulting 
from  the  regulations,  without  the  entire  concurrence  of  all  parties  inter¬ 
ested,  and  the  conference  was  invited  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  consul¬ 
tation  and  harmonious  action  on  that  subject. 

“  I  have  also  to  report  that  the  United  States  Commission,  which  for 
some  time  past  has  held  daily  sessions  for  the  dispatch  of  the  business 
intrusted  to  them,  brought  their  meetings  to  a  close  with  the  close  of  the 
Exposition  on  the  evening  of  the  31st  October,  and  adjourned  sine  die. 
The  proceedings  were  concluded  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  thanks  to  the 
Commissioner  General,  also  to  the  commissioners  who  have  acted  success¬ 
ively  as  secretaries  to  the  commission. 

“  The  journal  of  the  proceedings  of  the  commission,  and  the  reports 
which  they  have  prepared,  will  be  forwarded  in  due  course  to  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  State.” 

CEREALS  COLLECTED  BY  EXCHANGE. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  December  18, 1867. 

“I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  catalogue  of  1,442  speci¬ 
mens  of  cereals  which  I  have  collected,  partly  by  exchanges,  at  the  close 
of  the  Exposition. 

“  They  are  derived  from  each  of  the  countries  surrounding  the  Medi¬ 
terranean,  every  country  in  Europe,  and  many  localities  of  each  country, 
and  are  consequently  the  product  of  great  varieties  of  climate  and  soil, 
and  being  Exposition  specimens  are  likely  to  be  the  result  of  the  most 
approved  methods  of  production,  and  free  from  noxious  weeds  and 
herbs. 

“  The  collection  comprises  wheat,  oats,  beans,  corn,  millet,  hemp,  bar¬ 
ley,  buckwheat,  linseed,  rape,  rye,  beets,  colza,  mustard,  carrots,  clover, 
radish,  canary,  sorghum,  sesame,  peas,  anise,  timothy,  &c. 

“  The  quantity  of  each  is  unavoidably  small,  but  probably  sufficient 
for  reproduction,  and  if  distributed  among  many  cultivators  in  suitable 
localities  as  regards  climate  and  soil,  may,  perhaps,  introduce  some 
varieties  which  have  been  improved  by  laborious  and  intelligent  care 
in  the  cultivation. 

“  The  specimens  are  enveloped  in  paper  sacks,  each  of  which  is  num¬ 
bered  to  correspond  with  the  numbers  and  description  in  the  catalogue, 


134 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


and  are  packed  in  a  box  addressed  to  the  Agricultural  Bureau,  Wash¬ 
ington,  and  forwarded  by  the  ship  Mercury,  care  of  J.  C.  Derby,  esq.,  - 
agent,  New  York.” 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  MINERAL  COLLECTIONS. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  March  27, 1868. 

“  Sir  :  Since  the  close  of  the  Exposition  I  have  delivered  to  the 
exhibitors  in  the  mineral  department  all  the  specimens  claimed  by  them, 
and  taken  receipts  for  them. 

“But  there  remained  after  such  deliveries  a  large  quantity  unclaimed, 
consisting  principally  of  specimens,  from  numerous  localities,  of  coal, 
iron,*  lead,  copper,  zinc,  mica,  franklinite,  kaolin,  hydraulic  cement, 
building  stones,  marbles,  slate,  sulphates,  carbonates,  alum,  salt,  sul¬ 
phur,  pyrites,  &c.  These  specimens  were  contributed  in  small  quanti¬ 
ties  from  many  sources,  and  for  the  purpose  of  return  to  the  United 
States  they  would  only  be  worth  the  price  of  raw  minerals.  This 
would  be  covered  by  a  small  sum  of  money,  not  enough  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  return  or  redistribution,  even  if  ownership  could  be  deter¬ 
mined,  which  in  most  cases  it  could  not  be ;  these,  and  similar  consid¬ 
erations,  are,  doubtless,  the  reason  of  their  remaining  unclaimed.  In 
addition  to  the  coarser  minerals  above  named,  Mr.  Whitney,  of  Colo¬ 
rado,  placed  at  my  disposal  a  large  and  beautiful  collection  of  the  ores 
of  that  region,  containing  silver,  gold,  copper,  lead,  &c.  But  though 
the  mineral  value  of  these  products  for  the  purpose  of  returning  them 
to  the  place  of  their  origin  is  less  than  the  expense,  the  question  of  value 
as  specimens  for  analysis  and  study  assumes  a  different  aspect ;  the  col¬ 
lection  of  minerals  from  remote  regions  involves  considerable  labor 
and  cost,  which  are  the  proper  measure  of  their  value  for  the  purposes 
alluded  to,  and  I  have  thought  the  most  useful  disposition  I  could  make 
of  them  would  be  to  distribute  them  among  the  colleges,  schools,  muse¬ 
ums,  and  other  public  institutions  for  the  promotion  of  mineralogical 
studies,  thus  placing  before  the  student  classes  the  means  of  acquiring 
some  knowledge  of  the  quality  and  extent  of  the  mineral  products  of 
the  United  States  as  a  field  for  the  young  and  enterprising. 

“For  this  purpose  the  minerals  were  assorted,  classified,  labeled, 
divided,  catalogued,  and  packed  by  Mr.  D’Aligny,  mining  engineer,  in 
separate  parcels,  and  having  obtained  the  requisite  authorizations  from 
the  authorities,  I  have  made,  in  the  name  of  the  contributor  and  of  the 
government,  the  following  gratuitous  distribution  of  them : 


Association  Poly  technique .  10  70 

Conservatoire  Imperial  des  Arts  et  Metiers .  5  68 

Ecole  Centrale  des  Arts  et  Manufactures . .  7  162 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  MINERALS  AND  ORES. 


135 


Ecole  Chretienne  de  Passy. . .  7  114 

Ueole  d? Application  du  Genie  Maritime .  2  37 

IS  cole  Imp6riale  de  Grignan .  4  43 

^ cole  Imperiale  des  Mines — department  of  geology,  4  boxes, 

78  specimens  5  department  of  mineralogy,  2  boxes,  55  speci¬ 
mens .  6  133 

Museum  d’Histoire  Naturelle .  7  92 

Musee  de  Toulouse .  2  61 

L’Union  Centrale  des  Beaux- Arts,  (building  materials) .  6  66 

College  Chaptal .  3  32 

Musee  Royal  de  Bruxelles .  1  71 

Mus6e  Industriel  de  Turin .  4  56 

University  de  Christiania .  2  48 

iScole  Poly  technique  de  Stockholm .  2  53 


Total .  68  1,106 


“  With  the  minerals  I  distributed  also  a  number  of  the  General  Land 
Office  reports  and  maps  of  the  mineral  regions,  which  I  had  reserved  for 
this  purpose.  I  annex  hereto  a  translation  of  the  letter  addressed  to  the 
minister  of  commerce,  agriculture,  and  public  works,  which  is  similar  to 
those  addressed  to  each  of  the  other  departments $  also  copies  of  the 
several  replies  to  these  letters,  with  translations.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  the  minister  of  agriculture ,  commerce ,  and  public  works. 

“  Paris,  March  9,  1868. 

“Sir:  Several  exhibitors  in  the  mineralogical  section  of  the  United 
States  exhibition  having  left  their  specimens  at  the  disposal  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  I  have  caused  selections  to  be  made  of  such  as  I  deemed  useful 
or  interesting  to  some  of  the  public  institutions  in  the  department  of 
your  excellency,  and  I  hereby  ask  leave  to  present  the  collections  thus 
made  as  follows : 

“To  the  Central  School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures,  7  boxes,  containing  162 
specimens  of  lead,  coal,  zinc,  iron,  silver,  copper,  emery,  frank- 
linite,  &c. 

“  To  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades,  6  boxes,  containing  69  speci¬ 
mens  of  lead,  coal,  zinc,  iron,  silver,  copper,  emery,  franklinite,  &c. 

“  To  the  Imperial  School  of  Mines,  geological  department,  6  boxes,  con¬ 
taining  78  specimens  of  lead,  coal,  zinc,  iron,  silver,  copper,  emery, 
franklinite,  &c. 

‘‘ To  the  Imperial  School  of  Mines,  mineralogical  department,  2  boxes,  con¬ 
taining  55  specimens  of  lead,  coal,  zinc,  iron,  silver,  copper,  emery, 
franklinite,  &c. 

“  To  the  Imperial  School  of  Grignan,  4  boxes,  containing  43  specimens  of 
lead,  coal,  zinc,  iron,  silver,  copper,  emery,  franklinite,  &c. 


136 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  Detailed  catalogues  and  envelopes  containing  duplicate  catalogues 
addressed  to  the  different  institutions  named  above  are  herewith  in¬ 
closed.” 

Similar  letters  were  addressed  to  Messrs.  Brostrom,  consul  general 
of  Sweden  and  Norway,  for  Polytechnic  School  of  Stockholm,  Univer¬ 
sity  de  Christiania;  Le  Baron  Haussmann,  prefet  de  la  Seine,  Associa¬ 
tion  Polytechnique,  College  Municipal  Chaptal;  Duruy,  minister  of 
public  instruction,  Museum  d’Histoire  Naturelle ;  Minister  of  Marine, 
l^cole  Imperiale  des  Genie  Maritime ;  M.  Guichard,  president  Associa¬ 
tion  des  Beaux- Arts  appliques  a  PIndustrie;  Frere  Philippe,  lilcole  Chre- 
tienne  de  Passy ;  S.  Le  Bayer,  Museum  d’Histoire  Naturelle  de  Toulouse ; 
Minister  of  the  Interior,  Brussels,  Musee  Boyal  de  Bruxelles ;  Le  Chev¬ 
alier  Jervis,  Museum  de  Turin. 

TRANSLATIONS  OF  REPLIES  RECEIVED  IN  RESPONSE  TO  THE  FOREGOING. 

“  Paris,  March  23, 1868. 

“  Sir  :  You  inform  me  in  your  letter  of  the  9th  March  that  several  of 
the  exhibitors  in  the  mineralogical  section  of  the  United  States  of  America 
have  placed  their  specimens  at  the  disposition  of  your  government,  and 
you  have  been  so  good  as  to  express  the  desire  to  distribute  among  the 
establishments  under  the  direction  of  this  department  a  portion  of  the 
specimens  named,  such  as  you  think  of  a  nature  to  be  useful  or  inter¬ 
esting  to  them,  requesting  the  authorization  to  present  the  minerals  in 
question  to  the  institutions  named  in  your  letter,  inclosing  to  me  at  the 
same  time  catalogues  and  letters  addressed  to  the  directors  of  those 
establishments,  upon  the  receipt  of  which  the  packages  will  be  delivered . 
I  accept  cordially  this  generous  offer,  for  which  I  pray  you  to  accept  my 
thanks. 

“  I  will  transmit  to  the  directors  of  those  establishments  the  letters 
you  have  been  pleased  to  address  to  them,  and  I  beg  you  to  receive  the 
assurance  of  my  distinguished  consideration. 

“  The  Minister  of  Agriculture ,  Commerce ,  and  Public  Works , 

“DE  FOKCADE.” 

“  Prefecture  of  the  Department  of  the  Seine, 

“ Paris ,  March  26,  1868. 

“  Sir  :  You  have  been  so  good  as  to  offer  in  the  name  of  the  exhibit¬ 
ors  of  the  United  States  a  collection  of  mineral  specimens  for  the  Mu¬ 
nicipal  College  of  Chaptal,  and  for  the  Polytechnic  Association,  which 
institutions  are  under  the  patronage  of  the  city  of  Paris. 

“  Those  establishments  will  surely  find  these  interesting  collections 
useful  auxiliaries  in  teaching,  and  I  pray  you  to  accept  my  cordial 
thanks  for  them,  with  assurances  of  my  distinguished  consideration. 

uLe  Senateur ,  Prefet  de  la  Seine , 


“HAUSSMANN.” 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  MINERALS  AND  ORES. 


137 


“  Institution  des  Ferres  des  ^coles  Oiir  etiennes, 

u  Paris ,  March  14,  1868. 

“  Sir  :  I  have  received  with  your  generous  letter  of  the  9th  instant  the 
catalogue  of  seven  cases  of  minerals,  the  produce  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  which  you  have  been  so  good  as  to  present  to  this  institu¬ 
tion^  and  have  lost  no  time  in  taking  possession  of  this  rich  and  precious 
collection. 

u  A  gift  so  gracious  leaves  us  without  words  to  express  our  thanks, 
but,  penetrated  with  the  liveliest  sentiments,  I  offer,  in  the  name  of  our 
institution,  and  in  my  own  name,  first  to  you,  and  in  your  person  to  the 
great  and  generous  government  you  so  well  represent,  the  tribute  of  our 
gratitude  for  the  excellent  gift  we  have  received  from  your  liberality. 

“  I  pray  you,  sir,  to  accept  this  modest  tribute,  and  permit  me  to  add 
the  homage  of  the  respectful  sentiments  with  which  I  have  the  honor 
to  be 

u  Your  obedient  servant, 

u  Le  Superieur  General , 

“  PEEKE  PHILIPPE.” 

“  MlNISTijRE  DE  L’lNSTRUG'TION  PUBLIQUE, 

u  Paris ,  March  25,  1868. 

“  Sie  :  You  have  been  pleased  to  express  the  desire,  by  your  letter  of 
the  9th  instant,  to  offer  to  the  museum,  in  the  name  of  the  exhibitors  of 
the  mineralogical  section  of  the  United  States,  an  interesting  collection 
of  mineral  products  from  that  country.  I  pray  you  to  accept  my  cordial 
thanks  for  this  gift,  which  will  add  to  the  riches  of  the  mineralogical 
department  of  the  museum.  I  have  requested  the  director  of  that  estab¬ 
lishment  to  take  the  necessary  steps  immediately  to  place  the  museum 
in  possession  of  your  contribution. 

u  Be  pleased  to  receive  the  assurances  of  my  distinguished  considera¬ 
tion. 

u  Le  Ministre  de  VInstruction  Publique , 

DURUY. 

u33cole  Imperiale  de  Genie  Maritime, 

u  Paris ,  March  16,  1868. 

u  Sir  :  In  reply  to  your  letter  of  the  9th  instant,  I  have  the  honor  to 
inform  you  that  I  have  received  the  specimens  of  coal  from  different 
localities  presented  to  the  School  of  Marine  Engineering  by  the  exhib¬ 
itors  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

“  This  collection  possesses  great  interest  for  ns.  I  hasten  to  express 
my  gratitude  for  the  destination  you  have  given  it,  and  pray  you  to 
convey  these  expressions  to  the  exhibitors,  whose  names  will  be  care¬ 
fully  inscribed  on  the  specimens  which  they  have  given  to  the  school. 

Be  pleased  to  receive  the  assurance  of  my  high  consideration. 

u  Le  Directeur  de  VJEeole  Imperiale  d? Application  du  Genie  Maritime , 

“  S.  REECH.” 


138 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  Kingdom  of  Italy, 

“  Royal  Italian  Industrial  Museum  at  Turin. 

“  The  director  of  the  museum  returns  thanks  to  the  Commission  of 
the  United  States  at  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1867  for  the  objects 
'named  below,  presented  to  the  museum,  and  in  consideration  of  their 
importance  has  directed  that  they  form  part  of  the  collections  intended 
to  illustrate  the  latest  progress  of  industry  : 

“  Collection  of  mineral  products  from  the  United  States  of  America, 
coming  from  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1867,  at  Paris. 

•  “  The  Director , 

“DE  YINCENZI.” 

“Ecole  Imperiale  des  Mines, 

“  Paris ,  March  25,  1868. 

“  Sir  :  The  minister  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  public  works  has 
transmitted  to  me  the  letter  you  did  me  the  honor  to  address  to  me  on 
the  9th  instant,  offering  to  the  School  of  Mines  six  cases  of  minerals 
from  the  United  States,  which  have  been  displayed  at  the  Universal 
Exposition  of  1867. 

“  I  shall  lose  no  time  in  taking  possession  of  these  cases,  and  I  make 
haste  to  offer  you  my  thanks  for  this  interesting  collection,  which  will 
be  placed,  with  care,  in  the  museum  of  the  School  of  Mines,  and  a  spe¬ 
cial  mention  will  make  known  its  origin  and  the  names  of  the  contri¬ 
butors. 

“  Be  pleased  to  receive  the  renewed  assurances  of  my  distinguished 
consideration. 

u  Ulnspecteur  General  des  Mines , 

Directeur  de  VEcole  Imperiale  des  Mines , 

“  CH.  COMBES.” 

“  Consul  at  General  de  Swede  et  Norv^ge, 

“  Havre ,  March  11,  1868. 

“  Sir  :  I  had  the  honor  to  receive  your  letter  of  the  9th  instant, 
announcing  the  generous  offer  which  you  were  pleased  to  make,  in  the 
name  of  the  mineralogical  section  of  the  United  States  of  America,  at 
the  Universal  Exposition  of  Paris,  of  four  cases,  containing  samples  of 
minerals,  of  which  two  are  intended  for  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Stock¬ 
holm,  and  two  for  the  University  of  Christiania,  in  conformity  with  the 
two  catalogues  inclosed  in  your  letter. 

“  I  will  immediately  take  possession  of  the  cases,  in  conformity  with 
your  letter  of  address. 

“  Be  pleased  to  accept  the  expression  of  my  distinguished  considera¬ 
tion. 

“  Consul  General  for  Sweden  and  Norway, 

“CH.  BROSTROM.” 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  MINERALS  AND  ORES. 


139 


“  Minist&re  de  la  Marine  et  des  Colonies, 

“  Paris ,  March  16, 1868. 

“Sir:  I  have  received  the  letter  which  you  did  me  the  honor  to 
address  to  me  on  the  9th  instant,  proposing  to  present  to  the  Imperial 
School  of  Marine  Engineering  two  cases  of  mineral  specimens  from  the 
Exposition  of  1867. 

“  I  hasten  to  inform  you  that  I  accept  with  lively  pleasure  this  offer, 
and  that  I  have  transmitted  to  the  director  of  that  establishment  the 
catalogue  of  samples  which  you  have  been  so  good  as  to  present  to  my 
department. 

“  Be  pleased  to  receive  the  assurance  of  my  distinguished  considera¬ 
tion. 

“  12 Amir  at  Ministre  Secretaire  cVl^tat  de  la  Marine  et  des  Colonies , 

“A,  IvKjAULT  DE  GENOUILLY  ” 


III. 


THE  ACTION  OF  CONGRESS— ESTIMATES,  APPRO¬ 
PRIATIONS,  AND  EXPENSES. 


Joint  resolutions  passed  by  Congress — Estimates  by  the  Commissioner  Gen¬ 
eral  OF  THE  COST  OF  THE  EXPOSITION — ESTIMATES,  IN  DETAIL,  FOR  TRANSPORTATION, 
UNPACKING,  INSTALLATION,  GUARDING,  LINGUISTS — FOUNDATIONS  AND  FIXTURES  FOR 

machinery— Decorations,  cases,  storage,  legal  expenses,  etc. — Estimate  of 

EXPENSES  OF  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION — DISCUSSION  OF  THE  AMENDMENTS  PROPOSING 
TO  STRIKE  OUT  THE  PROVISIONS  FOR  THE  PAYMENT  OF  A  PART  OF  THE  APPROPRIA¬ 
TION  in  coin— Report  of  the  advisory  committee  upon  the  necessity  for 

FURTHER  APPROPRIATIONS — EXPENDITURES,  REPORT  FROM  THE  COMMISSIONER  GEN¬ 
ERAL — Report  from  the  Agent  in  New  York. 

JOINT  RESOLUTIONS 

IN  RELATION  TO  THE  INDUSTRIAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  FRANCE. 

“  Whereas  the  United  States  have  been  invited  by  the  government  of 
France  to  take  part  in  a  Universal  Exposition  of  the  productions  of 
agriculture,  manufactures,  and  the  fine  arts,  to  be  held  in  Paris,  France, 
in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven :  Therefore, 

uBe  it  resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled ,  That  said  invitation  is  accepted. 

“  Sec.  2.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  the  proceedings  heretofore 
adopted  by  the  Secretary  of  State  in  relation  to  the  said  Exposition,  as 
set  forth  in  his  report  and  accompanying  documents  concerning  that 
subject,  transmitted  to  both  houses  of  Congress  with  the  President’s 
message  of  the  eleventh  instant,  are  approved. 

u  Sec.  3.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  the  general  agent  for  the 
said  Exposition  at  New  York  be  authorized  to  employ  such  clerks  as  may 
be  necessary  to  enable  him  to  fulfill  the  requirements  of  the  regulations 
of  the  Imperial  Commission,  not  to  exceed  four  in  number,  one  of  whom 
shall  receive  compensation  at  the  rate  of  eighteen  hundred  dollars  per 
annum,  one  at  sixteen  hundred  dollars,  and  two  at  fourteen  hundred 
dollars. 

“  Sec.  4.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  the  Secretary  of  State  be, 
and  is  hereby,  authorized  and  requested  to  prescribe  such  general  regu¬ 
lations  concerning  the  conduct  of  the  business  relating  to  the  part  to  be 
taken  by  the  United  States  in  the  Exposition  as  may  be  proper. 
“Approved  January  15,  18C6.” 

“  Joint  Resolution  to  enable  the  people  of  the  United  States  to  par¬ 
ticipate  in  the  advantages  of  the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris  in 
eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven. 

“  Be  it  resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled ,  That,  in  order  to  enable  the 


142 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


people  of  the  United  States  to  participate  in  the  advantages  of  the  Uni¬ 
versal  Exposition  of  the  productions  of  agriculture,  manufactures,  and 
the  fine  arts,  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty- 
seven,  the  following  sums,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary  for 
the  purposes  severally  specified,  are  hereby  appropriated  out  of  any 
money  in  the  treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated: 

u  First.  To  provide  necessary  furniture  and  fixtures  for  the  proper 
exhibition  of  the  productions  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
plan  of  the  Imperial  Commissioners,  in  that  part  of  the  building  exclu¬ 
sively  assigned  to  the  use  of  the  United  States,  forty-eight  thousand 
dollars. 

“  Secondly.  To  provide  additional  accommodations  in  the  Park,  twenty- 
five  thousand  dollars. 

u  Thirdly.  For  the  compensation  of  the  principal  agent  of  the  exhibi¬ 
tion  in  the  United  States,  at  the  rate  of  two  thousaud  dollars  a  year — 
Provided ,  That  the  period  of  such  service  shall  not  extend  beyond  sixty 
days  after  the  close  of  the  exhibition — four  thousand  dollars,  or  so  much 
thereof  as  may  be  found  necessary. 

u  Fourthly.  For  office  rent  at  New  York  ;  for  fixtures,  stationery,  and 
advertising ;  for  rent  of  storehouse  for  reception  of  articles  and  pro¬ 
ducts  ;  for  expenses  of  shipping,  including  cartages,  &c.;  for  freights  on 
the  articles  to  be  exhibited,  from  New  York  to  France ;  and  for  compen¬ 
sation  of  four  clerks,  in  conformity  with  the  joint  resolution  approved 
on  the  fifteenth  of  January,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-six,  and  for  con¬ 
tingent  expenses,  the  sum  of  thirty-three  thousand  seven  hundred  dol¬ 
lars,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  found  necessary. 

u  Fifthly.  For  expenses  in  receiving,  bonding,  storage,  cartage,  labor, 
and  so  forth,  at  Havre ;  for  railway  transportation  from  Havre  to  Paris  5 
tor  labor  in  the  Palace  ;  for  sweeping  and  sprinkling  compartments  for 
seven  months ;  for  guards  and  keepers  for  seven  months  ;  for  linguists 
(eight  men)  for  seven  months;  for  storing,  packing  boxes,  carting,  and 
for  material  for  repacking ;  for  clerk-hire,  stationery,  rent,  and  contin¬ 
gent  expenses,  the  sum  of  thirty-five  thousand  seven  hundred  and  three 
dollars,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  found  necessary. 

u  Sixthly.  For  the  traveling  expenses  of  ten  professional  and  scien¬ 
tific  commissioners,  to  be  appointed  by  the  President,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  at  the  rate  of  one  thousand  dollars 
each,  ten  thousand  dollars,  it  being  understood  that  the  President  may 
appoint  additional  commissioners,  not  exceeding  twenty  in  number, 
whose  expenses  shall  not  be  paid;  but  no  person  interested,  directly  or 
indirectly,  in  any  article  exhibited  shall  be  a  commissioner ;  nor  shall 
any  member  of  Congress,  or  any  person  holding  an  appointment  or  office 
of  honor  or  trust  under  the  United  States,  be  appointed  a  commissioner, 
agent,  or  officer,  under  this  resolution. 

u  Sec.  2.  And  he  it  further  resolved ,  That  the  governors  of  the  several 
States  be,  and  they  are  hereby,  requested  to  invite  the  patriotic  people 
of  their  respective  States  to  assist  in  the  proper  representation  of  the 


THE  ACTION  BY  CONGRESS. 


143 


handiwork  of  our  artisans,  and  the  prolific  sources  of  material  wealth 
with  which  our  land  is  blessed,  and  to  take  such  further  measures  as 
may  be  necessary  to  diffuse  a  knowledge  of  the  proposed  exhibition,  and 
to  secure  to  their  respective  States  the  advantages  which  it  promises. 

“  Sec.  3.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
said  general  agent  at  New  York,  and  the  said  Commissioner  General  at 
Paris,  to  transmit  to  Congress,  through  the  Department  of  State,  a 
detailed  statement  of  the  manner  in  which  such  expenditures  as  are 
hereinbefore  provided  for  are  made  by  them  respectively. 

“Approved  July  5,  1866.” 

“A  Resolution  to  provide  for  the  exhibition  of  the  cereal  productions 
of  the  United  States  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  April  next. 

“  Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled ,  That  the  Commissioner  of  Agri¬ 
culture  be,  and  he  is  hereby,  instructed  to  collect  and  prepare,  as  far  as 
practicable,  and  with  as  little  delay  as  possible,  suitable  specimens  of 
the  cereal  productions  of  the  several  States  of  the  U nion,  for  exhibition 
at  the  Paris  Exposition,  and  forward  the  same  in  proper  order  and  con¬ 
dition  for  shipment  to  J.  C.  Derby,  agent  of  the  United  States  govern¬ 
ment  for  the  Paris  Exposition,  at  New  York :  Provided ,  That  it  shall 
require  no  further  appropriation  from  the  public  treasury. 

“Approved  January  11, 1867.” 

“A  Resolution  supplementary  to  other  joint  resolutions  to  enable  the 
people  of  the  United  States  to  participate  in  the  advantages  of  the 
Universal  Exposition  at  Paris  in  1867. 

“  Resolved  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled — 

“  I.  That  the  commission  of  the  United  States  at  the  Universal  Expo¬ 
sition  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
shall  consist  of  the  Commissioner  General  and  honorary  commissioner, 
whose  appointment  was  approved  by  the  joint  resolution  of  January 
twenty-two,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-six;  also  of  the  thirty  commis¬ 
sioners,  whose  appointment  was  provided  for  by  the  joint  resolution  of 
July  five,  eighteen  hundred  and  sixty-six,  and  of  twenty  commissioners, 
whose  appointment  is  hereinafter  provided  for. 

“  II.  That  the  Commissioner  General  shall  be  the  president  of  the  com¬ 
mission  thus  constituted,  with  a  vote  on  all  questions  that  may  arise. 

“  III.  That  the  commission  shall  meet  at  Paris  as  early  as  possible  before 
the  opening  of  the  Exposition,  upon  the  call  of  the  Commissioner  General, 
and  when  properly  organized,  shall  make  such  rules  and  regulations  as 
may  be  necessary  for  efficient  action,  with  power  to  elect  a  vice-president 
from  their  own  number,  who,  in  the  absence  of  the  Commissioner  Gen¬ 
eral,  shall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the  commission,  and  to  appoint 
committees  and  chairmen  of  groups. 


144 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  IV.  That  the  commission  may  designate  additional  persons,  not  ex¬ 
ceeding  twenty  in  number,  being  citizens  of  the  United  States,  known 
to  be  skilled  in  any  branch  of  industry  or  art,  who  are  hereby  authorized 
to  attend  the  Exposition  in  behalf  of  the  United  States,  as  honorary 
commissioners  without  compensation. 

u  V.  That  the  commission  may  employ  a  secretary  and  clerks  for  the 
commission,  the  necessary  scientific  assistants  and  draughtsmen,  and 
may  engage  suitable  rooms  for  the  commission. 

u  VI.  That  no  commissioner  shall  act  as  agent  for  the  show  or  sale  of 
any  article  at  the  Exposition,  or  be  interested,  directly  or  indirectly,  in 
any  profits  from  any  such  article. 

u  Sec.  2.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  fifty  thousand  dollars,  or  so 
much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  purposes  severally  specified, 
are  hereby  appropriated  out  of  any  money  in  the  treasury  not  otherwise 
appropriated. 

“  For  additional  freights  from  New  York  to  Havre. 
u  For  transportation  and  freight  from  Havre  to  Paris. 
u  jror  return  freight  of  articles  owned  by  the  United  States  or  lent  to 
the  government  by  individuals. 

u  For  marine  and  fire  insurance  on  the  articles  thus  lent. 
u  For  additional  steam-power  at  Paris,  in  the  Palace  and  the  Annex, 
or  supplemental  building,  and  in  grounds  adjacent. 

u  For  the  exhibition  of  machines,  agricultural  and  other,  and  for  the 
erection  of  buildings  to  illustrate  the  education  and  agriculture  of  the 
United  States,  and  for  the  collection  of  specimens  of  agricultural  pro¬ 
ductions  under  the  joint  resolution  for  that  purpose. 

u  For  the  necessary  expense  of  collecting,  classifying,  labeling,  and 
packing  mineralogical  and  metallurgical  specimens  to  complete  the  exhi¬ 
bition  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  United  States. 

“  For  the  necessary  expense  of  laborers  and  extra  service  in  the  offices 
at  Paris  and  New  York,  and  for  the  expenses  of  a  secretary,  clerks,  sci¬ 
entific  assistants,  and  draughtsmen,  rooms,  and  other  incidental  expenses 
of  the  commission. 

u  Sec.  3.  And  be  it  further  resolved ,  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
general  agent  at  New  York,  and  of  the  Commissioner  General  at  Paris,  to 
transmit  to  Congress,  through  the  Department  of  State,  a  detailed  state¬ 
ment  of  the  manner  in  which  the  expenditures  herein  authorized  are 
made  by  them  respectively. 
u  Approved  March  12,  1867.” 

ESTIMATES  OF  COST  OF  THE  EXPOSITION. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

is  Paris,  January  11, 1866. 

u  Sir  :  The  joint  resolutions  on  the  subject  of  the  Exposition,  pre¬ 
sented  to  Congress  on  the  21st  December,  provide  for  the  expenses  of  a 


ESTIMATES  OF  THE  EXPENSES.  145 

scientific  commission,  the,  freight  of  products  to  and  from  Europe,  and 
the  expenses  of  the  agency  in  New  York. 

u  I  beg  to  suggest  the  expediency  of  introducing  into  these  resolutions 
a  similar  distinct  provision  for  the  expenses  on  this  side. 

“  The  service  here  will  continue  longer  than  in  New  York,  and  will  be 
more  expensive,  because  it  will  require  more  employes. 

u  The  principal  items  will  be,  rent  and  expenses  of  an  office  in  which 
the  business  of  the  Exposition  can  be  transacted,  and  in  which  the  reg¬ 
ular  meetings  and  work  of  the  scientific  commission  can  be  accommo¬ 
dated  ;  the  wages  of  clerks ;  the  cost  of  stationery,  printing,  fuel,  lights, 
&c.  5  and  the  wages  of  an  engineer  architect,  for  the  constructions  to  be 
made. 

u  Notarial  expenses :  all  the  work  should  be  put  under  notarial  con¬ 
tracts  in  May  or  June  next,  at  the  latest.  From  the  nature  of  the  con¬ 
structions  and  the  distribution  of  the  work,  the  contracts  will  be  numer¬ 
ous  ;  and  unless  put  in  notarial  and  legal  form,  so  that  the  work  can  be 
pressed  under  penalties,  it  will  not  be  done  in  time,  and  worse  still,  there 
will  be  numerous  disputes  and  troublesome  lawsuits  about  it,  which 
should  be  avoided. 

“  The  expenses  of  warehousing  and  labor  at  Havre  and  inland  trans¬ 
portation,  in  and  out,  will  be  considerable. 

u  The  reception  of  the  products  at  Paris,  and  the  unpacking  and  placing 
for  exhibition,  will  take  place  in  winter,  when  the  days  in  this  latitude 
are  short,  and  the  weather  stormy  and  uncertain. 

u  The  work  can  go  on  only  by  daylight ;  the  distance  from  the  entre¬ 
pots  of  the  railway  to  the  Champ  de  Mars  is  three  miles,  directly  across 
the  city  $  the  expenses  of  cartage  will  not  only  be  considerable,  but  the 
work  must  be  carefully  looked  after  throughout,  or  there  will  be  much 
damage  to  property,  and  no  redress. 

u  The  item  of  cab  hire  will  of  necessity  be  considerable,  and  will  be  an 
economy  as  being  less  expensive  than  more  clerks,  which  will  otherwise 
be  indispensable. 

u  The  labor  of  placing  machinery  to  be  worked  by  motive  force,  or 
not  worked,  and  the  labor  of  unpacking  and  repacking,  and  of  other 
products,  and  handling  and  placing  of  them  for  exhibition,  must  be  done 
by  a  class  of  competent  laborers,  under  the  constant  direction  of  the  en¬ 
gineer  architect  before  spoken  of. 

u  It  is  impossible  to  compute  in  advance,  with  any  useful  accuracy, 
these  incidental  expenses. 

“  But  the  item  of  cost  of  installation,  (fixtures,  show-cases,  &c.,)  as 
stated  in  my  letter  of  the  23d  November,  cannot,  I  think,  be  brought 
under  $48,000,  in  Paris. 

“  The  installations  are  the  work  alluded  to,  which  must  be  put  under 
contracts  in  May  and  June,  and  the  contracts  must  be  supervised  in  the 
making  by  the  enginer  architect,  who  alone  is  familiar  with  the  techni¬ 
calities  requisite  in  such  contracts. 

10  p  E 


146 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  My  estimates  for  this  item  are  based  on  a  careful  study  of  the  details 
of  the  cost  of  similar  work  in  London  and  in  Paris,  supplied  to  me  by 
the  Imperial  Commission  and  used  for  their  own  estimates ;  and  I  may 
add,  that  the  appropriations  made  in  this  department  by  Switzerland, 
as  I  am  informed,  amount  to  $80,000,  to  cover  what  I  estimate  at  $48,000, 
it  being  my  intention  to  dispense  with  the  ornamental  that  is  not  useful 
and  necessary. 

“  I  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  trouble  you  with  even  this  much 
of  detail,  and  my  apology  for  doing  so  now  is,  that  on  reading  the  draught 
of  resolutions  referred  to,  it  occurs  to  me  that  you  may  think  it  desirable 
to  ask  for  the  introduction  in  these  resolutions  of  a  more  distinct  provi¬ 
sion  for  the  expenditures  on  this  side,  which  involve  also  exchanges, 
and  for  all  which  you  will  have  occasion  subsequently  to  authorize  the 
disbursements,  which  must  go  on  simultaneously  with  the  work. 

“  I  beg  to  repeat  the  opinion  I  have  before  expressed,  that  the  exhibi¬ 
tion  cannot  cost  under  $200,000,  nor  do  I  think  it  can  exceed  $400,000 ; 
probably  it  will  not  vary  much  from  $300,000,  and  in  my  judgment  it 
would  be  better  not  to  undertake  it  than  to  do  so  on  a  less  scale,  which 
I  am  confident  would  result  in  disappointment  and  dissatisfaction. 

“As  soon  as  the  final  action  of  Congress  is  known,  I  will  take  the  lib¬ 
erty  of  suggesting  some  regulations  and  instructions  in  that  conformity, 
applicable  chiefly  to  the  work  on  this  side,  and  to  the  disbursements  and 
accounts,  which  suggestions,  I  trust,  may  recommend  themselves  to  your 
consideration  by  their  fitness  in  a  manner  to  obtain  your  sanction.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Hon.  N.  P.  Banks. 

“  Paris,  February  21,  1866. 

“  I  have  taken  the  liberty  of  addressing  a  letter  to  you  as  chairman  of 
the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations,  presenting  in  considerable  detail 
my  estimates  of  the  expenses  of  the  exhibition. 

“You  will,  I  think,  be  convinced,  if  you  had  any  doubt,  that  the  appro¬ 
priation  proposed  in  Congress  is  inadequate  to  the  occasion,  and  that 
the  subject  deserves  reconsideration.  Judging  from  the  debates  in  the 
House  which  have  reached  me,  the  Exposition,  in  the  estimation  of  that 
body,  is  not  of  much  importance  to  the  United  States.  I  inclose  here¬ 
with  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  English  committee,  present  at  their  last 
meeting  in  London.  Most  of  them  will  be  familiar  to  you ;  they  are 
those  of  men  most  prominent  in  politics,  in  industry,  in  the  sciences  and 
the  arts. 

“  Similar  organizations  exist  in  most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  and 
they  indicate  the  importance  which  is  on  this  side  ascribed  to  the  Expo¬ 
sition.  These  appreciations  may  be  exaggerated,  or  they  may  not  be,  but 
there  is  no  feature  in  the  civil  affairs  of  Europe  so  striking  as  the  won¬ 
derful  and  steady  growth  of  the  commerce  and  wealth  of  the  leading 
nations ;  and  whether  or  not  they  overrate  the  value  of  the  Exposition, 
I  feel  convinced  that  no  country,  not  even  France,  can  derive  so  much 


ESTIMATES  OF  THE  EXPENSES. 


147 


benefit  from  it  as  the  United  States,  in  every  sense,  scientific,  industrial, 
commercial,  and  political. 

“  Under  the  circumstances  which  are  now  past,  the  government  might 
perhaps  have  made  or  found  reasons  for  declining  to  accept  the  invita¬ 
tion  of  the  French  government,  though  I  think  that  would  have  been 
impolitic,  and  in  the  end  unsatisfactory  to  the  country.  But  Congress 
has  accepted  the  invitation,  and  it  now  remains  to  consider  the  provi¬ 
sions  suitable  for  it.  The  new  feature  of  this  Exposition  is,  that  the 
producers  of  the  different  countries  appear  only  through  their  govern¬ 
ments. 

u  The  government  of  the  United  States  cannot  come  forward  and  pre¬ 
sent  the  products  of  the  nation,  scientific,  industrial,  mineral,  and  agri¬ 
cultural,  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  itself  and  to  the  country,  without 
the  expenditure  of  a  considerable  sum  of  money ;  it  is  to  be  done  not 
only  in  presence  of  the  governments  of  Europe,  but  in  competition 
with  them,  and  they  are  doing  their  best  in  the  same  way  for  their  own 
people. 

“At  a  later  period,  when  the  entire  press  of  Europe,  able  and  powerful 
as  it  is  in  its  influence  on  public  opinion  and  affairs,  becomes  occupied 
with  the  Exposition,  as  it  certainly  will  be,  the  importance  of  it  in  every 
point  of  view  will  become  more  apparent  to  those  who  at  present  have 
not  the  time  nor  occasion  to  reflect  upon  it. 

“  But  in  addressing  you  it  would  be  superfluous,  and  in  me  presump¬ 
tive,  to  dwell  upon  the  numerous  and  interesting  considerations  which 
invite  us  to  the  Exposition.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  February  21, 1866. 

“  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  29th 
January  5  also,  the  letter  of  the  acting  Secretary  of  State,  of  the  15th 
January. 

“  I  have  thought  it  might  be  useful  to  lay  before  the  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Affairs,  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  estimates 
of  the  cost  of  the  exhibition  in  much  greater  detail  than  those  I  have 
heretofore  submitted,  and  I  have  accordingly  addressed  him  on  the  sub¬ 
ject. 

“  But  it  is  impossible  for  me  to  know  what  the  state  of  the  business 
will  be  on  the  receipt  of  this  communication.  I  therefore  take  the  liberty 
to  inclose  it  herewith,  and  leave  it  open  that  it  may  be  read  and  sent  to 
the  address,  or  suppressed,  as  you  may  please  to  decide  will  be  best.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Son.  N.  P.  Banks. 

u  Paris,  February  21,  1866. 

“I  take  the  liberty  of  submitting  for  your  consideration  the  estimates 
in  detail,  which  show  the  probable  cost  of  the  exhibition  of  1867. 


148 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“They  are  based  upon  the  results  of  previous  exhibitions,  upon  local 
inquiries,  and  upon  conjecture  in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  products  to 
be  transported. 

aThe  surface  of  ground  within  the  Palace  to  be  actually  covered  by 
products  is  about  ten  thousand  square  feet.  If  this  area  were  covered 
to  the  height  of  four  feet,  the  cubic  contents  would  be  forty  thousand 
cubic  feet,  equal  to  one  thousand  tons  of  forty  cubic  feet  each. 

“I  omit  calculations  relating  to  the  groups  in  the  Park,  and  assume 
one  thousand  tons  as  a  convenient  figure.  The  exact  quantity  is  of  small 
moment ;  the  cost  of  transportation  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  whole  cost ; 
and  the  general  expenses  will  be  about  the  same,  whether  the  quantity 
of  freight  be  five  hundred,  or  one  thousand,  or  fifteen  hundred  tons. 

u  Transport  on  the  railways  is  regulated  by  tariff,  and  it  is  impossible 
to  know  in  advance  what  proportion  will  fall  under  the  different  rates. 
I  therefore  assume  the  medium  rate  from  Havre  to  Paris,  which  is  six¬ 
teen  francs  per  ton : 

1st.  1,000  inward,  at  sixteen  francs,  16,000  francs,  or  at  5  francs  $3, 250 


Outward . . .  3, 250 

Landing  expenses,  bonding,  storage,  cartage,  labor,  and  com¬ 
missions  for  forwarding  inward,  7J  francs .  1, 500 

Outward  .  1, 500 

Paris,  cartage  a  distance  of  about  three  miles  from  the  depot 

to  the  Champ  de  Mars  and  labor,  6  francs .  1, 200 

Outward . 1,200 


11, 900 

u  Unpacking  in  the  Palace  will  commence  on  the  15th  Jan¬ 
uary,  1867,  and  end  on  the  30th  March,  1867,  a  period  of  one 
and  a  half  months.  About  the  same  time  will  be  required  for 
repacking  and  dispatch,  making  together  three  months.  The 
number  of  laborers  required  for  this  work,  which  can  only  be 
done  by  daylight,  will  be  increased  by  the  shortness  of  the  days 
in  this  latitude  at  that  season  of  the  year.  The  chef  de  ser¬ 
vice  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  who  superintends  this  work 
in  the  French  section,  and  who  has  had  great  experience  in 
the  work  both  in  London  and  Paris,  informs  me  that  I  will 
require  thirty  laborers  for  six  weeks  inward  and  the  same  out¬ 
ward. 

u  The  labor  must  be  directed  by  an  engineer  architect  capa¬ 
ble  of  placing  machinery  in  connection  with  motive  force  for 
action,  and  who  is  also  familiar  with  the  architectural  plans 
and  the  arrangement  of  groups  and  classes  for  display.  The 
greater  part  of  the  laborers  must  be  those  who  are  accustomed 
to  work  among  machinery,  &c.,  or  in  warehouses  and  shops,, 
accustomed  to  packing  and  unpacking  and  the  placing  of  vari¬ 
eties  of  fabrics  and  products  for  display.  There  will  be  a 


ESTIMATES  OF  THE  EXPENSES.  149 

great  demand  for  that  kind  of  labor,  and  wages  will  probably 
average  five  francs  per  day : 

2d.  90  days  for  inward  and  outward,  at  5  francs  =  450  x  30  = 

13,500  francs .  $2,  700 

“  During  the  Exposition,  which  will  last  seven  months,  the 
compartments  must  be  sprinkled  and  dusted  every  morning 
and  kept  in  proper  condition  : 

3d.  214  days,  at  10  francs,  2,140  francs .  428 


“  There  must  be  a  guard  in  each  compartment  during  the 
visiting  hours  to  prevent  thefts  and  damages  and  report  any 
misconduct  of  visitors.  The  French  government  provides 
police,  &c.,  day  and  night,  but  does  not  respond  for  thefts  and 
damages  by  visitors.  This  service  will  require  seven  men, 
which  I  estimate  at  5  francs  per  day,  and  one  man  at  10  francs 
per  day. 

4th.  214  days  x  7  =  1,498  days,  at  5  francs,  7,490 ;  214  days, 

at  10  francs,  2,140 — 9,630  francs . . . .  1,926 

“It  is  usual  for  the  Commissioner  General  to  provide  a 
number  of  linguists  capable  of  giving  explanations  of  machinery 
and  other  products  to  visitors.  Without  this  many  of  the 
most  curious  and  interesting  objects  cannot  be  understood ; 
important  qualities  are  unobserved  and  the  intended  diffusion 
of  information  fails.  I  propose  for  this  service  two  men  in 
Group  YI,  and  one  man  in  each  of  the  other  groups,  making — 

5th.  Eight  men,  214  days  =  1,912,  at  10  francs  per  day,  19,120 

francs .  3,824 

“  This  number  will  not  be  sufficient  for  the  work,  but  I  leave 
to  exhibitors  to  give  such  explanations  of  their  own  works  as 
they  may  be  able  to  do,  and  to  make  further  provision  by  in¬ 
terpreters  if  they  think  their  interests  require  it ;  also  to  pro¬ 
vide  the  men  for  attending  machines  in  action  and  the  ex¬ 
penses  of  materials,  &c.,  consumed  in  the  working. 

“  The  cost  of  foundations  and  fixtures  for  machinery,  the 
cost  of  show  cases,  tables,  and  other  fixtures  or  installations 
I  take  from  the  lowest  average  cost  of  similar  work  in  the 
London  and  Paris  exhibitions,  excluding  therefrom  all  decor¬ 
ations.  The  data  for  this  have  been  supplied  me  by  the 
Imperial  Commission,  and  I  cannot  reduce  the  estimates  I  first 
reported : 

6th .  48,000 

“Expensive  decorations  will  be  used  in  all  other  sections, 
and  their  absence  from  ours  I  do  not  expect  will  be  wholly 
satisfactory  to  the  Imperial  Commission,  to  the  public,  nor  to 
our  own  people. 

“I  could  provide  very  respectable  decorations  of  the  kind 
most  used  for,  I  think,  $10,000,  but  I  have  wholly  omitted  this 
item  in  my  estimates. 


150 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“Packages  (which  are  expensive  here)  will  all  require  to 
be  removed  to  a  considerable  distance  to  find  storage  for  them 
for  seven  months  and  then  returned  to  be  used  again. 

7th.  Cost  of  cartage,  storage,  recartage,  and  new  materials  for 

repacking .  $1,000 

“  The  contracts  for  the  above  works  (installations)  should 
be  made  in  May  and  June,  1866,  and  should  all  be  notarial 
and  drawn  by  the  aid  of  the  engineer  architect,  who  is  familiar 
with  the  forms  and  nomenclature.  Unless  the  contracts  are 
so  made  and  carry  penalties  which  can  be  enforced,  the  work 
will  not  be  ready  in  time ;  it  will  not  conform  to  the  agreements 
and  the  wants ;  and  there  will  be  disputes,  references,  and  law¬ 
suits  as  well  as  disappointments. 

“  The  notarials,  &c.,  I  hope  to  include  in  the  above  estimate, 
though  it  is  not  in  the  originals.  The  information  relating  to 
the  preceding  has  been  derived  chiefly  from  the  Imperial  Com¬ 
mission  and  from  the  tariff  of  railways. 

“The  following  estimate  of  office  expenses  is  from  Messrs. 

Munroe  &  Co.,  a  respectable  banking-house : 


Office  rent  per  annum .  . .  $1, 000 

Fire  and  lights .  250 

Porter .  500 

Stationery .  300 

Postages .  100 

City  taxes . . .  200 

Office  furniture1 .  600 

Printing .  150 


3, 100 

8th.  One  year  and  nine  months . 

“  The  force  required  will  be  an  accountant,  a  corresponding 
clerk,  a  copyist,  and  an  out-door  clerk  : 

9th.  One  at  $1,600,  one  at  $1,400,  and  two  at  $1,200,  $2,400 — 

$5,400,  one  year  and  nine  months . 

“  An  engineer  architect  familiar  with  French  and  English 
and  acquainted  with  Paris,  to  superintend,  the  work  as  before 
stated,  is  indispensable.  The  four  clerks  must  also  be  familiar 
with  two  languages  at  least,  and  acquainted  with  business  in 
Paris.  The  cost  of  an  engineer  architect  I  estimate  at  $3,000 
per  annum. 

10th.  One  year  and  nine  months . 

11th.  The  extra  expenses  of  a  building  in  the  Park,  such  as  I 
have  recommended,  stands  in  my  estimate  at . 


5, 425 

9,  450 


5, 250 
25,  000 


1  Probably  can  be  sold  for  two-thirds  of  the  cost. 


114,  903 


ESTIMATES  OF  THE  'EXPENSES. 


151 


“  But  I  hope  the  report  from  Mr.  Derby  of  the  space  required 
will  enable  me  to  reduce  this  estimate. 

“  These  are  the  estimates  of  expenses  on  this  side  proper  to 


the  exhibition,  and  to  this  must  be  added  exchange : 

12th.  Which  with  gold  at  142  will  be . . .  $48, 301 

163,  204 

A  scientific  commission  of  ten  persons,  and  employed 
for  one  year,  they  paying  their  own  traveling  and 

all  other  expenses,  I  estimate  at  $6,000  each .  60,  000 

They  will  require  local  professional  assistants,  as 
stated  more  fully  in  my  letter  on  the  subject  to  the 
Department  of  State,  and  I  estimate  for  that  pur¬ 
pose  .  $30, 000 


90,  000 

Exchange  as  above .  37, 800 

13th .  127,800 

$291,  004 


“  I  have  not  included  herein  sea  freights,  which  I  estimate  at  $7,000 
each  way  in  sailing  vessels;  nor  the  expenses  in  New  York,  to  be  deter¬ 
mined  by  the  length  of  time  it  will  be  requisite  to  keep  that  office  open. 

“  Neither  is  anything  here  put  down  for  contingent  expenses,  which 
are  likely  to  arise  from  unforeseen  causes. 

“  It  is  not  probable  the  actual  expenditures  will  run  exactly  with  the 
estimates  of  items  above ;  some  of  them  will  cost  more  and  others  less ; 
but  if  the  appropriations  admit  of  transfers,  as  they  should  do,  from  one 
item  to  another,  an  appropriation  of  $300,000  I  still  hope  will  cover  the 
cost  of  the  work  if  carried  out  as  projected ;  and  I  feel  confident  that 
if  it  is  so  carried  out  the  cost  cannot  much  exceed  nor  fall  much  short  of 
that  sum. 

“  But  if  reductions  are  to  be  made  they  will  fall  on  the  estimates  for 
the  scientific  department.  The  estimates  for  the  expenses  on  this  side, 
which  belong,  to  the  exhibition  proper,  cannot  in  my  judgment  fall 
below  the  sum  above  named,  $163,000.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  February  24,  1866. 

u  The  communication  which  I  had  the  honor  of  addressing  through 
the  Department  of  State  to  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign 
Affairs  in  the  House  of  Representatives,  on  the  21st  instant,  contained 
a  statement  in  detail  of  the  estimated  expenses  of  the  exhibition. 

“To  bring  the  subject  before  you  in  a  convenient  form  I  annex  hereto, 


152 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


marked  No.  1,  a  condensed  statement  of  the  items  of  expense  enumerated 
in  the  estimates  alluded  to. 

“For  convenience  of  reference  I  also  annex  paper  No.  2,  which  con¬ 
tains  an  extract  from  the  letter  which  I  had  the  honor  of  addressing  to 
you  on  the  30th  January,  relating  to  the  duties  which  will  devolve  on 
the  Special  Agent,  on  the  Commissioner  General,  and  on  the  Scientific 
Commission,  separately  and  jointly. 

“  In  framing  the  regulations  for  the  exhibition  and  the  instructions 
which  you  may  please  to  send  me,  I  solicit  your  consideration  of  the 
observations  in  paper  No.  2,  and  would  remark  in  continuation,  that 
the  Palace  will  be  finished  on  the  1st  December  next,  and  ready  to 
receive  the  fixtures  and  furniture,  which  must  be  previously  constructed 
and  prepared  to  be  placed  at  that  date. 

u  ^0  great  amount  of  work  of  this  kind  to  be  done  for  the  different 
nations  will  create  a  large  demand  for  that  class  of  labor,  and  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  the  contracts  and  commence  the  work  early. 

“  If  it  be  possible,  as  I  trust  it  will  be,  for  Mr.  Derby  to  give  me  his 
definitive  plans  in  time,  I  propose  to  make  the  contracts  in  May  or  June, 
and  to  begin  the  work  5  and  in  any  event  to  do  so  at  the  earliest  moment 


after  the  plans  reach  me.” 

No.  1. — Abstract  of  expenses. 

Landing  expenses  at  Havre,  bonding,  storage,  cartage,  labor, 
forwarding  and  commissions,  1,000  tons,  inward  $1,500, 

outward  $1,500 .  $3,  000 

Bailway  transport  to  Paris,  inward  $3,250,  outward  $3,250. . .  6,  500 

Paris,  labor  at  depot  and  cartage  three  miles,  inward  $1,200, 
outward  $1,200 .  2,  400 


1st . . .  11, 900 

2d.  Labor  in  the  Palace,  inward  1£  months,  $1,350,  outward  1J 

month,  $1,350 . . .  2,700 

3d.  Sprinkling  and  sweeping  compartments,  7  months .  428 

4th.  Guard  and  keepers,  8  men,  7  months .  1, 926 

5th.  Linguists,  &c.,  7  months  (8  men) .  3,  824 

6th.  Show  cases,  tables,  and  other  fixtures .  48, 000 

7 th.  Storage  of  packing  boxes,  7  months,  cartage  and  material 

for  repacking .  .  1, 000 

8th,  Office  expenses  per  annum  $3,100, 1  year  9  months .  5,  425 

9th.  Wages  of  clerks  per  annum  $5,400,  1  year  9  months .  9,  450 

10th.  Engineer  architect  per  annum  $3,000,  1  year  9  months. .  5, 250 

11th.  Estimate  for  Park  building .  25, 000 

12th.  Scientific  Commission,  10  men,  1  year .  60,000 

Assistants . . . - .  30, 000 


THE  APPROPRIATIONS  BY  CONGRESS. 


153 


Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  March  14, 1866. 

“An  attentive  perusal  of  tlie  resolution  of  Congress  No.  52,  appropri¬ 
ating  money  for  tlie  exhibition,  suggests  the  following  remarks : 

“  If  the  sum  appropriated  by  the  resolution  were  adequate  to  the 
wants,  it  would  be  necessary  to  ask  at  once  for  a  modification  of  its 
provisions.  Without  this  change  the  probable  intentions  of  Congress 
could  not  be  executed. 

“  The  expenditures  required  by  the  exhibition  will  not  agree  with  the 
definitive  appropriations  under  each  head  named  in  the  resolution,  while 
many  other  expenses  equally  unavoidable  are  not  named  nor  provided 
for,  either  specifically  or  in  general,  by  a  contingent  fund. 

“  The  business  being  new,  and  in  many  things  without  precedents  for 
a  guide  in  making  the  estimates,  they  are  not  likely  to  agree  exactly 
in  details  with  actual  expenditures ;  many  of  the  elements  of  cost  are 
fluctuating  as  regards  supply  and  variable  in  price,  and  although  the 
total  expenditure  may  not  exceed  the  total  estimate,  if  the  appropria¬ 
tions  are  subdivided  and  restricted  to  the  different  heads  which  are 
based  on  such  estimates  in  detail,  they  will  not  be  found  to  correspond 
with  actual  wants  in  practice. 

“  But  the  most  important  feature  of  the  resolution  No.  52  is,  that  with 
the  exception  of  the  provision  for  clerks  on  this  side,  and  a  small  con¬ 
tingent  fund,  no  mention  is  made  or  any  provision  whatever  for  expendi¬ 
tures  under  different  heads,  proper  to  the  exhibition  itself,  which  will 
amount  to  not  less  than  $160,000,  United  States  currency. 

“  In  the  detailed  estimates  which  I  had  the  honor  to  transmit  on  the 
21st  February,  the  items  of  expense  thus  omitted  to  be  provided  for 
are  enumerated,  and  it  will  be  seen,  I  doubt  not,  that  in  principle  they 
are  unavoidable. 

“  It  may  hereafter  appear  that  the  estimates  for  some  of  these  details 
are  in  excess,  and  that  others  are  deficient,  and  again  others  may  arise 
which  have  not  been  foreseen 5  but  as  they  are  in  general  based  upon 
existing  prices  and  upon  the  opinions  of  those  who  have  had  most  expe¬ 
rience  in  exhibitions,  the  total  cost  is  not  likely  to  vary  much  from  the 
total  of  the  estimates. 

“  If,  therefore,  Congress  should  make  the  necessary  provision  for  the 
exhibition,  they  will  greatly  facilitate  the  work  by  providing  at  the 
same  time  for  the  transfer,  in  case  of  need,  from  the  appropriations 
under  such  heads  as  may  prove  to  be  in  excess,  to  those  which  may 
prove  to  be  deficient,  or  to  such  as  may  have  been  unforeseen,  provided 
that  the  total  expenditure  be  kept  within  the  total  appropriation. 

“  Some  discretion  of  this  kind  appears  necessary  in  this  case  to  avoid 
delays  and  embarrassments  in  conforming  to  the  provisions  of  the 
appropriation  bill,  and  to  facilitate  the  work  which  Congress  has  in 
view.” 


f 


154 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  July  18,  1866. 

“  I  learn  by  the  mail  just  arrived  that  the  report  of  the  committee  of 
conference  on  the  appropriation  for  the  exhibition  has  been  accepted 
and  passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  is  likely  to  be  passed 
by  the  Senate. 

“The  amendments  which  strike  out  the  provisions  for  the  payment  of 
a  part  of  the  appropriations  in  coin,  and  the  high  rate  of  exchange,  make 
it  necessary  for  me  to  solicit  your  consideration  of  the  situation  in  which 
the  exhibition  is  thus  placed. 

“  The  appropriations  to  be  expended  on  this  side  are  $48,000,  $25,000, 
and  $35,703 ;  total,  $108,703. 

“  The  estimates  for  these  expenditures  were  made  upon  a  careful  study 
of  details,  and  in  my  judgment  they  do  not  admit  of  reduction. 

“  The  product  of  $108,703  in  coin,  at  the  usual  valuation  at  five  francs 
per  dollar,  would  be  543,515  francs.  The  same  sum  at  the  rate  of 
exchange  current  at  the  last  date,  (3d  July,)  three  francs,  would  produce 
364,155  francs,  which  is  a  reduction  of  179,360  francs,  or  $35,872 — thirty  - 
three  per  cent,  on  the  gross  sum,  or  forty-nine  per  cent,  on  the  net  sum. 

“  If  the  effect  of  this  reduction  were  merely  to  diminish  the  proposed 
exhibition  of  products  one-third,  it  would  necessarily  exclude  so  many 
important  products  that  our  exhibition  would  lose  its  character  of 
universality  and  be  no  longer  in  any  proper  sense  an  exhibition  of  the 
products  of  the  United  States. 

*“  But  this  would  not  be  the  whole  effect  of  the  reduction  in  the  appro¬ 
priations.  The  exclusion  of  one-third  of  the  products  would  not  produce 
an  economy  of  one-third  in  the  expenses.  The  organizations  and  pre¬ 
liminary  expenses  on  both  sides  will  remain  unchanged,  or  nearly  so, 
and  the  expenses  of  administration  for  seven  months  that  the  Exposition 
will  remain  open  cannot  be  materially  reduced.  All  the  expenses  will 
be  unavoidably  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  for  two- thirds  as  for  the 
whole  of  the  products  proposed  to  be  exhibited. 

“  The  only  economy  resulting  from  a  reduction  of  the  quantity  of 
products  will  be  in  the  cost  of  transport  and  of  a  part  of  the  installa¬ 
tions,  and  after  examining  this  in  detail  I  am  satisfied  that  a  reduction 
of  nearly  two-thirds  in  the  quantity  of  products  is  required  to  produce 
the  saving  of  $35,872,  necessary  to  keep  the  expenditures  within  the 
appropriations. 

“  The  space  we  have  undertaken  to  fill  in  the  Exposition  Palace  is  small 
for  the  United  States  as  compared  with  other  nations,  and  a  reduction  of 
two-thirds,  or  even  of  one-half,  will  leave  one-half  that  space  vacant. 

“An  exhibition  so  limited  in  quantity,  and  so  imperfect  in  its  compo¬ 
sition,  will  retain  but  small  interest  for  the  public,  and  smaller  value  for 
our  producers ;  its  cost  will  remain  large  in  proportion  to  its  importance, 
while  the  chief  design  of  the  undertaking  and  the  hopes  of  a  large  por¬ 
tion  of  our  producers  will  be  nearly  ruined. 


THE  APPROPRIATIONS  BY  CONGRESS. 


155 


u  If,  oil  the  other  hand,  the  work  be  continued  as  it  has  been  begun, 
it  will  be  a  pretty  fair  representation  of  our  products,  and  though  still 
limited  in  quantity  and  variety  it  will  be  respectable  and  useful,  but  it 
will  be  barely  installed  and  opened  to  the  public  when  the  appropria¬ 
tions  will  be  exhausted,  and  to  carry  it  on  for  seven  months  to  its  close 
without  funds  will  only  bring  it  to  bankruptcy. 

u  Either  of  these  results  would  be  disagreeable  and  unsatisfactory  to 
the  country  and  to  the  government  if  not  even  embarrassing  to  the  latter, 
and  the  probability  of  such  a  conclusion  renders  it  incumbent  on  me  to 
make  these  suggestions  in  advance,  which  I  do  with  great  reluctance. 

u  I  am  not  informed  whether  any  law  or  usage  exists  which  carries 
exchange  with  the  payments  ordered  by  Congress  and  made  by  govern¬ 
ment  in  distant  places  or  foreign  countries ;  but  if  there  is  no  method  of 
covering  the  deficiency  resulting  from  the  reduction  of  the  appropria¬ 
tions  or  the  exchange,  I  respectfully  suggest  for  your  consideration 
whether  the  inadequate  provision  of  Congress  does  not  render  the  pro¬ 
posed  exhibition  in  effect  impossible. 

u  The  deficiency,  I  believe,  could  be  covered  by  an  appeal  to  exhibitors 
aud  the  public  if  I  had  tifne  for  it,  but  the  work  on  this  side  is  already 
so  far  in  arrear  that  it  will  require  my  best  efforts  through  the  whole  of 
the  hot  season  to  bring  it  up,  which  puts  it  out  of  my  power  to  attempt 
that  method  of  making  up  the  deficiency.  I  shall  therefore  proceed 
with  the  preparations  on  their  present  footing,  (in  the  absence  of  your 
instructions  to  the  contrary,)  but  awaiting  with  solicitude  the  reply  you 
may  please  to  make  to  these  suggestions.” 

Mr.  Derby  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  New  York,  January  14, 1867. 

u  Sir  :  The  report  of  my  advisory  committee,  which  was  forwarded  to 
you,  calls  for  a  further  appropriation  by  Congress  for  freight,  installa¬ 
tions,  insurance,  additional  steam  power,  and  other  necessary  expenses; 


that  is  to  say — 

For  additional  installations  of  farm-house,  school-houses,  and 
western  laborers7  cottage,  with  all  the  appurtenances,  includ¬ 
ing  transportation ;  also  for  Palace  and  Annex .  $25, 000 

Additional  steam  power .  10, 000 

Additional  freights  from  Havre  to  Paris . . .  15,  000 

Return  freights  for  articles  owned  by  the  government  and  in¬ 
dividuals,  including  works  of  art  loaned  and  not  for  sale, 

per  steamer .  20,  000 

Additional  freights  by  steamer  on  products  too  late  for  sailing- 
vessels,  including  the  minerals  and  metals  of  nearly  all  the 

States  and  Territories .  20,  000 

Necessary  expenses  for  laborers  and  extra  help  in  the  Paris 

and  New  York  offices . £-10,  000 

Say  one  hundred  thousand  dollars .  100,  000 


156 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


uIn  addition  to  this  sum  a  further  appropriation  for  the  United  States 
Commissioners  is  necessary  for  the  actual  expenses  incurred  in  preparing 
suitable  reports  of  the  results  of  the  Exposition. 

“The  original  minimum  estimate  of  United  States  Commissioner 
General  Beckwith,  was  $300,000  for  the  necessary  expenses  of  the  Paris 
Exposition.  The  additional  amount  now  asked  for  approximates  that 
amount,  and  is  really  necessary,  or  so  much  of  it  as  is  called  for  by 
legitimate  expenditures  on  account  of  the  Exposition.” 

REPORT  OF  EXPENDITURES. 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

u  Paris,  April  30, 1868. 

“  The  several  resolutions  of  Congress  appropriating  money  for  the 
Universal  Exposition  at  Paris,  1867,  require  statements  to  be  trans¬ 
mitted  to  that  body,  through  the  Department  of  State,  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  money  has  been  expended. 

“In  conformity  therewith  I  have  transmitted  to  the  Department 
quarterly  statements  of  receipts  and  expenditures,  with  vouchers  in 
detail  for  each  disbursement. 

u  I  have  now  the  honor  to  inclose  an  account  current  which  is  the 
index  and  complement  of  the  quarterly  statements,  and  presents  in  a 
condensed  form  the  receipts  and  expenditures  under  each  of  the  twenty- 
one  heads  of  account,  for  each  quarter,  commencing  in  1866  and  extend¬ 
ing  to  the  30th  April,  1868 ;  on  referring  to  the  entries  in  this  abstract, 
to  the  label,  letter,  and  date  corresponding  to  the  entry,  all  the  details 
and  vouchers  for  that  item  will  be  found  together. 

Francs. 

The  gross  sum  which  I  have  received  from  the  Department, 
being  the  proceeds  of  credits  on  London  for  £18,000, 


amounts  to . . .  452,  095.  00 

From  other  sources,  (enumerated  in  detail,) .  4,  935.  05 

Total .  457,030.05 

And  the  gross  expenditures  reach  the  sum  of .  453,  630.  68 

Leaving  a  balance  in  my  hands  of .  3,  399. 37 


To  be  returned  to  the  department  minus  some  small  items  which  remain 
to  be  settled. 

The  total  receipts  in  round  numbers,  stated  in  dollars,  at 


five  francs,  amount  to . . . .  $91,  406 

Expenditures . .  90,  726 

Balance .  680 


u  With  regard  to  fixtures,  furniture,  materials,  &c.,  for  the  Exposition, 
there  were  two  methods  of  obtaining  them :  First.  Upon  plans  furnished 


REPORT  OF  THE  EXPENDITURES. 


157 


by  commissioners  to  contractors,  who  undertook  at  prices  agreed  upon, 
in  consideration  of  which  the  furniture  became  the  property  of  the 
commissioners.  Second.  Upon  plans  furnished  by  commissioners  to 
contractors  who  engaged  at  prices  agreed  upon,  in  consideration  of 
which  the  furniture  reverted  at  the  close  to  the  contractor. 

u  By  the  first  method  the  risk  and  chances  of  resale  were  assumed  by 
the  commission,  and  in  the  second  method  by  the  contractor. 

«  Previous  to  the  date  when  it  became  practicable  to  close  our  con¬ 
tracts,  nearly  all  those  of  other  nations  had  been  closed  and  the  works 
well  advanced.  Most  of  them  being  on  the  basis  of  the  first  method, 
made  it  for  the  interest  of  contractors,  who  would  be  buyers  more  than 
sellers,  to  combine  at  the  close  to  put  down  instead  of  supporting  prices. 
A  knowledge  of  these  circumstances,  and  an  examination  of  the  various 
bids  of  contractors  to  supply  the  work,  with  details  of  prices  presenting 
the  option,  left  no  room  for  doubt  that  the  second  method  of  contract 
would  be  best,  and  it  was  adopted. 

u  There  remained,  consequently,  at  the  close  but  a  small  quantity  of 
tools  and  materials  for  sale  which  are  accounted  for  in  detail,  the  pro¬ 
ceeds  amounting  to  370  francs.” 

Mr.  Beckwith  to  Mr.  Seward. 

“  Paris,  June  19,  1868. 

Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  my  final  account  of  ex¬ 
penditures,  (with  vouchers,)  commencing  with  the  balance  of  3,399.37 
francs,  remaining  in  my  hands  on  the  1st  of  May,  showing  a  disbursement 
since  of  961.15  francs,  and  a  balance  of  2,438.22  francs,  which,  to  close 
the  account,  I  have  transmitted  to  the  credit  of  the  Department  with 
Messrs.  Baring  Brothers  &  Co.,  in  the  sum  of  £96  15s.  1  d.,  all  which  I 
trust  will  be  found  correct  and  satisfactory. 

The  proceeds  of  my  drafts  on  Messrs.  Baring  amounted,  as 
shown  in  my  general  account  1st  May,  with  receipts  from 


other  sources  therein  enumerated,  to  francs . .  457,  030.  05 

Disbursements  to  1st  May .  453,  630.  68 

Present  account .  961. 15 

-  454,  591.  83 


Balance  remitted  to  Messrs.  B.  B.  &  Co.,  fiancs .  2, 438. 12 

“  Showing  a  total  disbursement  in  gold,  at  five  francs  to  the  dollar, 
of  $90,  918  33.” 

EXPENSES  OF  THE  NEW  YORK  AGENCY. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  expenditures  by  J.  C.  Derby,  agent  of 
the  United  States  government  at  New  York,  for  the  Paris  Universal 
Exposition  of  1867,  transmitted  April  1,1868,  to  the  Secretary  of  State, 
as  directed  by  joint  resolutions  of  Congress,  approved  J  uly  5,  1866,  and 


158 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


May  12,  1867,  vouchers  in  detail  for  which  were  forwarded  to  the 
Department  of  State  i1 


Salary  of  general  agent,  two  years,  at  $2,000. .  $4, 000  00 


Services  previous  to  passing  of  bill,  say  from 

October  1,  1865,  to  April  1,  1866 .  965  00 

Salaries  of  clerks,  not  exceeding  four  in  number, 
in  1865,  1866,  and  1867 .  7,  514  17 


Labor,  storage,  rent,  cartage,  fixtures,  stationery,  &c 

Advertising . 

Safe . 

Freight  from  New  York  to  Havre . 

Marine  and  fire  insurance  on  works  of  art . 


$12, 479  17 
15,  267  00 
3, 290  12 
250  00 
15,  726  27 
7,460  77 


Total 


54,  473  33 


1  This  statement,  together  with  the  financial  reports  of  Mr.  Beckwith,  were  trans¬ 
mitted  to  Congress  July  13,  1838,  and  are  printed  in  Ex.  Doc.  No.  334,  40th  Cong.,  2d 
session. 


IV. 

PUBLICATION  OF  THE  REPORTS. 


Statement  of  the  authority  under  which  the  reports  have  been  printed — 

Publication  in  a  separate  form,  and  reasons  therefor— Grouping  of  the 

REPORTS  IN  VOLUMES — LlST  OF  THE  REPORTS  BY  TITLE,  ARRANGED  ACCORDING  TO 

subjects — Alphabetical  list  of  the  authors  of  reports. 

RESOLUTION  AUTHORIZING  THE  PUBLICATION. 

In  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  March  3 ,  1868,  it  was — 

u  Resolved ,  That  the  Secretary  of  State  be,  and  he  is  hereby,  author¬ 
ized  to  have  the  reports  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  United  States  to  the 
Paris  Exposition  printed  at  the  Congressional  Printing  Office  and  laid 
before  the  Senate  in  a  printed  form ;  and  that,  in  addition  to  the  usual 
number,  there  shall  be  printed  four  thousand  extra  copies  for  the  use 
of  the  Senate,  and  fifteen  hundred  copies  for  the  use  of  the  State 
Department,  the  reports  to  be  bound  separately  or  together  as  the  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  may  direct.” 

On  the  8th  of  April  this  resolution  was  suspended,  and  the  Committee 
on  Printing  was  directed  to  inquire  into  the  amcfunt  of  material  to  be 
printed  under  the  foregoing  resolution,  the  cost  of  the  same,  and  also 
whether  such  publication  would  involve  the  preparation  and  the  print¬ 
ing  of  any  maps,  plates,  or  illustrations. 

The  Department  having  been  called  upon  for  this  information,  it  was 
furnished  in  detail  to  the  committee  with  estimates  of  the  cost  of  en¬ 
graving  the  illustrations,  and  it  was  ordered  by  the  Senate  that  the 
printing  should  proceed  under  the  original  resolution. 

The  printing  of  the  report  presenting  a  u  Brief  General  Survey  of  the 
Exposition,”  specially  required  by  the  instructions  issued  August  20, 
1866,  was  commenced,  and,  inasmuch  as  at  that  time  several  of  the  most 
important  of  the  reports  were  still  in  the  hands  of  the  authors  under¬ 
going  revision,  or  not  ready  for  publication,  it  was  decided  to  print  each 
report  independently,  and  to  issue  a  part  of  the  whole  number  ordered 
in  this  separate  form  as  soon  as  printed  without  waiting  for  the  comple¬ 
tion  of  the  whole  series,  or  of  a  sufficient  number  of  reports  to  form  a 
volume.  Upon  this  plan  each  report  has  been  printed  with  distinct 
paging  and  title,  and  one  thousand  copies  of  each  in  paper  covers  have 
been  delivered  to  the  Senate  and  five  hundred  copies  of  each,  in  the  same 
form,  to  the  Department  of  State.  The  remaining  copies  were  reserved 
for  the  final  grouping  and  binding  in  volumes.  By  this  means  the 
earliest  possible  publication  was  secured  for  each  report,  and  their  sepa¬ 
rate  form  permitted  a  wider  and  more  economical  distribution. 


160 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  following  list  gives  the  titles  of  the  reports,  alphabetically 
arranged  according  to  the  subjects.  The  reports  all  bear  the  imprint  of 
the  Government  Printing  Office  and  the  year  of  publication.  This  im¬ 
print  is  omitted  in  the  list,  but  the  exact  date  of  publication  is  supplied. 
The  copies  of  reports  not  separately  issued  as  above  have  been  grouped 
together  and  bound  in  six  volumes,  under  the  general  title  of  u  Eeports 
of  the  United  States  Commissioners  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition 
of  1867  $  published  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  by 
authority  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.” 

A  list  of  the  reports,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  grouped  in  vol¬ 
umes,  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  Volume  I  and  of  Volume  VI. 

LIST  OF  THE  BEPOETS,  BY  THEIE  TITLES,  ABEANGED 
ALPHABETICALLY  ACCOEDING  TO  THE  SUBJECTS. 

Arts. — Machinery  and  processes  of  the  industrial  arts  and  apparatus 
of  the  exact  sciences,  by  Frederick  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.  D.,  United 
States  Commissioner. — pp.  ix,  669.  August  4,  1869.  (In  volume  iii.) 
Asphalt  and  bitumen. — Eeport  on  asphalt  and  bitumen,  as  applied 
to  the  construction  of  streets  and  sidewalks  in  Paris ;  also  to  terraces^ 
roofs,  &c.,  and  to  various  products  in  the  Exposition  of  1867 ;  with 
observations  upon  macadamized  streets  and  roads,  by  Arthur  Beck¬ 
with,  Civil  Engineer. — pp.  31.  January  15,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 
Beet- sugar. — The  manufacture  of  beet-sugar  and  alcohol  and  the  cul¬ 
tivation  of  sugar-beet,  by  Henry  F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner. — pp.  90.  November  3,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 
Beton-Coignet. — Eeport  on  Beton-Coignet,  its  fabrication  and  uses — 
construction  of  sewers,  water-pipes,  tanks,  foundations,  walls,  arches, 
buildings,  floors,  terraces ;  marine  experiments,  &c.,  by  Leonard  F. 
Beckwith,  Civil  Engineer. — pp.  21.  January  15, 1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 
Bibliography. — Bibliography  of  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867,  by  William  P.  Blake,  Commissioner  of  the  State  of  California  to 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867.  In  press,  April,  1870. 

Buildings. — Eeport  upon  buildings,  building  materials,  and  methods 
of  building,  by  James  H.  Bowen,  United  States  Commissioner. — 
pp.  96.  September  28,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Cereals. — Eeport  on  cereals :  The  quantities  of  cereals  produced  in 
different  countries  compared,  by  Samuel  B.  Buggies,  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  Commission.  The  quality  and  characteristics  of 
the  cereals  exhibited,  by  George  S.  Hazard,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner. — pp.  26.  September  28,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Chemistry. — The  progress  and  condition  of  several  departments  of 
industrial  chemistry,  by  J.  Lawrence  Smith,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner. — pp.  ix,  146.  September  7,  1869.  (In  volume  ii.) 

Civil  engineering. — Civil  engineering  and  public  works,  by  William 
P.  Blake,  Commissioner  of  the  State  of  California. — pp.  49.  March 
5,  1870.  (In  volume  iv.) 


LIST  OF  THE  REPORTS. 


161 


Clothing. — Keport  on  clothing  and  woven  fabrics;  being  classes 
twenty-seven  to  thirty-nine  of  group  four.  By  Paran  Stevens  United 
States  Commissioner.  In  press,  April,  1870.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Coal. — Report  on  the  manufacture  of  pressed  or  agglomerated  coal,  by 
Henry  P.  Q.  D7Aligny,  United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  19.  Octo¬ 
ber  8,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Cotton. — Report  upon  cotton,  by  E.  R.  Mudge,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner,  with  a  supplemental  report  by  B.  F.  bourse,  Honorary  Com¬ 
missioner. — pp.  ii,  115.  June  28,  1869.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Education. — Report  on  education,  by  J.  W.  Hoyt,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner. — In  press,  April,  1870.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Report  on  school-houses  and  the  means  of  promoting  popular  edu¬ 
cation,  by  J.  R.  Freese,  United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  13.  Octo¬ 
ber  8, 1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Engineering. — Report  upon  steam-engineering,  as  illustrated  by  the 
Paris  Universal  Exposition,  1867,  by  William  S.  Auchincloss,  Honor¬ 
ary  Commissioner. — pp.  72.  August  2,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Fine  arts. — Report  on  the  fine  arts,  by  Frank  Leslie,  United  States 
Commissioner. — pp.  43.  February  6,  1869.  (In  volume  i.) 

The  fine  arts  applied  to  the  useful  arts — report  by  the  committee, 
Frank  Leslie,  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  Thomas  W.  Evans,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioners. — pp.  8,  with  33  leaves  of  wood  engravings.  February  6, 
1869.  (In  volume  i.) 

Food. — Report  on  the  preparation  of  food,  by  W.  E.  Johnston,  M.  D., 
Honorary  Commissioner. — pp.  19.  October  8,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

General  survey. — General  survey  of  the  Exposition,  with  a  report 
on  the  character  and  condition  of  the  United  States  Section. — pp. 
325.  January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  i.) 

Gold  and  silver. — (See  Precious  metals.) 

Introduction. — Introduction,  with  selections  from  the  correspondence 
of  United  States  Commissioner  General  Beckwith  and  others,  show¬ 
ing  the  organization  and  administration  of  the  United  States  Section. 
(In  volume  i.) 

Iron  and  steel. — The  production  of  iron  and  steel,  in  its  economic 
and  social  relations,  by  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner,  1868. — pp.  183.  January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  ii.) 

Mining. — Report  on  mining  and  the  mechanical  preparation  of  ores,  by 
Henry  F.  Q.  DAligny,  United  States  Commissioner,  and  Alfred  Huet, 
F.  Geyler,  and  C.  Lepainteur,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineers,  Paris, 
France.  February  19,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Munitions  of  war. — Report  on  the  munitions  of  war,  by  Charles  B. 
Horton  and  W.  J.  Valentine,  United  States  Commissioners. — pp.  213. 
January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Musical  instruments. — Report  upon  musical  instruments,  by  Paran 
Stevens,  United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  18.  June  21,  1869.  (In 
volume  v.) 

11  p  e 


162 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Ores,  mechanical  preparation  of. — (See  Mining.) 

Photography. — Photographs  and  photographic  apparatus,  by  Henry 
F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  19.  October  8, 
1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Precious  metals. — Report  upon  the  precious  metals,  being  statistical 
notices  of  the  principal  gold  and  silver  producing  regions  of  the  world 
represented  at  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition,  by  William  P.  Blake, 
Commissioner  of  the  State  of  California. — pp.  viii,  369.  March  11, 
1869.  (In  volume  ii.) 

School-houses. — (See  Education.) 

Silk. — Report  on  silk  and  silk  manufactures,  by  Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  Uni¬ 
ted  States  Commissioner _ pp.  51.  January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Surgery. — Report  on  instruments  and  apparatus  of  medicine,  surgery, 
and  hygiene,  surgical  dentistry  and  the  materials  which  it  employs, 
anatomical  preparations,  ambulance  tents  and  carriages,  and  military 
sanitary  institutions  in  Europe,  by  Thomas  W.  Evans,  M.  D.,  United 
States  Commissioner. — pp.  70.  January  28,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Telegraphy. — Examination  of  the  telegraphic  apparatus  and  the  pro¬ 
cesses  in  telegraphy,  by  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  LL.  D.,  United  States 
Commissioner. — pp.  166.  November  20,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Outline  of  the  history  of  the  Atlantic  cables,  by  H.  F.  Q.  D’Aligny, 
United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  13.  October  8, 1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

United  States  Section,  report  on. — (See  General  survey,  &e.) 

Vine. — Report  upon  the  culture  and  products  of  the  vine,  by  Marshall 
P.  Wilder,  Alexander  Thompson,  William  J.  Flagg,  Patrick  Barry, 
committee. — pp.  28.  October  8,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Wool. — Report  upon  wool  and  manufactures  of  wool,  by  E.  R.  Mudge, 
United  States  Commissioner,  assisted  by  John  L.  Hayes,  Secretary  of 
the  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers. — pp.  143.  January 
7,  1869.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Weights,  measures,  and  coins. — Extracts  from  the  report  of  the 
International  Committee  on  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins,  with  a 
notice  of  the  introduction  of  the  metrical  system  in  the  United 
States  and  its  relations  to  other  systems  of  weights  and  measures. 
(In  volume  vi.) 

NAMES  OF  THE  AUTHORS  OF  REPORTS,  ARRANGED 
ALPHABETICALLY. 

Auchincloss,  William  S.,  Honorary  Commissioner,  Civil  Engineer. 

Barnard,  Frederick  A.  Porter,  S.  T.  D.,  LL.  D.,  President  of  Co¬ 
lumbia  College,  New  York,  United  States  Commissioner,  member  of 
the  International  Jury. 

Beckwith,  Nelson  Marvin,  United  States  Commissioner  General, 
President  of  the  Commission. 

Beckwith,  Arthur,  Civil  Enginer. 

Beckwith,  Leonard  Forbes,  Civil  Engineer. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORS. 


163 


Blake,  William  Phipps,  Commissioner  of  the  State  of  California  to 
the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867  and  Delegate  of  the  State 
Board  of  Agriculture. 

Bowen,  James  H.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Cowdin,  Elliot  C.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

D’Aligny,  Henry  Ferdinand  Quarry,  United  States  Commissioner, 
member  of  the  International  Jury,  Mining  Engineer. 

Evans,  Thomas  W.,  M.  D.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Flagg,  W.  J.,  United  States  Commissioner,  (honorary,)  member  of 
Reporting  Committee  No.  9.  (Report  upon  the  vine,  &c.) 

Freese,  Jacob  R.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Geyler,  F.,  Civil  Engineer,  Paris,  France. 

Hayes,  John  Lord,  Secretary  of  the  National  Association  of  Wool 
Manufacturers.  (The  report  on  wool,  etc.) 

Hazard,  George  S.,  United  States  Commissioner,  (honorary.) 

Hewitt,  Abram  S.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Hoyt,  John  W.,  M.  D.,  United  States  Commissioner,  (honorary.) 

Huet,  Alfred,  Civil  Engineer,  Paris,  France. 

Johnston,  W.  E.,  M.  D.,  United  States  Commissioner,  (honorary.) 

Lepainteur,  C.,  Engineer  to  the  Syndicat  of  Class  47,  Paris,  France. 

Leslie,  Frank,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  Breese,  LL.  D.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Mudge,  Enoch  R.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Norton,  Charles  B.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Nourse,  B.  F.,  United  States  Commissioner,  (honorary.) 

Ruggles,  Samuel  B.,  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  Commission. 

Seward,  Hon.  William  Henry,  Secretary  of  State.  (Introduction.) 

Seymour,  Charles  B.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Slade,  Frederick  J.,  scientific  assistant  to  Committee  No.  6.  (Report 
upon  Bessemer  steel,  in  the  report  upon  iron  and  steel.) 

Smith,  J.  Lawrence,  United  States  Commissioner,  Vice-President  of 
the  International  Jury  upon  Group  V. 

Stevens,  Paran,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Thompson,  Alexander,  M.  D.,  United  States  Commissioner,  (honor¬ 
ary,)  member  of  Reporting  Committee  No.  9.  (Report  upon  the 
vine,  &c.) 

Valentine,  W.  J.,  United  States  Commissioner. 

Wilder,  Marshall  P.,  United  States  Commissioner. 


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CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  OBJECTS  EXHIBITED 
AND  GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  IMPERIAL  COMMISSION — ITS  COM¬ 
PREHENSIVE  AND  EXACT  CHARACTER — ITS  VALUE  AS  AN  INDEX  TO  THE  EXPOSITION 
AND  TO  HUMAN  INDUSTRY  IN  GENERAL — ENUMERATION  OF  OBJECTS  IN  EACH  GROUP 
AND  CLASS,  AND  REFERENCES  TO  THE  REPORTS. 

THE  IMPOBTANCE  OF  THE  CLASSIFICATION. 

The  classification  adopted  by  the  Imperial  Commission  for  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  the  Exposition  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  exact  ever  made 
of  the  raw  materials  useful  to  man,  and  of  the  various  products  of 
industry  and  art.  The  Hon.  N.  P.  Banks,  in  his  speech  delivered  in  the 
House  of  Bepresentatives,  March  14,  1868,  says  of  this  classification : 
“  The  plan  of  the  Exposition  of  1867  is  the  grandest  classification  of  the 
products  of  human  industry  that  the  mind  of  man  has  ever  conceived. 
There  has  never  been  presented,  in  the  history  of  the  world,  such  a  com¬ 
prehensive,  systematic,  and  scientific  grouping  of  the  various  branches 
of  human  industry  as  this  plan  unfolds.  All  the  pursuits  and  products 
of  its  people  are  grouped  in  ten  leading  divisions,  and  are  subdivided 
into  ninety-five  classes.  *  *  *  These  ten  groups  embrace  all  the  pur¬ 
suits  of  man,  all  the  products  of  industiy ;  they  represent  the  habits  of 
life,  and  all  the  relations  of  men  to  each  other,  to  society,  and  to  pro¬ 
gressive  civilization.” 

This  classification  is  now  not  merely  an  outline  plan  according  to 
which  the  Exposition  was  formed,  but,  from  the  realization  of  that  plan, 
it  has  become  an  index  to  the  Exposition,  and  is  not  only  valuable  as 
such,  but  it  has  a  permanent  value  as  an  index  to  the  industrial  arts,  and 
may  be  used  to  facilitate  reference  to  the  reports  on  the  Exposition  and 
as  a  basis  for  future  exhibitions.  It  has  therefore  been  reproduced  here, 
in  connection  with  this  introduction  to  the  series  of  reports,  and  refer¬ 
ences  to  the  reports  have  been  added  whenever  the  articles  or  subjects 
mentioned  have  been  described  or  specially  referred  to  in  the  series.  It 
will  thus,  to  a  certain  extent,  serve  as  a  general  index  to  the  reports. 
Beferences  are,  in  most  cases,  made  to  the  volume  in  which  the  report 
will  be  found ;  and,  as  most  of  the  principal  reports  are  indexed,  it  will 
not  be  difficult  to  find  the  subject  desired.  As  each  report  is  separately 
paged,  a  general  alphabetical  index  to  the  series  could  not  be  conve¬ 
niently  made. 


166 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GENERAL  INDEX. 

FIRST  GROUP. — WORKS  OF  ART. 

Class  1 — Paintings  in  oil . — Paintings  on  canvas,  on  panels,  on  glazing, 
and  other  surfaces.  [Report  on  the  Fine  Arts,  in  volume  i ;  also  in 
General  Survey,  p.  19.] 

Class  2 —  Various  paintings  and  designs. — Miniatures,  aquarelles,  pastels, 
and  designs  of  all  kinds ;  paintings  on  enamel,  on  crockery,  or  porce¬ 
lain  ;  cartoons  for  frescoes  and  for  glass  windows.  [Fine  Art  Report ; 
also  General  Survey,  p.  28.] 

Class  3 — Sculptures  and  engravings  on  medals. — Spherical,  embossing, 
sculptured  bas-reliefs,  sculptures  repousses,  pressed  and  chiseled 
medals,  cameos,  engraved  stones,  chemical  engravings.  [Fine  Art 
Report ;  also  General  Survey,  p.  32.] 

Class  4 — Designs  and  models  of  architecture. — Studies  and  fragments, 
representations  and  projects  of  edifices,  restorations  from  ruins  and 
from  documents.  [Report  on  Buildings,  &c.,  (iv;)  also  General  Sur- 
vey,  p.  34.] 

Class  5 — Engravings  and  lithographs. — Engravings  (black)  on  copper, 
wood,  stone,  &c. ;  engravings  in  several  colors ;  lithographs,  in  black, 
in  crayon,  in  pencil,  and  in  colors.  [General  Survey,  p.  34  ;  also  Fine 
Art  Report  and  Report  on  the  Industrial  Arts.] 

SECOND  GROUP. — MATERIALS  AND  THEIR  APPLICATIONS  IN  THE  LIB¬ 
ERAL  ARTS. 

Class  6 — Specimens  of  printing  and  publishing. — Specimens  of  typogra¬ 
phy;  proof-sheets  of  autography  and  lithography,  in  black  and  in 
colors ;  proof-sheets  of  engravings ;  new  books  and  new  editions  of 
books  already  known;  collections  of  works  forming  libraries  on  special 
subjects;  periodical  publications;  designs;  technical  and  school  atlases 
and  albums.  [General  Survey,  pp.  35-39.] 

Class  7 — Specimens  of  stationery ,  of  book-binding ,  and  of  materials  used 
in  painting  and  designing. —  Papers,  cards,  pasteboards,  inks,  chalks, 
pencils,  pastels,  furniture  of  writing-desks,  inkstands,  letter-balances, 
copy-presses,  &c.;  registers,  copy-books,  albums,  note-books,  instru¬ 
ment-cases,  bands,  elastic  bands;  various  articles  for  water-colors, 
aquarelles,  colors  in  cakes,  in  bladders,  in  tubes,  and  in  shells ;  instru¬ 
ments  used  by  painters,  designers,  gravers,  and  modelers  ;  specimens 
of  paper- work,  lamp-shades,  lanterns,  flower-pots,  &c.  [General  Sur- 
vey,  p.  39.] 

Class  8 — Specimens  of  design  and  plastic  molding  applied  in  the  ordinary 
arts. — Industrial  designs ;  designs  obtained,  reproduced,  or  reduced 
by  mechanical  means;  decorative  paintings;  industrial  lithographs  or 
engravings;  models  and  rough  sketches  of  figures,  ornaments,  &c. ; 
sculptured  work,  cameos,  lockets,  and  various  objects  ornamented  by 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS. 


167 


engraving;  industrial  medals  molded  by  machines;  reductions  and 
photographs ;  sculptures ;  various  objects  molded.  [General  Survey, 
p.  44.] 

Glass  9 — Proofs  and  apparatus  of  photography. — Photography  on  paper, 
glass,  wood,  stuffs,  enamel;  heliographic  engravings,  lithographic 
proofs,  photographic  stereotypes,  stereoscopes  and  stereoscopic  proofs; 
specimens  obtained  by  amplification;  instruments,  tools,  and  materials 
for  photography;  materials  and  apparatus  for  photographic  work¬ 
shops.  [Beport  on  Photography ;  also  General  Survey,  pp.  47,  260 ; 
also  Beport  on  Industrial  Arts,  in  volume  iii.] 

Class  10 — Instruments  of  music. — Wind  instruments,  not  metallic,  with 
simple  openings,  with  windpipes,  with  reeds,  with  or  without  reser¬ 
voirs  of  air;  metallic  wind  instruments,  simple,  with  extensions,  slides, 
pistons,  keys,  key-boards;  wind  instruments  with  key-boards,  organs 
accordeons ;  instruments  with  cords  for  compression,  or  for  the  bow 
without  key-boards ;  instruments  with  cords  and  key-boards,  pianos, 
&c. ;  instruments  for  percussion  or  friction ;  automatic  instruments, 
organs  of  Barbary',  serinettes,  &c. ;  detached  pieces  and  apparatus  for 
orchestras.  [Beport  on  Musical  Instruments,  in  volume  v ;  also  Gen¬ 
eral  Survey,  pp.  48, 261.] 

Class  11 — Apparatus  and  instruments  of  the  medical  art. — Materials  and 
instruments  for  dressing  wounds,  sores,  and  for  inferior  surgery ;  in¬ 
struments  for  medical  explorations;  materials  and  instruments  for 
surgery;  trusses  and  cases  of  instruments;  cases  of  medicaments 
intended  especially  for  army  surgeons,  navy  surgeons,  veterinary  sur¬ 
geons,  dentists,  oculists,  &c. ;  apparatus  for  restoring  sensation,  gen¬ 
eral  or  local ;  apparatus  (mechanical  or  plastic)  of  prosthesis ,  (the  sub¬ 
stitution  of  parts  or  members;)  apparatus  for  deformities,  ruptures, 
&c. ;  various  apparatus  for  the  sick,  infirm,  deranged ;  accessory 
objects  used  in  the  medical  and  surgical  service,  in  pharmaceutics, 
and  in  hospitals  and  infirmaries.  [Beport  on  Instruments  and  Appa¬ 
ratus  of  Medicine,  &c.,  in  volume  v ;  and  General  Survey,  pp.  51, 262, 
311.] 

Materials  for  anatomical  researches ;  apparatus  for  researches  in 
medico-legal  practice ;  special  materials  for  veterinary  medical  frac¬ 
ture;  apparatus  for  baths,  medical  baths,  &c. ;  apparatus  for  the 
physical  exercise  of  children,  for  healthful  and  for  medical  gymnas¬ 
tics,  &c. ;  apparatus  for  aid  to  the  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle;  am- 
•  bulances,  civil  and  military,  for  armies  on  land  and  at  sea.  [Ibid.] 
Apparatus  for  aid  to  the  drowning,  suffocating,  fainting,  &c.,  and 
for  electro-therapy.  [Industrial  Arts,  in  volume  iii,  p.  344.] 

Class  12 — Instruments  of  precision ,  and  apparatus  for  instruction  in  sci¬ 
ence. — Instruments  used  in  practical  geometry,  compasses,  microme¬ 
ters,  levels,  achromatic  lenses,  calculating  machines,  &c.  [Industrial 
Arts,  in  volume  iii,  p.  613 ;  General  Survey,  p.  53.] 

Apparatus  and  instruments  for  surveying,  for  topography,  for  land 


168 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


measuring,  for  astronomy,  &c.  ;  apparatus  for  various  observations ; 
apparatus  and  instruments  of  the  arts  of  precision,  [See  Industrial 
Arts ;]  weights  and  measures  of  different  countries,  moneys,  medals, 
&c.,  [See  Report  on  Weights,  Measures,  Coins,  &c.  ;  also  Report 
on  the  Precious  Metals,  chapter  x,  volume  ii;  also  Introduction, 
&c.,  volume  i;]  balances;  instruments  for  physical  observations,  me¬ 
teorology,  &c. ;  optical  instruments;  apparatus  for  instruction  in 
physical  science,  in  elementary  geometry,  descriptive  geometry,  solids, 
and  mechanics.  [Industrial  Arts,  in  volume  iii.] 

Models  and  instruments  for  instruction  in  the  industrial  arts  in 
general ;  collections  for  instruction  in  natural  sciences ;  figures  and 
models  for  instruction  in  medical  science,  flexible  anatomical  models, 
&c.  [Industrial  Arts,  in  volume  iii.] 

Class  13 — Geography,  cosmography ,  apparatus ,  maps ,  charts ,  &c. — Maps 
and  atlases,  topographical,  geographical,  geological,  hydrological, 
astronomical,  &c. ;  marine  charts,  physical  charts  of  all  sorts,  flat  and 
in  relief ;  celestial  and  terrestrial  globes  and  spheres ;  apparatus  for 
the  study  of  cosmography.  [General  Survey,  54;  also  in  Civil 
Engineering.] 

Statistical  works,  tables,  and  ephemerides  for  astronomers  and 
mariners. 

THIRD  GROUP. — FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  USED  IN  DWELL¬ 
INGS. 

Class  14 — 'Rich  furnishings. — Sideboards,  bookcases,  tables,  toilettes, 
beds,  sofas,  seats,  billiards,  &c.  [Fine  Arts  Applied  to  Useful  Arts, 
&c.,  in  volume  i;  General  Survey,  pp.  59,  265.] 

Class  15 — Upholstery  and  decorative  work. —  Bedding,  covered  seats, 
canopies,  curtains,  hangings  in  tapestry  and  in  stuffs ;  furniture  and 
decorative  objects  in  rich  stone  and  other  valuable  materials ;  decora¬ 
tions  molded  in  paste,  in  plaster,  in  pasteboard;  decorative  painting, 
frames,  furniture ;  decorative  ornaments  for  religious  service.  [Gen¬ 
eral  Survey,  Group  III,  p.  59 ;  Fine  Arts,  <&c.] 

Class  16 — Crystals ,  rich  glassware ,  and  glazing. — Goblets  in  crystal,  cut- 
glass,  double  crystal,  mounted  crystal,  &c. ;  glass  for  windows,  furni¬ 
ture,  and  mirrors ;  glass  figured,  enameled,  crackled,  filigreed ;  optical 
crystals;  ornamental  glass-painted  windows.  [General  Survey,  pp. 
61-65.] 

Class  17 — Porcelain ,  faience ,  and  other  potteries. — Biscuit,  hard,  and 
tender  porcelains;  fine  earthenware,  glazed  and  colored;  biscuit  of 
faience ,  ter  re  cuite,  enameled  lavas.  [General  Survey,  pp.  65-69; 
Building  Report.] 

Class  18 — Carpets ,  hangings ,  and  other  furniture  tissues. — Carpets,  Wil¬ 
ton  carpets,  velvet  tapestries ;  carpets  of  felt,  of  cloth,  of  clippings  of 
wool,  silk,  or  floss  silk,  of  mat- weed,  of  India-rubber ;  furniture  tissues 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  GENERAL  INDEX.  169 

of  cotton,  wool,  silk,  hair,  vegetable  leather,  moleskin,  leather  hang¬ 
ings  and  coverings,  oil-cloths,  &c.  [General  Survey,  p.  69.] 

Class  19 — Painted  paper. — Papers  printed  on  blocks  with  rollers,  with 
machines;  papers  velveted,  marbled,  veined,  &c. ;  pasteboards,  book- 
covers,  &c. ;  paper  for  artistic  uses,  spring  blinds,  &c.,  painted  or 
printed.  [General  Survey,  p.  72.] 

Class  20 — Cutlery . — Knives,  penknives,  razors,  scissors,  &c.  [General 
Survey,  p.  74.] 

Class  21 — Ooldwork. — Goldwork  for  religious  service,  for  table  use  and 
ornament,  for  toilettes,  bureaus,  &c.  [General  Survey,  p.  76.] 

Class  22  —  Bronzes ,  various  artistic  [castings,  and  repousse  worlcs 
in  metals . — Statues  and  bass-reliefs  in  bronze,  in  cast-iron,  in  zinc ; 
decorative  and  ornamental  bronzes ;  imitations  of  bronze  castings  in 
zinc;  castings  coated  with  metallic  coverings  by  the  galvanic  pro¬ 
cess  ;  repousses  in  lead,  zinc,  copper,  &c.  [General  Survey,  p.  79.] 
Class  23 — Clocks  and  Clockwork. — Separate  pieces  of  clockwork ;  spring 
clocks,  pendulum  clocks,  electrical  clocks,  watches,  chronometers, 
regulators,  second-counters,  apparatus  for  measuring  time,  hour¬ 
glasses,  sand-glasses,  clepsydras,  &c.  [General  Survey,  p.  82 ;  Indus¬ 
trial  Arts.] 

Class  24 — Apparatus  and  methods  of  rearming  and  lighting. — Fireplaces, 
chimneys,  stoves,  furnaces,  accessory  objects ;  apparatus  for  heating 
by  gas,  by  hot  water,  by  hot  air ;  apparatus  for  ventilating  and  for 
drying;  enameled  lamps,  blow-pipes,  portable  forges;  lamps  for  oil — 
mineral,  vegetable,  or  animal;  other  accessories  of  lighting;  apparatus 
for  lighting  by  gas;  photo-electrical  lamps;  apparatus  for  lighting  by 
magnetism.  [General  Survey,  p.  86;  also  in  Industrial  Arts.] 

Class  25 — Perfumery. — Cosmetics  and  pomatums,  perfumed  oils,  per¬ 
fumed  essences,  liquid  extracts,  scents,  aromatic  vinegars,  almond 
paste,  powders,  pastilles  and  perfumed  sacks,  combustible  perfumes, 
toilet  soaps.  [General  Survey,  p.  87.] 

Class  26 — Fancy  articles ,  toys ,  basket-work. — Small  fancy  articles  of  fur¬ 
niture,  liquor-cases,  glove-boxes,  caskets,  lacquer- work,  dressing-cases, 
workboxes,  screens,  pocket-books,  purses,  portfolios,  cigar-cases, 
memorandums;  articles  of  checkwork;  articles  turned,  sculptured, 
engraved,  of  wood,  of  ivory,  in  shell,  snuff-boxes,  pipes,  combs, 
brushes,  corbeilles ,  and  fancy  baskets;  basket-work,  grass- work. 
[General  Survey,  pp.  89-91.] 

• 

FOURTH  GROUP. — GARMENTS,  TISSUES  FOR  CLOTHING,  AND  OTHER 
ARTICLES  OF  WEARING  APPAREL. 

Class  27 —  Yarn  and  tissues  of  cotton. — Cotton,  prepared  and  spun ; 
tissues  of  cotton,  plain  and  figured;  tissues  of  cotton,  mixed;  cotton, 
velvets,  tapes,  &c.  [Clothing  Report,  (vi;)  General  Survey,  p.  93, 
(i;)  Report  on  Cotton,  (vi.)] 

Class  28 — Yarn ,  and  tissues  of  linen ,  hemp,  &c. — Flax,  hemp,  and  other 


170 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


vegetable  fibers,  spun ;  linen  and  ticking ;  Baptiste  tissues  of  thread, 
mixed  with  cotton  and  silk ;  tissues  of  vegetable  fibers,  equivalent  to 
linen  and  hemp.  [Clothing  Report,  (vi ;)  General  Survey,  pp.  95-98.] 
.Class  29 — Yarn  and  tissues  of  combed  wool. — Combed  wools,  tissues  of 
combed  wools,  mousselines,  merinoes,  Scotch  cashmeres,  serges,  &c. ; 
galoons  of  wool,  mixed  with  cotton,  or  thread,  or  silk,  or  floss;  tissues 
of  hair,  plain  and  mixed.  [Wool  and  Manufactures  of  Wool,  (vi;) 
Clothing,  (vi;)  General  Survey,  pp.  98,  269.] 

Class  30 — Yarns  and  tissues  of  carded  wool. — Carded  wool  and  yam  of 
carded  wool;  cloths  and  other  tissues  of  wool,  carded  and  fulled; 
blankets,  felts  of  wool  or  of  hair,  for  carpets ;  hats,  socks,  tissues  of 
wool  carded  and  not  fulled  or  slightly  fulled ;  flannels,  tartans,  &c. 
[Ibid,] 

Class  31 —Silk  and  tissues  of  silk. — Silks  raw  or  milled ;  silk  or  floss 
thread  or  yarn ;  tissues  of  silk,  plain  and  figured ;  silk  stuffs  mixed 
with  gold,  silver,  cotton,  or  wool ;  tissues  of  floss  silk,  pure  or  mixed; 
velvets,  plushes,  ribbons  of  silk,  pure  or  mixed.  [Silk  and  Silk  Man¬ 
ufactures,  (vi;)  Clothing  Report,  (vi;)  General  Survey,  p.  103.] 

Class  32 — Shawls. — Shawls  of  wool,  pure  or  mixed ;  shawls  of  silk  and 
of  cashmere.  [General  Survey,  p.  106 ;  also  Clothing  and  Silk  Re¬ 
ports.] 

Class  33 — Laces ,  embroideries ,  and  trimmings  for  clothing ,  military  cloth¬ 
ing,  furniture,  carriages,  harness,  &c. — Laces  of  thread  or  cotton,  made 
with  the  face  spindle,  needle,  or  machines ;  lace  of  silk,  wool,  or  of 
goats’  hair ;  gold  or  silver  lace ;  tulle  of  silk  or  cotton,  plain  or  fig¬ 
ured  ;  embroideries  with  the  needle,  the  hook,  &c. ;  embroideries  in 
gold,  in  silver,  in  silk,  in  thread ;  tapestry  embroideries  and  other 
hand-work ;  trimmings  of  silk,  floss,  wool,  goats’  hair,  hair,  thread, 
and  cotton;  laces,  military  trimmings,  fine  and  coarse.  [Clothing 
Report,  (vi ;)  General  Survey,  p.  109.] 

Class  34 — Hosiery,  linen ,  and  other  articles  of  clothing. — Stockings  of 
cotton,  thread,  wool,  cashmere,  silk,  and  floss,  pure  or  mixed ;  garments 
of  linen  for  men,  women,  children;  baby-linen;  garments  of  flannel  and 
other  tissues  of  wool;  corsets;  cravats;  gloves;  gaiters;  fans;  screens; 
umbrellas ;  parasols ;  canes,  &c.  [General  Survey,  p.  115 ;  Clothing, 

(vl.)l 

Class  35 — Clothing  for  men,  women ,  and  children. — Garments  for  men ; 
garments  for  women ;  coiffures  for  men  and  women,  wigs,  and  hair- 
work;  boots  and  shoes;  childrens’  clothes;  professional  garments. 
[Report  on  clothing,  (vi ;)  General  Survey,  Group  III.] 

Class  36 — Jewelry  and  precious  ornaments. — Ornaments  of  gold,  pla¬ 
tinum,  silver,  and  aluminum,  chiselled  in  filagree,  or  set  with  fine 
stones,  &c.  Diamonds ;  precious  stones ;  pearls  and  imitations.  [Gen¬ 
eral  Survey,  p.  133.] 

Class  37 — Portable  armor. — Defensive  arms — bucklers,  shields,  cuir¬ 
asses,  casques ;  offensive  arms — war  clubs,  maces,  bludgeons,  battle- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS.  171 

axes,  &c.  ;  foils,  swords,  sabers,  bayonets,  lances,  hatchets,  hunting- 
knives,  bows,  cross-bows,  slings. 

Fire-arms  —  muskets,  carbines,  pistols,  revolvers;  accessory  arti¬ 
cles — powder-flasks,  bullet-molds ;  projectiles,  oblong,  spherical,  hoU 
low,  explosive;  percussion  caps,  primings,  cartridges.  [Munitions  of 
War,  (v;)  General  Survey,  pp.  138  and  270-273.] 

Class  38 — Articles  for  traveling  and  for  encampment. — Trunks,  valises, 
sacks,  bags,  &c. ;  dressing-cases,  trusses,  &c. ;  various  articles,  cover¬ 
ings,  cushions,  coiffures,  costumes,  shoes,  walking  sticks,  parasols,  &c. 
General  Survey,  p.  143.] 

Portable,  for  traveling  and  scientific  expeditions :  photographic  ap¬ 
paratus,  instruments  for  meteorological  and  astronomical  observations; 
necessaries  for  geologists,  mineralogists,  naturalists,  settlers,  and  pio¬ 
neers;  tent  and  camp  articles;  military  tent  furniture — beds,  ham¬ 
mocks,  pliant  seats,  canteens,  mills,  ovens,  &c.  [Instruments  and 
Apparatus  of  Medicine,  &c.,  (v;)  General  Survey,  pp.  143  and  273.J 

Class  39 — Toys  and  gewgaws. — Dolls  and  playthings ;  figures  in  wax; 
plays  for  children  and  for  adults ;  instructive  playthings.  [General 
Survey,  p.  145.] 

FIFTH  GROUP. — PRODUCTS,  WROUGHT  AND  UNWROUGHT,  OF  EXTRACT¬ 
IVE  INDUSTRIES. 

Class  40 — Products  of  mines  and  metallurgy. — Collections  and  specimens 
of  rocks,  ores,  and  minerals ;  ornamental  stones,  marbles,  serpentines, 
onyx,  and  other  hard  stones,  [Building  Report,  &c.,  (iv ;)  ]  materials  diffi¬ 
cult  of  fusion ;  earths  and  clays ;  various  mineral  products,  raw  sul¬ 
phur,  [Industrial  Chemistry,  ii,]  rock  salt,  salt  from  springs,  bitumens, 
[Asphalt  and  Bitumen,  iv,]  and  petroleums ;  samples  of  combustible, 
raw,  and  carbonized  agglomerations  of  pit  coal,  [Pressed  Coal,  (v,) — 
See  also  Class  47 ;]  raw  metals,  pig  iron,  iron,  steel,  [Iron  and  Steel, 
(ii,)  ]  copper,  lead,  sfilver,  zinc,  &c. ;  metallic  alloys ;  products  of  pud- 
dlers,  (and  cinders,)  of  refiners  of  precious  metals,  of  gold  beaters,  &c. 
[General  Survey,  pp.  147,  273;  Precious  Metals,  (ii.)] 

Products  of  electro-metallurgy,  objects  coated  with  gold,  silver,  cop¬ 
per,  steel,  &c.,  by  the  galvanoplastic  method. 

Products  of  the  elaboration  of  raw  metals,  molded  castings,  bells, 
iron  of  commerce,  iron  for  special  uses,  sheet  iron,  tin,  extra  plates  for 
constructions  and  for  plating  ships ;  sheet  copper,  lead,  and  zinc, 
[Building  Report,  (iv;)]  wrought  metals,  forge  work,  heavy  work  for 
gates,  fences,  &c.;  wheels,  bandages,  tubes  without  solder,  chains,  &c. 
[General  Survey,  150.] 

Products  of  wire-mills,  needles,  pins,  trellis- work,  metallic  tissues, 
perforated  plates ;  hardware ;  edge-tools ;  ironmongery ;  copper,  brass, 
plate,  and  tin  wares ;  wrought  metal  of  various  kinds. 

Class  41 — Products  of  the  forest. — Specimens  of  different  species  of 
wood ;  wood  for  cabinet  work  and  for  building ;  fire-wood ;  wood  for 


172 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ship-work,  for  walking-sticks,  for  splintering;  corks;  textile  barks; 
tanning,  coloring,  odoriferous,  and  resinous  substances;  products  of 
forest  industry ;  roasted  and  carbonized  wood ;  crude  potash ;  wood 

.  for  cooperage,  for  basket-work,  for  sabots,  for  mat- work,  &c.  [Gen¬ 
eral  Survey,  p.  151.] 

Class  42 — Products  of  hunting  and  fisheries ,  and  collections  of  natural 
growth. — Collections  and  drawings  of  terrestrial  and  amphibious  ani¬ 
mals,  of  birds,  of  eggs,  fish,  cetacea,  Crustacea,  mollusks.  [General 
Survey,  p.  157.] 

Products  of  hunting — furs,  peltries,  hair,  fine  and  coarse,  feathers, 
down,  horns,  teeth,  ivory,  bones,  shells,  musk,  castoreum,  and  similar 
products.  [Ibid.] 

Products  of  fisheries — whale  oil,  spermaceti,  whalebone,  ambergris, 
shells  of  mollusks,  pearl,  mother-of-pearl,  corals,  sponges,  sepia,  pur¬ 
ple,  &c.  [Ibid.] 

Collections  from  natural  growth — champignons;  truffles;  wild 
fruits;  lichens  for  dyeing,  for  food,  and  for  fodder;  fermented  saps; 
Peruvian  bark,  useful  barks,  and  filaments;  wax;  resinous  gums; 
caoutchouc ;  gutta-percha,  &c.  [Ibid.  Preparation  of  Food,  in  vol¬ 
ume  v.] 

Class  43 — Agricultural  products  (not  used  for food)  of  easy  preservation. — 
Textile  materials — raw  cotton;  linen  and  hemp,  dressed  and  not 
dressed ;  vegetable  textile  fibers  of  all  sorts ;  wool  in  fleece  ;  cocoons 
of  silk- worm.  [Reports  on  Cotton  and  on  Silk,  in  volume  vi,  and  in 
General  Survey.] 

Products  of  agriculture  used  in  manufactures,  pharmacy,  and 
domestic  economy — oleaginous  plants,  oils,  wax,  resins,  tobacco,  tinder, 
substances  for  tanning  and  for  tinting;  fodder  and  provender  pre¬ 
served.  [General  Survey,  p.  160.] 

Class  44 — Chemical  and  pharmaceutical  products. — Acids,  alkalies,  salts 
of  all  kinds,  marine  salt,  spring  salt.  [Industrial  Chemistry,  (ii ;) 
General  Survey,  p.  164.] 

Various  chemical  products — wax,  soap,  candles,  matters  for  perfum¬ 
ery,  resins,  tar  waters,  essences,  varnishes,  coatings,  waxings ;  manu¬ 
factures  of  caoutchouc,  of  gutta-percha;  substances  for  dyes  and 
colors.  [Industrial  Chemistry,  for  candles,  soap,  and  dyes.] 

Natural  and  artificial  mineral  waters — gas  waters,  elementary  phar¬ 
maceutic  substances,  simple  and  compound  medicaments. 

Class  45 — Specimens  of  the  chemical  methods  of  bleaching  and  dyeing ,  of 
stamping  and  preparations. — Samples  of  yarn  and  tissues,  dyed ;  sam¬ 
ples  of  preparations  for  dyeing ;  linens,  printed  and  dyed ;  tissues  of 
printed  cotton,  pure  and  mixed ;  tissues  of  printed  woolens,  pure  and 
mixed,  combed  or  carded ;  tissues  of  printed  silks,  pure  or  mixed ; 
printed  carpets  of  felt  or  cloth ;  linens,  painted  or  waxed.  [Report 
on  Wool  and  Manufactures  of  Wool,  Clothing  Report,  General  Sur¬ 
vey,  &c.] 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS. 


173 


Class  46 — Leather  and  shins. — Elementary  matters  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  skins  and  leather ;  hides,  green  and  salted ;  leather,  tan¬ 
ned,  curried,  prepared,  and  dyed ;  varnished  leather ;  morocco  and 
sheep-skins ;  Hungary  leather ;  chamois-skins,  dressed  with  the  hair 
or  wool  on ;  preparations  and  dyes ;  skins  prepared  for  gloves  ;  peltry 
and  furs  prepared  and  dyed ;  parchments.  [General  Survey,  p.  165 ; 
Report  on  Clothing,  (vi.)] 

Articles  of  membrane  work,  cords  for  musical  instruments,  gold¬ 
beaters’  skins,  &c. 

SIXTH  GROUP. — INSTRUMENTS  AND  PROCESSES  OF  COMMON  ARTS. 

Class  47 — Apparatus  and  methods  of  mining  and  metallurgy . — Apparatus 
for  boring  artesian  wells  and  large  wells;  machines  for  drilling  in 
mines,  for  digging  coal,  and  for  quarrying  stone  and  breaking  up  rocks. 
[Mining  Report,  (iv ;)  Civil  Engineering,  (iv.)  ] 

Models,  plans,  and  views  of  works  and  labor  in  mines  and  quarries; 
ladders  for  mines  worked  by  machines ;  machinery  for  lifting  from 
mines ;  machines  for  exhausting  and  pumping ;  apparatus  for  airing, 
ventilators,  safety-lamps,  &c.;  photo-electric  lamps;  apparatus  for 
safety,  parachutes ;  signals.  [Mining  Report,  (iv.)  ] 

Apparatus  for  the  mechanical  preparation  of  minerals ;  apparatus 
for  the  agglomeration  of  combustibles.  [Mining  Report,  (iv ;)  Pressed 
Coal,  &c.,  (v;)  General  Survey,  p.  171.] 

Apparatus  for  carbonizing  combustibles ;  furnaces  and  hearths  for 
metals ;  apparatus  for  consuming  smoke ;  machines  for  metallic  works ; 
special  apparatus  for  forges  and  founderies;  electro-metallurgic  appa¬ 
ratus  ;  apparatus  for  the  working  of  metals  in  all  forms.  [Iron  and 
Steel,  (ii.)  ] 

Class  48 — Implements  and  processes  of  rural  and  forest  worh. — Plans  of 
cultivation ;  divisions  by  nature  of  the  soil ;  requisite  manures  and 
successions  of  crops  adapted  to  each  ;  materials  and  methods  of  agri¬ 
cultural  engineering;  surface  draining;  under- draining ;  irrigation. 
[General  Survey,  p.  174.] 

Plans  and  models  of  rural  buildings  ;  tools,  implements,  machines, 
and  apparatus  for  preparing  the  ground  for  sowing,  planting,  and 
harvesting;  for  preserving  and  preparing  the  products  of  agriculture; 
carts,  wagons,  and  apparatus  for  agricultural  and  rural  transportation; 
for  training  and  managing  horses,  &c. 

Fertilizing  substances,  organic  or  mineral.  [General  Survey,  pp. 
175,  282,  283,  284.] 

Apparatus  for  the  chemical  and  physical  study  of  soils. 

Plans  for  replanting,  cultivating,  and  managing  forests ;  implements 
of  forest  work. 

Class  49 — Apparatus  and  instruments  for  hunting,  fishing,  and  for  collect¬ 
ing  natural  products. — Arms,  traps,  snares,  machines,  and  equipments 
for  hunting ;  fish-lines,  fish-hooks,  harpoons,  nets,  apparatus  and  bait 


174 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


for  fishing ;  apparatus  and  instruments  for  gathering  products  obtained 
without  cultivation.  [General  Survey,  p.  176.] 

Class  50 — Materials  and  methods  of  agricultural  works  and  of  alimentary 
industry. — Apparatus  for  agricultural  work,  making  manures,  making 
pipes  for  drainage,  dairies,  corn  and  flour  trade,  disposal  of  fecula, 
making  starch,  oil,  brewing,  distilling,  making  sugar,  refining  sugar ; 
works  for  preparing  textile  fibers,  silk- worm  nurseries,  &c.  [General 
Survey,  p.  177 ;  Beet-root  Sugar.] 

Apparatus  for  the  preparation  of  food,  bread-kneaders,  and  mechan¬ 
ical  ovens  for  bakers ;  utensils  for  pastry  and  confectionery.  [Prepa¬ 
ration  of  Food,  (v.)  ] 

Apparatus  for  making  dough,  for  sea-biscuit,  for  chocolate,  for 
roasting  coffee,  for  ices  and  sherbets,  and  for  making  ice.  [Prepara¬ 
tion  of  Food,  (v;)  Industrial  Arts,  p.  366,  for  ice  manufacture.] 

Class  51 — Chemical ,  pharmaceutical ,  and  tanning  apparatus. — Apparatus 
and  instruments  for  laboratories ;  apparatus  and  instruments  for  test¬ 
ing  and  experiments  in  industry  and  commerce. 

Machines  and  utensils  used  in  the  manufacture  of  chemical  products, 
soaps,  candles,  &c. ;  apparatus  and  processes  for  making  essences,  var¬ 
nish,  and  objects  of  caoutchouc  and  gutta-percha.  [Industrial  Chem¬ 
istry,  (ii.)  ] 

Machines  and  apparatus  for  gas-works ;  machines  and  methods  for 
bleaching;  machines  and  preparations  of  pharmaceutic  products; 
machines  and  tools  for  workshops,  for  tanning  and  dressing  leather. 
[Industrial  Chemistry.] 

Machines  and  apparatus  for  glass-works  and  potteries. 

Class  52 — Motors ,  generators ,  and  mechanical  apparatus  especially  adapted 
to  the  uses  of  the  Exposition. — Boilers  and  steam  generators,  with  safety 
apparatus;  steam-pipes  and  accessory  objects;  shafts,  fixed  and 
movable;  pulleys  and  belts;  means  of  starting  and  stopping,  shifting 
and  regulating  the  movements  of  machinery ;  motors  for  furnishing 
water  and  the  necessary  motive  power  in  the  different  parts  of  the 
Palace  and  Park.  [Steam  Engineering,  &c.,  (iv ;)  Industrial  Arts,  (iii.)  ] 

Cranes  and  all  sorts  of  apparatus  proposed  for  the  handling  of  pack¬ 
ages  and  objects  in  the  Palace  and  grounds ;  rails  and  turn-tables 
proposed  for  use  in  the  Palace  and  Park.  [Steam  Engineering.] 
Class  53 — Machines  and  mechanical  apparatus  in  general. — Detached 
pieces  of  machinery,  supports,  rollers,  slides,  eccentrics,  cog-wheels, 
connecting-rods,  parallelograms,  joints,  belts,  systems  of  ropes,  &c. ; 
mechanism  for  changing  the  gear  of  machinery,  clicks,  &c. ;  move¬ 
ment  regulators  and  moderators;  greasing  apparatus.  [Steam  En¬ 
gineering,  (iv;)  Industrial  Arts,  (iii;)  Mining,  (iv;)  General  Survey, 
pp.  286-290.] 

Indicators  and  registers,  dynamometers,  manometers,  weighing  ap¬ 
paratus,  gauges,  and  apparatus  for  gauging  liquids  and  gases ;  ma¬ 
chines  for  handling  heavy  objects;  hydraulic  elevators,  pumps,  water- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS. 


175 


wheels,  rams,  &c.;  wheel  and  chain  buckets  for  irrigation,  reservoirs, 
wheels,  wheels  with  vertical  shaft,  machines  a  colonne  d’eau;  steam 
machinery,  boilers,  generators,  and  accessory  apparatus ;  condensers ; 
machines  moved  by  the  vapor  of  ether,  chloroform,  ammonia,  or  by 
combined  vapors.  [Industrial  Arts ;  Steam  Engineering.] 

Gas-engines,  air-engines,  compressed  air-engines  5  electro-magnetic 
motors,  wind-mills,  &c.:  aerostats.  [Industrial  Arts;  Mining  Report; 
General  Survey,  p.  286.] 

Class  54 — Machine  tools. — Machine  tools  for  preparatory  wood- work ; 
turning-lathes;  planing  and  boring  machines;  mortising,  piercing, 
and  cutting  machines ;  screw-cutting,  nut-cutting,  and  riveting  ma¬ 
chines;  various  tools  belonging  to  the  yards  of  mechanical  construct¬ 
ors.  [General  Survey,  pp.  177  and  290.] 

Tools,  machines,  and  apparatus  used  in  pressing,  crushing,  mixing, 
sawing,  polishing,  &c. ;  special  machine  tools  for  various  uses.  [Gen¬ 
eral  Survey,  pp.  17-184.] 

Class  55 — Apparatus  and  methods  of  spinning  and  rope-making. — Appa¬ 
ratus  for  hand-spinning ;  detached  parts  of  spinning  machines;  ma¬ 
chines  and  apparatus  for  preparing  and  spinning  textile  matters. 
[General  Survey,  pp.  181  and  293.] 

Apparatus  and  methods  adapted  to  the  complementary  operations, 
such  as  drawing  out,  winding  off,  twisting,  milling,  &c. 

Apparatus  for  classifying  and  determining  the  condition  of  the 
threads. 

Apparatus  of  rope-yards,  round,  flat,  and  diminishing  cables,  rope 
and  twine,  wire  cables,  cables  with  metallic  center,  fuzes,  quick- 
matches,  &c. 

Class  56 — Apparatus  and  methods  of  weaving. — Preparatory  apparatus 
for  weaving ;  machinery  for  warping  and  for  bobbins ;  glazing  and 
smoothing;  ordinary  and  power  looms  for  plain  tissues  and  for  figured 
tissues;  loom  reeds;  electrical  looms;  carpet  and  tapestry  looms; 
mesh  looms  for  hosiery  and  tulle;  apparatus  for  making  lace,  for 
fringes,  and  for  trimmings ;  looms  for  high  warping  and  methods  of 
shuttling ;  accessory  apparatus,  calenders,  crimping,  weaving,  meas¬ 
uring,  and  folding  machines,  &c. 

Class  57 — Apparatus  and  process  of  sewing  and  making  clothes. — Ordinary 
instruments  for  cutting  and  sewing  and  making ;  machines  for  sew- 
ing,  quilting,  and  embroidering;  tools  for  cutting  up  stuffs  and  leather 
for  clothes,  shoes,  &c. ;  machines  for  screwing,  nailing,  and  making 
shoes  and  boots.  [General  Survey,  pp.  185  and  294.] 

Class  58 — Apparatus  and  methods  of  makings  furniture  and  household 
objects. — Machines  for  veneering ;  saws  for  cutting  in  profile,  &c. ; 
machines  for  moldings  and  frames,  for  ornamental  floor- work  and  fur¬ 
niture-work,  &c.;  turning-lathes,  and  various  apparatus  for  joiners’  and 
cabinet-makers’  shops ;  machines  for  pressing  and  stamping ;  machines 
and  apparatus  for  working  in  stucco,  in  pasteboard,  in  ivory,  in  bone, 


176 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


in  horn ;  machines  for  pointing,  sculpturing,  and  reducing  statues, 
and  for  engraving  and  chasing ;  machines  for  sawing  and  polishing 
hard  stones,  marble,  &c.  [General  Survey,  pp.  185  and  297.] 

Class  59 — Apparatus  and  methods  of  paper-making ,  coloring ,  and  stamp¬ 
ing. — Apparatus  for  stamping  paper,  colors,  and  tissues;  machines  for 
engraving  cylinders;  apparatus  for  bleaching,  coloring,  preparing 
paper  and  tissues ;  apparatus  for  making  paper  in  vats  and  by  ma¬ 
chines  ;  apparatus  for  crimping,  ruling,  glazing,  and  pressing  paper ; 
machines  for  cutting,  paring,  and  stamping  paper,  &c. ;  apparatus 
and  materials  for  letter-casting,  stereotyping,  &c.  [General  Survey, 
p.  187.] 

Machines  and  apparatus  employed  in  stereotyping,  mezzotinting, 
autography,  lithography,  chalcography,  paniconography,  chromo-lith¬ 
ography,  &c. ;  printing  of  postage-stamps ;  machines  for  composing 
and  for  classifying  letters.  [Industrial  Arts.] 

Class  60 — Machinery ,  instruments ,  and  methods  used  in  various  works. — 
Machinery  for  stamping  money,  for  making  buttons,  pens, pins,  envel¬ 
opes,  brushes,  cards,  capsules,  for  loading  merchandise,  and  for  cork¬ 
ing  and  capping  bottles. 

Tools  and  methods  of  making  lock- works,  toys,  ornamental  boxes, 
baskets,  &c. 

Class  61 — Carriage  and  cart  work. — Separate  pieces  of  carriage  and  cart 
work,  wheels,  bands,  axles,  wheel-boxes,  tires,  &c. ;  springs  and  various 
methods  of  suspension ;  systems  of  tackling  and  brakes  ;  specimens 
of  carts  and  vehicles  for  special  uses,  public  carriages,  private  carri¬ 
ages,  state  carriages,  hand  carriages,  litters,  sleighs,  and  velocipedes. 
[General  Survey,  pp.  188  and  299.] 

Class  62 —^Harness-work  and  saddlery. — Articles  of  harness- work,  buckles, 
ornaments,  &c. ;  saddles,  donkey  saddles,  cacolet;  harness  and  bridles 
for  riding ;  harness  for  draught,  stirrups,  spurs,  whips,  &c.  [General 
Survey,  p.  190.] 

Class  63 — Materials  for  railroads  and  cars. — Separate  pieces,  springs, 
buffers,  brakes,  &c.  [Steam  Engineering,  &c.,  in  volume  iv ;  also  in 
General  Survey,  pp.  191-202  and  300.] 

Fixed  materials,  rails,  chairs,  splices,  switches,  turn-tables,  fenders, 
watering  cranes,  reservoirs,  signals  for  sight  and  sound ;  rolling  ma¬ 
terials,  wagons  for  earthwork,  for  merchandise,  for  cattle,  for  travel¬ 
ers.  [Ibid.] 

Locomotives,  fenders,  &c. ;  machinery  and  tools  of  workshops,,  for 
repairs  and  reconstructions.  [Ibid.] 

Material  and  machines  for  inclined  planes  and  self- working  inclines. 
[ Ibid.  Industrial  Arts  for  u  Mahovos.”] 

Material  and  machines  for  atmospheric  railways;  models  of  ma¬ 
chinery;  systems  of  traction,  apparatus  applicable  to  iron  roads; 
models,  plans,  and  drawings  of  termini,  stations,  sheds,  and  out-houses, 
necessary  to  railways.  [Steam  Engineering,  iv.] 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS. 


177 


Class  64 — Apparatus  and  methods  of  telegraphing. — Telegraphic  appara¬ 
tus,  based  on  the  transmission  of  light,  sound,  &c.  [Report  on  the 
Telegraphic  Apparatus,  &c.,  in  volume  iv.] 

Apparatus  of  the  electrical  telegraph,  supports,  conductors,  tight¬ 
eners,  electrical  batteries ;  apparatus  for  sending  and  receiving  dis¬ 
patches,  bells,  and  electrical  signals,  accessory  objects  for  the  service  ; 
lightning-rods,  commutators,  prepared  fjapers  for  printing,  and  auto¬ 
graphic  transmissions ;  special  apparatus  for  submarine  telegraphs. 
[Ibid.  Industrial  Arts,  (iii;)  General  Survey,  p.  301.] 

Class  65 — Materials  and  methods  adapted  to  civil  engineering ,  public 
ivories ,  and  architecture. — Materials  for  building,  wood,  metals,  orna¬ 
mental  stones,  lime,  mortar,  cements,  artificial  stone,  beton,  tiles, 
brick,  slate,  pasteboard,  and  felt,  for  roofing.  [Civil  Engineering, 
&c.,  (iv;)  Industrial  Arts,  (iii;)  Buildings,  (iv;)  Beton,  &c.,  and  As¬ 
phalt  and  Bitumen,  in  volume  iv ;  General  Survey,  p.  200.] 

Materials  and  specimens  of  preserved  wood;  apparatus  and  methods 
of  testing  materials ;  materials  of  works  for  embankments,  excavating 
machines ;  apparatus  for  stone-cutters’  yards  ;  tools  and  methods  for 
draughtsmen,  stone-cutters,  masons,  carpenters,  roofers,  tilers,  slaters, 
locksmiths,  joiners,  glaziers,  plumbers,  house-painters,  &c. 

Ornamental  iron-work,  locks,  padlocks,  railings,  balconies,  balus¬ 
ters,  &c. 

Materials  and  machines  for  foundation  work,  pile-drivers,  piles, 
screwqmsts,  pumps,  pneumatic  apparatus,  dredging  machines,  &c. ; 
machines  for  hydraulic  work,  seaports,  canals,  rivers,  &c. ;  materials 
and  apparatus  used  in  water- works  and  gas-works ;  materials  for  re¬ 
pairing  roads,  plantations,  and  public  works.  [Civil  Engineering,  in 
volume  iv.] 

Models,  plans,  and  drawings  of  public  works,  bridges,  viaducts, 
aqueducts,  sewers,  canal-bridges,  &c.  [Ibid.] 

Light-houses,  public  monuments  for  special  purposes,  private  build¬ 
ings,  hotels,  and  houses  to  let,  workmen’s  residences,  &c.  [Industrial 
Arts.] 

Class  66 — Navigation  and  salvage. — Drawings  and  models  of  skips, 
docks,  floating  docks,  &c. 

Drawings  and  models  of  all  kinds  of  vessels  for  river  and  maritime 
navigation ;  types  and  models  adopted  by  the  navy ;  apparatus  em¬ 
ployed  in  navigation  ;  boats  and  various  craft ;  ship-chandlery;  flags, 
signals,  buoys,  beacons,  &c. ;  materials  and  apparatus  for  swimming 
exercises,  for  diving,  and  for  salvage ;  floats,  diving-bells,  nautical  im¬ 
permeable  clothing,  submarine  boats,  apparatus  for  marine  salvage, 
carrying  hawsers,  life-boats,  &c.  [General  Survey,  and  the  Report  on 
the  Industrial  Arts.] 

12  p  E 


178 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


SEVENTH  GROUP. — POOD,  PRESH  OR  PRESERVED,  IN  VARIOUS  STAGES 

OF  PREPARATION. 

Class  67 — Cereals  and  other  farinaceous  edibles ,  with  their  derivatives. — 
Wheat,  rye,  barley,  maize,  rice,  millet,  and  other  cereals  in  grain  or 
flour;  hulled  grain;  meal. 

Farina  of  potatoes,  rice,  lentils,  &c. ;  glutens — tapioca,  sago,  arrow- 
root,  cassava,  and  other  fecula ;  specimens  of  mixed  meals,  &c. 

Italian  pastes,  semouille,  vermicelli,  maccaroni ;  alimentary  composi¬ 
tions  as  substitutes  for  bread,  ribbon,  vermicelli,  pulp,  domestic  pastes, 
&c.  [See,  for  this  class,  the  Report  on  Cereals,  the  Report  on  Pre¬ 
paration  of  Food,  and  the  General  Survey,  pp.  207  and  304.] 

Class  68 — Baking  and  pastry  cooking. — Various  kinds  of  bread,  with  or 
without  yeast ;  fancy  and  figured  bread ;  compressed  bread,  for  trav¬ 
eling,  campaigning,  &c. ;  tea  biscuits  ;  specimens  of  pastry  peculiar 
to  every  nation ;  gingerbread  and  dry  cakes  susceptible  of  preserva¬ 
tion.  [Preparation  of  Food,  &c.,  in  volume  v.] 

Class  69 — Fat  alimentary  substances ,  milk ,  eggs. — Fats  and  edible  oils, 
fresh  and  preserved  milk,  fresh  and  salt  butter,  cheese,  various  kinds 
of  eggs.  [Ibid-.] 

Class  70 — Meat  and  fish. — Fresh  and  salt  meat  of  various  kinds;  meat 
preserved  by  different  methods;  cakes  of  meat  and  portable  soup; 
hams  and  preparations  of  meat ;  fowl  and  game ;  fresh  and  salt  fish ; 
barreled  fish;  cod-fisli,  herrings,  &c.  | General  Survey.] 

Fish  preserved  in  oil ;  sardines,  pickled  tunny,  &c. ;  Crustacea  and 
shells ;  lobsters,  prawns,  oysters,  preserved  oysters,  anchovies,  &c. 
[General  survey.] 

Class  71 — Vegetables  and  fruit. — Tubers,  potatoes,  &c. ;  dry  farinaceous 
vegetables,  beans,  lentils,  &c. ;  green  vegetables  for  cooking,  cabbages, 
&c. ;  vegetable  roots,  carrots,  turnips,  &c. ;  spicy  vegetables,  onions, 
garlic,  &c. 

Salad,  cucurbita,  pumpkins,'  melons;  vegetables  preserved  in  salt, 
vinegar,  or  by  acetic  fermentation,  sauerkraut,  &c. ;  vegetables  pre¬ 
served  by  various  methods;  fresh  fruits,  dry  and  prepared  fruits, 
plums,  figs,  grapes,  &c;  fruits  preserved  without  the  aid  of  sugar. 
IjGeneral  Survey,  p.  213.] 

Class  72 — Condiments  and  stimulants ,  sugars  and  specimens  of  confec¬ 
tionery. — Spices,  pepper,  cinnamon,  pimento,  &c. ;  table  salt,  vinegar, 
compound  seasonings  and  stimulants,  mustard,  curry,  English  sauces, 
&c. ;  tea,  coffee,  and  aromatic  beverages ;  coffee  of  chiccory  and  sweet 
acorns ;  chocolate ;  sugar  for  domestic  use,  sugar  of  grapes,  milk,  &c. 
[General  Survey,  p.  215 ;  Preparation  of  Food,  in  volume  v.] 

Various  specimens  of  confectionery,  comfits,  sugar-plums,  melting 
plums,  nougats,  angelicas,  anise-seeds,  &c. ;  sweetmeats  and  jellies, 
preserved  fruits,  citrons,  cedras,  oranges,  apples,  pine-apples;  brandy 
fruit,  sirups,  and  sugary  liquids.  [General  Survey,  pp.  215-219.] 

Class  73 — Fermented  drinks. — Ordinary  red  and  white  wines,  sweet  and 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS. 


179 


mulled  wines,  sparkling  wines,  cider,  perry,  and  other  drinks  extracted 
from  fruit.  [General  Survey,  pp.  218-222  ;  Report  on  the  Culture  and 
Products  of  the  Vine,  &c.,  (v.)  Beet  root  Sugar  and  Alcohol,  in  vol¬ 
ume  v.] 

Beer  and  other  drinks,  drawn  from  cereals  ;  fermented  drinks,  drawn 
from  vegetable  saps;  milk  and  saccharine  substances  of  all  kinds; 
brandy  and  alcohol ;  spirituous  drinks,  gin,  rum,  tafia,  kirschwasser, 
&c.  [General  Survey,  p.  222.] 

EIGHTH  GROUP.— ANIMALS  AND  SPECIMENS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  ESTAB¬ 
LISHMENTS. 

Class  74 — Specimens  of  rural  work  and  of  agricultural  establishments. — 
Types  of  rural  buildings  of  various  countries;  materials  of  stables, 
cow-houses,  ox-stalls,  kennels,  &c. ;  apparatus  for  preparing  food  for 
animals ;  agricultural  machinery  in  movement ;  steam-plows,  reapers, 
mowers,  haymakers,  threshing  machines,  &c. 

Types  of  agricultural  manufactures,  distilleries,  sugar-mills,  [see 
Report  on  the  Manufacture  of  Beet-sugar  and  Alcohol,]  refineries, 
breweries,  flour-mills,  fecula  and  starch  manufactures,  silkworm  nur¬ 
series,  &c. 

Presses  for  wine,  cider,  oil,  &c. 

Class  75 — Horses ,  donkeys ,  mules ,  &c. — Animals  presented  as  character¬ 
istic  of  the  art  of  breeding  in  all  countries ;  specimens  of  stables. 

Class  76 — Oxen ,  buffaloes ,  &c. — Animals  presented  as  specimens  of  the 
art  of  breeding  in  each  country;  specimens  of  cow-houses  and  ox- 
stables. 

Class  77 — Sheep,  goats. — Animals  presented  as  examples  of  the  art  of 
breeding  in  each  country ;  types  of  sheepfolds,  pens,  and  similar  estab¬ 
lishments. 

Class  78 — Swine,  rabbits,  &c. — Animals  presented,  &c. ;  types  of  hog¬ 
pens,  and  structures  for  raising  animals  of  this  class. 

Class  79 — Poultry. — Animals  presented,  &c. ;  types  of  hen-roosts,  dove¬ 
cotes,  pheasantries,  &c. ;  apparatus  for  artificial  hatching. 

Class  80 — Hunting  and  icatch  dogs. — Shepherds’  dogs,  hunting  dogs, 
watch  dogs ;  types  of  kennels  and  apparatus  for  training. 

Class  81 — Useful  insects. — Bees,  silk- worms,  and  various  bombyxes, 
cochineal,  insects  for  producing  lac,  &c. ;  apparatus  for  breeding  silk¬ 
worms,  bees,  &c. 

Class  82 — Fish,  Crustacea,  mollusca. — Living  aquatic  useful  animals; 
aquariums ;  apparatus  used  in  breeding  fish,  mollusca,  and  leeches. 

NINTH  GROUP. — LIVE  PRODUCTS  AND  SPECIMENS  OF  HORTICULTURAL 

ESTABLISHMENTS. 

Class  83 — Hotdiouses  and  horticultural  materials. — Tools  for  gardeners, 
nurserymen,  and  horticulturists ;  apparatus  for  watering  and  for  dress¬ 
ing  grass-plots,  &c. 


180 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Large  liot-liouses  and  tlieir  accessories  ;  small  green-liouses  for  apart¬ 
ments  and  for  windows;  aquariums  for  aquatic  plants;  water  jets  and 
other  apparatus  for  ornamenting  gardens. 

Class  84 — Flowers  and  ornamental  plants. — Species  of  plants  and  speci¬ 
mens  of  cultivation  representing  the  characteristic  types  of  garden  and 
house  plants  of  every  country. 

Class  85 — Kitchen-garden  plants. — Species  of  plants  and  specimens  of 
cultivation  representing  the  characteristic  types  of  kitchen-gardens 
in  all  countries. 

Class  86 — Fruit  trees. — Species  of  plants  and  specimens  characteristic 
of  the  orchards  in  all  countries ;  slips  of  forest  species. 

Class  87 — Seeds  and  useful  forest  plants. — Species  of  plants  and  speci¬ 
mens  of  culture  indicating  the  methods  of  replanting  forests  in  differ¬ 
ent  countries. 

Class  88 — Hot-liouse  plants. — Specimens  of  the  culture  of  various  coun¬ 
tries,  with  a  view  to  utility  and  ornament. 

TENTH  GROUP. — OBJECTS  EXHIBITED  WITH  A  SPECIAL  VIEW  TO  THE 
AMELIORATION  OF  THE  MORAL  AND  PHYSICAL  CONDITION  OF  THE 
POPULATION. 

Class  89. — Materials  and  methods  for  teaching  children. — Plans  and  mod¬ 
els  of  school-houses,  of  school  furniture,  apparatus,  instruments, 
models,  wall-maps,  &c.,  designed  for  facilitating  the  teaching  of  chil¬ 
dren  ;  elementary  collections  suitable  for  teaching  ordinary  science ; 
models  of  designs,  tables,  and  apparatus  suitable  for  teaching  singing 
and  music. 

Apparatus  and  tables  for  instructing  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
blind ;  school-books,  atlases,  maps,  pictures,  periodical  publications, 
and  journals  for  education. 

Works  of  scholars  of  both  sexes.  [General  Survey,  pp.  229  and  308 ; 
and  Report  on  School-houses,  &c.,  (v.)  Education,  in  volume  vi.] 

Class  90 — Libraries  and  materials  for  instruction  of  adults  in  the  family , 
the  workshop,  the  commercial  and  corporation  schools.— Works  proper 
for  family  libraries,  for  the  masters  in  workshops,  cultivators,  commer¬ 
cial  teachers,  mariners,  traveling  naturalists,  &c. 

Almanacs,  memorandum-books,  and  other  publications  suitable  for 
traveling  venders. 

Materials  for  school  libraries,  commercial  libraries,  Ac. 

Materials  for  the  technical  teaching  necessary  in  certain  manual 
pursuits.  [Ibid.] 

Class  91 — Furniture ,  clothing ,  and  food ,  of  all  origins ,  distinguished  for 
useful  qualities ,  united  with  cheapness. — Methodical  collection  of  objects 
enumerated  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  seventh  groups,  supplied  to  com¬ 
merce  by  large  factories  or  by  master- workmen,  and  specially  recom¬ 
mended  by  their  adaptation  to  good  domestic  economy. 

Class  92 — Specimens  of  popular  costumes  of  different  countries. — Method- 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  OBJECTS. 


181 


ical  collection  of  costumes  of  both  sexes,  for  all  ages,  and  for  pursuits 
the  most  characteristic  of  each  country.  [Clothing  Report,  in  vol¬ 
ume  vi.] 

Class  93 — Specimens  of  habitations ,  characterized  by  cheapness ,  uniting 
sanitary  conditions  and  comfort. — Types  of  habitations  for  families, 
suitable  for  various  classes  of  laborers  in  each  country.  [Building 
Report,  (iv.)  General  Survey,  p.  310.] 

Types  of  habitations  proposed  for  workmen  belonging  to  manufac¬ 
tories  in  the  suburbs  or  in  the  country.  [Ibid.] 

Class  94 — Products  of  all  sorts ,  made  by  master-workmen. — Methodical 
collection  of  products  enumerated  in  preceding  groups,  made  by  work¬ 
men  who  work  on  their  own  account,  either  alone  or  with  their  fami¬ 
lies,  or  as  apprentices,  for  sale  or  for  domestic  use. 

Note. — Such  products  only  were  admitted  into  this  class  as  were 
distinguished  for  their  own  qualities,  novelty,  perfection  of  the  method 
of  work,  or  by  the  useful  influence  of  this  kind  of  work  on  the  moral 
and  physical  condition  of  the  people. 

Class  95 — Instruments  and  methods  of  work  peculiar  to  master-workmen. — 
Instruments  and  processes  (enumerated  in  sixth  group)  employed 
habitually  by  workmen  working  on  their  own  account,  or  specially 
adapted  to  work  done  in  the  family  or  in  the  family  circle. 

Manual  works  which  display  in  a  striking  manner  dexterity,  intelli¬ 
gence,  or  taste  of  the  workman. 

Manual  works  which,  from  various  causes,  have  most  successfully 
resisted  the  competition  of  machines. 


. 

' 

. 

' 

■ 

■  I  - 


LIST  OF  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS.1 


N.  M.  Beckwith, 

Commissioner  General  and  President  of  the  Commission. 
Samuel  B.  Ruggles, 

Vice-President  of  the  Commission. 

Alexander  T.  Stewart,  New  York,  New  York. 

Jacob  R.  Freese,  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 

Charles  B.  Norton,  New  York,  New  York. 

W.  J.  Valentine,  Massachusetts. 

Thomas  W.  Eyans,  Paris,  France. 

Frank  Leslie,  New  York,  New  York. 

James  Archer,  Missouri. 

Enoch  R.  Mudge,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

William  A.  B.  Budd,  New  York,  New  York. 

Charles  B.  Seymour,  New  York,  New  York. 

Charles  R.  Goodwin,  Paris,  France. 

C.  K.  Garrison,  New  York,  New  York. 

PAID  COMMISSIONERS. 

F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.  D.,  President  of  Columbia  College,  New  York. 
J.  Lawrence  Smith,  M.  D.,  professor,  &c.,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

J.  P.  Lesley,  professor,  &c.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

Abram  S.  Hewitt,  Esq.,  New  York,  New  York. 

Samuel  B.  Ruggles,  LL.  D.,  New  York,  New  York. 

Hon.  John  P.  Kennedy,  Baltimore,  Maryland. 

William  Slade,  Esq.,  Ohio. 

Henry  F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  Esq.,  New  York,  New  York. 

James  H.  Bowen,  Esq.,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Paran  Stevens,  Esq.,  New  York,  New  York. 

HONORARY  COMMISSIONERS,  WITHOUT  PAY,  DESIGNATED  BY  THE 

COMMISSION  IN  PARIS. 

Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  Esq.,  New  York,  New  York. 

George  S.  Hazard,  Buffalo,  New  York. 

William  S.  Auchincloss,  New  York,  New  York. 

John  P.  Reynolds,  Esq.,  Springfield,  Illinois. 

William  J.  Flagg,  Ohio. 

Alexander  Thompson,  New  York,  New  York. 

Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  LL.  D.,  New  York,  New  York. 

James  T,  Frazer,  professor,  &c.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 

B.  F.  Nourse,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 


1  The  names  of  those  who  did  not  serve  are  omitted. 


184 


LIST  OF  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


L.  F.  Mellen,  Esq.,  Alabama. 

Marshall  P.  Wilder,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

John  P.  Reynolds,  Esq.,  Springfield,  Illinois. 

J.  H.  Chadwick,  Esq.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

Thomas  McElrath,  Esq.,  New  York,  New  York. 

Patrick  Barry,  Esq.,  Rochester,  New  York. 

William  E.  Johnston,  M.  D.,  Paris,  France. 

John  W.  Hoyt,  M.  D.,  professor,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

EXECUTIVE. 

N.  M.  Beckwith, 

Commissioner  General  and  President  of  the  Commission. 

W.  C.  Gunnell, 

A.  P.  Mulat, 

Engineers  and  Architects. 

J.  N.  Proeschel, 

Secretary. 

J.  C.  Derby, 

United  States  Agent,  New  York. 

LIST  OF  THE  MEMBERS  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURY 
ALLOTTED  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Charles  C.  Perkins,  New  Order  of  Awards. 

W.  T.  Hoppin,  Group  I,  Classes  1  and  2. 

J.  P.  Kennedy,  Group  I,  Class  3. 

R.  M.  Hunt,  Architect,  Group  I,  Class  4. 

Frank  Leslie,  (supplemented  by  Dr.  T.  W.  Evans,)  Group  I,  Class  5- 
W.  A.  Adams,  (supplemented  by  W.  T.  Hoppin  and  Dr.  T.  W.  Evans,) 
Group  II,  Class  9. 

J.  R.  Freese,  (supplemented  by  Dr.  T.  W.  Evans,)  Group  II,  Class  11. 
F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  President  Columbia  College,  Group  II,  Class  12. 
William  Slade,  Group  III,  Class  20. 

J.  Lawrence  Smith,  professor,  Vice-President  of  Jury,  Group  V. 

J.  P.  Lesley,  professor,  (supplemented  by  Professor  T.  S.  Hunt,)  Group 
VI,  Class  51. 

C.  R.  Goodwin,  Engineer,  Group  VI,  Class  52. 

J.  E.  Holmes,  Engineer,  Group  VI,  Class  54. 

H.  F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  Engineer,  Group  VI,  Class  57. 

J.  Debeauvais,  Engineer,  Associate  Juror  in  Group  VI,  Class  54. 

J.  P.  Reynolds,  Juror  on  Agricultural  Trials  at  Billancourt. 


O 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION,  1867. 
REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  THE  EXHIBITION ; 


WITH  A  REPORT  ON  THE 


CHARACTER  AND  CONDITION 


OF  THE 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1  86  8. 


ERRATA 


Page  24,  for  Troyou,  read  Troyon. 

Page  59,  et  infra,  for  furniture  and  other  objects  for  the  use  of  dwellings,  read  furni¬ 
ture  and  other  objects  for  use  in  dwellings. 

Page  64,  8th  line  from  the  bottom,  insert  comma  after  “  this.” 

Page  80,  for  Montague,  read  Montague. 

Page  101,  for  Vienna,  read  Vienne. 

Page  102,  for  Vanguelin,  read  Vauquelin. 

Page  102,  for  National  Association  of  Wool  Growers,  read  National  Association  of 
Wool  Manufacturers. 

Page  103,  for  Oiseet  Ere,  read  Oise-et-Eure. 

Page  105,  for  fuchshine,  read  fuchsine. 

Page  133  to  146,  the  head  lines  should  be  changed  to  conform  to  the  classes. 

Page  149,  5th  line,  for  pounds,  read  poods. 

Page  153,  for  Lannet,  read  Lannes. 

Page  154,  for  usages,  read  uses. 

Page  265,  for  Madona,  read  Madrona. 

Page  287,  for  steam,  read  steam  pump. 

Page  315,  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  the  title  of  the  catalogue  should  be  corrected  to 
read  as  follows :  Catalogue  Officiel  des  Exposants  Recompenses  par  le  Jury  Interna¬ 
tional.  Paris,  E.  Dentu,  Libraire-fiditeur  de  la  Commission  Imperiale. 


PREFACE. 


The  examination  of  products  and  making  awards  was  committed  to 
international  juries,  numbering  in  all  six  hundred  members. 

The  number  of  jurors  taken  from  each  nation  was  in  proportion  to  the 
ground  occupied  by  each  in  the  Exhibition,  and  the  general  commissioner 
of  each  nation  nominated  the  jurors  allowed  to  his  national  section. 

The  organization  comprised  one  special  jury,  ninety-four  juries  of 
classes,  ten  juries  of  groups,  and  a  superior  council. 

The  work  was  divided  and  distributed  among  them  as  follows : 

I.  The  subjects  which  were  presented  for  the  new  order  of  recompenses, 
intended  for  persons,  establishments,  or  localities,  which,  by  organization 
or  special  institutions,  have  developed  harmony  among  co-operators  and 
produced  in  an  eminent  degree  the  material,  moral,  and  intellectual  well¬ 
being  of  the  workmen,  were  submitted  to  a  special  jury  of  twenty-five 
members,  whose  decision  was  final. 

II.  The  examination  of  Group  No.  1,  comprising  the  five  classes  of  fine 
arts,  was  committed  to  four  separate  juries,  whose  reports  were  subject 
to  revision  and  adjustment  by  a  group  jury  formed  by  the  four  class 
juries  united,  numbering  sixty-four  members,  whose  decision  was  final. 

III.  The  remaining  ninety  classes  of  products  were  submitted  to  the 
inspection  of  the  corresponding  ninety  class  juries,  whose  work  was 
subject  to  revision  by  the  group  juries  and  superior  council. 

Each  class  jury  elected  from  its  own  body  a  president,  vice-president, 
and  reporter. 

The  nine  group  juries  were  composed  of  the  presidents  and  reporters 
of  the  ninety  class  juries,  with  the  addition  of  a  president  and  two  vice- 
presidents  to  each  group  jury,  not  taken  from  the  class  juries,  but  speci¬ 
ally  appointed  by  the  respective  general  commissioners  of  the  national 
sections  to  which  these  appointments  were  allotted.  The  secretary  for 
each  group  was  appointed  by  the  imperial  commission. 

The  superior  council  was  formed  of  the  presidents  and  vice-presidents 
of  the  nine  group  juries,  presided  by  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the 
imperial  commission. 

Members. 


IY.  The  organization  thus  comprised — 

One  special  jury  on  new  order .  25 

One  class  and  group  jury  on  fine  arts .  64 

Ninety  class  juries,  numbering  in  all .  483 

Nine  group  juries,  numbering — 

Presidents  and  vice-presidents  of  classes .  180 

Added,  nine  presidents  and  eighteen  vice-presidents .  27  27 


207 


6 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Members. 


One  superior  council — 

Presidents  and  vice-presidents  of  groups .  27 

One  presiding  officer  added .  1  1 


28 


Total .  600 


V.  The  duties  of  the  class  juries  were  to  examine  the  products  in 
detail  in  their  respective  classes,  and  make  lists  of  the  exhibitors  whose 
products  they  considered  deserving  of  awards,  naming  the  award  they 
proposed  for  each,  and  the  reason  of  it,  which  completed  their  work. 

The  reports  on  products  and  exhibitors  thus  drawn  up  were  passed  to 
the  group  juries,  whose  duty  it  was  to  revise  them,  concurring  in  the 
recommendations  of  the  class  jurors  as  far  as  approved,  modifying  the 
parts  not  approved,  and  sending  them  in  this  form  to  the  superior 
council. 

The  duty  of  the  superior  council  was  to  decide  upon  the  whole  num¬ 
ber  of  awards  to  be  made,  and  the  number  of  each  grade  of  awards,  for 
which  jmrposes  they  had  a  limited  authority  to  add  to  the  whole  number 
which  had  been  recommended,  and  power  to  diminish  the  Avhole  number 
called  for  by  the  juries.  Having  determined  the  whole  number  and  the 
grades,  they  apportioned  the  numbers  and  grades  to  each  group  for  dis¬ 
tribution,  and  in  this  form  returned  the  work  to  the  respective  group 
juries,  whose  remaining  duty  it  was  to  adjust  the  awards  made  to  the 
numbers  and  grades  thus  placed  at  their  disposal,  retrenching  the  names, 
if  any  in  excess  of  their  means ;  and  this  adjustment  was  final. 

The  classification  of  products  adopted  by  the  imperial  commission  hav-’ 
ing  been  made  known  two  years  in  advance,  and  the  national  allotments 
of  jurors  made  public  at  an  early  period,  ample  time  had  been  given  for 
the  selection  of  jurors  qualified  to  appreciate  the  particular  class  of  pro¬ 
ducts  on  which  each  was  to  be  placed. 

A  more  highly  competent  body  of  experts  in  the  products  of  every 
industrial  art  and  science  was  probably  never  assembled  for  a  similar  pur¬ 
pose.  The  rapidity  of  their  appreciations,  in  many  cases,  was  not  in  con¬ 
formity  with  the  views  of  exhibitors,  who  thought  more  time  and  expla¬ 
nation  would  have  made  their  products  better  understood.  But  men 
devoted  to  special  studies,  familiar  with  first  principles,  and  acquainted 
with  their  application,  modified  by  human  skill,  in  almost  every  form, 
seldom  meet  with  a  product  in  their  line  so  entirely  new  in  principle,  so 
ingenious  in  design,  or  so  complicated  in  structure,  as  to  make  it  difficult 
for  them  to  arrive  at  a  correct  opinion  upon  its  general  merits  in  a  short 
space  of  time.  Exceptions  occur,  but  the  inventive  skill  of  producers 
rarely  exceeds  the  comprehension  of  experts,  and  the  general  accuracy 
of  the  conclusions  of  the  juries  will,  without  doubt,  be  proved  by  expe¬ 
rience  and  largely  confirmed  by  public  opinion. 


PREFACE. 


7 


In  tlie  ceaseless  struggle  to  gratify  human  wants,  scientific,  mechan¬ 
ical,  and  industrial  progress  are  developed  unequally  in  different  coun 
tries  and  in  different  localities  of  the  same  country.  Bringing  together 
the  best  fruits  of  industry  and  skill  from  all  regions  facilitates  the 
exchange  and  diffusion  of  the  arts  and  methods  of  production,  and 
equalizes  the  common  stock  of  intelligence.  All  are  gainers  in  the 
highly  civilized  commerce  which  consists  in  the  gratuitous  exchange  of 
useful  ideas  and  practical  knowledge,  together  with  the  methods  of  their 
application  in  every  form  to  ameliorate  the  material  and  moral  condition 
of  mankind. 

The  united  verdict  of  the  international  jury,  composed  in  great  part 
of  professional  men  of  known  skill  and  established  reputations,  is  the 
ablest  and  soundest  judgment  that  will  be  pronounced  on  the  relative 
condition  of  the  arts  of  industry  at  the  present  time,  as  displayed  in  the 
products  of  all  countries. 

Ninety-five  juries,  working  simultaneously  and  independently,  and 
rendering  in  every  department  separate  reports,  produce,  when  collated, 
revised,  and  confirmed,  an  aggregate  verdict  of  reliable  value. 

The  relative  condition  of  national  industries  thus  indicated  will  be 
most  easily  and  readily  understood  by  a  tabular  statement,  divested  of 
the  embarrassment  of  superfluous  figures  and  variable  numbers,  show¬ 
ing  merely  the  percentage  of  awards  to  exhibitors. 

Percentage  was  not  the  object,  but  is  the  inevitable  result,  of  awards, 
and  it  is  the  most  unquestionable  expression,  in  a  concentrated  and  reli¬ 
able  form,  of  the  united  opinion  of  the  whole  body  of  jurors,  the  import¬ 
ance  of  which  is  not  diminished  by  its  being  unforeseen  and  unpremedi¬ 
tated. 

The  table  which  follows  shows  in  the  first  line  the  percentage  of  awards 
of  each  grade,  and  the  total  average  percentage.  The  percentage  of 
awards  in  each  grade  results  from  a  comparison  of  the  whole  number  of 
awards  in  each  grade  with  the  whole  number  of  exhibitors  in  the  Exhibi¬ 
tion  ;  and  the  total  average  percentage  results  from  a  comparison  of  the 
whole  number  of  awards  with  the  whole  number  of  exhibitors $  this  total 
average  results  equally  from  the  sum  of  the  averages  of  the  grades. 

The  subsequent  lines  show  in  like  manner  the  percentage  applicable  to 
each  country.  In  these  the  percentages  of  awards  in  each  grade  result 
from  the  whole  number  of  awards  in  each  grade,  made  to  the  country 
named ,  compared  with  the  whole  number  of  exhibitors  from  that  country / 
and  the  total  average  percentage  of  each  country  results  from  a  com¬ 
parison  of  the  total  number  of  awards  and  total  number  of  exhibitors 
pertaining  to  the  country  named,  or  equally  from  the  sum  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding  percentages. 

The  lines  read  horizontally  show,  therefore,  the  percentage  of  grades 
and  awards  to  each  country,  and  the  columns  read  vertically  present  the 
relative  grades  and  awards  of  each  country  compared  with  the  other 
countries. 


8 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  percentage  of  awards  to  the  exhibitors  of  the  remaining  twenty- 
five  countries  falls  below  the  succeeding. 


PERCENTAGE  OF  AWARDS  TO  EXHIBITORS. 


Name  of  country. 

Percentage  of  grand 

prizes. 

Percentage  of  gold 

medals. 

Percentage  of  silver 

medals. 

Percentage  of  bronze 

medals. 

Percentage  of  honor¬ 

able  mentions. 

General  average  per¬ 

centage. 

General  average  percentage  of  awards  to 

exhibitors . 

0.  00175 

0.  02221 

0.  08113 

0.12759 

0. 11265 

34.53 

Special  average  : 

France . 

0.  00306 

0.  04272 

0. 14742 

0. 20086 

0. 16166 

55.  57 

United  States . 

0.  00932 

0.  03171 

0. 13432 

0. 17910 

0. 17350 

52.79 

Austria . 

0.  00095 

0.  02722 

0. 12273 

0. 18194 

0. 14326 

47.  60 

Prussia  and  North  Germany . 

0.  00226 

0.  02890 

0. 10760 

0. 18497 

0. 15028 

47.  40 

Belgium . 

0.  00161 

0.  01834 

0. 10518 

0. 15428 

0.  15326 

43.26 

Russia . 

0.  00073 

0.  01538 

0.  06593 

0. 14945 

0. 10915 

34.  06 

Switzerland . 

0.  00092 

0.  01944 

0.  07500 

0. 11388 

0. 10926 

31.  85 

Great  Britain  and  colonies . 

0.  00178 

0.  01829 

0.  06217 

0.  09531 

0.  08338 

26. 10 

Italy . 

0.  00122 

0.  00589 

0.  02826 

0. 06311 

0.  09338 

19. 18 

Spain . 

0.  00000 

0.  00794 

0.  02950 

0. 07630 

0.  07333 

18.  70 

The  ardor  of  competition  in  a  great  international  assembly,  with  the 
eagerness  and  suspense  which  precede  the  declaration  of  awards  after 
that  event,  display  the  reaction  common  to  all  excitements.  The  awards 
of  the  successful,  so  desirable  by  anticipation,  diminish  in  importance 
by  possession,  and  seldom  give  satisfaction  ;  while  the  unsuccessful,  with 
more  courage  or  more  philosophy,  find  little  difficulty  in  adopting  the 
conclusion  of  their  friends  who  have  succeeded,  that  the  whole  affair 
has  been  greatly  overrated. 

Neither  of  these  impressions  is  probably  very  ,  accurate.  Experience 
on  former  occasions  has  in  the  main  justified  the  awards  of  the  juries, 
and  they  have  served  not  only  to  confirm  established  reputations,  but 
to  bring  into  more  prominent  notice  the  excellent  products  of  thousands 
of  skilful  and  worthy  producers,  who  labored  previously  in  comparative 
obscurity,  and  whose  inqiroved  fortunes  date  from  those  periods.  But 
the  benefits  resulting  from  this  are  not  limited  to  the  successful  exhib¬ 
itors.  They  are  naturally  stimulated  to  renewed  efforts  to  maintain  their 
new  positions,  which  quickens  their  invention,  improves  their  products, 
and  raises  their  own  standards,  whilst  their  rivals  and  competitors,  who, 
if  equally  skilful,  are  less  lucky,  are  thereby  compelled  to  work  up  to 
this  higher  level.  A  new  spirit  is  thus  breathed  into  every  department 
of  industry,  and  the  benefits  of  increased  production,  improved  qualities 
and  varieties,  and  diminished  cost  become  universal. 

The  influence  of  exhibitions  in  producing  the  remarkable  rise  and 
equalization  of  the  industrial  arts  over  a  large  portion  of  the  civilized 


PREFACE. 


9 


world,  increasing  useful  products  and  augmenting  tlie  growth  of  com¬ 
merce,  is  conspicuous  everywhere  and  obvious  to  every  intelligent  mind 
which  has  been  turned  to  the  subject  under  circumstances  favorable  to 
observation. 

Their  effects  also  in  a  scientific,  economic,  and  political  sense  are 
subjects  of  great  interest,  but  may  be  with  more  propriety  separately 
considered. 

The  high  position  conceded  by  the  verdict  of  the  juries  to  American 
industrial  products  is  not  due  in  general  to  graceful  design,  fertile  com¬ 
binations  of  pleasing  colors,  elegant  forms,  elaborate  finish,  or  any  of 
the  artistic  qualities  which  cultivate  the  taste  and  refine  the  feelings  by 
awakening  in  the  mind  a  higher  sense  of  beauty,  but  it  is  owing  to  their 
skilful,  direct,  and  admirable  adaptation  to  the  great  wants  they  are 
intended  to  supply,  and  to  the  originality  and  fertility  of  invention  which 
converts  the  elements  and  natural  forces  to  the  commonest  uses,  multiply¬ 
ing  results  and  diminishing  toil. 

The  peculiar  and  valuable  qualities  of  our  products  will  be  adopted  and 
reproduced  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  improving  the  mechanical  and  indus¬ 
trial  arts,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  and  gratifying  to  believe  that 
the  benefits  will  be  reciprocal,  that  our  products  will  in  time  acquire 
those  tasteful  and  pleasing  qualities  which  command  more  admiration 
and  find  a  quicker  and  better  market  than  the  barely  useful. 

The  reports  of  the  United  States  commissioners  upon  the  important 
subjects  selected  by  them  will  undoubtedly  command  attention. 

For  a  general  survey  of  the  Exhibition  I  refer  with  confidence  to  the 
able  sketches  of  Commissioner  Seymour,  written  with  clearness  and  free¬ 
dom,  in  a  flowing  and  agreeable  style,  free  from  the  stiffness  of  technical 
language;  and  to  the  observations  on  the  American  section,  which  will 
convey  to  those  interested,  especially  in  that  department,  correct  general 
information  on  the  products  of  our  owni  country. 

I  refer  with  equal  confidence  to  the  special  reports  of  a  more  practical 
character,  on  subjects  of  particular  importance  to  the  great  industries 
of  the  country.  Several  of  these  reports  are  from  professional  men  whose 
established  reputations  guarantee  the  thoroughness  of  their  studies  and 
the  accuracy  of  their  work,  whilst  the  authors  who  have  not  yet  acquired 
this  authority  may  reasonably  expect  to  obtain  it  from  the  just  apprecia¬ 
tion  of  the  public.  In  this  connection  I  cannot  deny  myself  the  pleasure 
of  alluding  to  the  assiduity,  the  ability,  the  zeal,  and  the  excellent  spirit 
which  have  animated  the  commissioners  in  devoting  so  long  a  period  to 
labors  adapted  to  promote  the  common  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the 
country. 

K  M.  BECKWITH, 

United  States  Commissioner  General. 


Paris,  January  17,  1868. 


GENERAL  SURVEY 


OF  THE 

PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  OE  1867. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  following  report  lias  been  prepared  in  conformity  with  the  instruc¬ 
tions  from  the  Department  of  State,  August  20,  1866,  which  require  the 
Commission  to  make  a  u  report  presenting  a  brief  general  survey  of  the 
Exhibition,  and  upon  the  character  and  condition  of  the  American  depart¬ 
ment.”  The  committee  formed  for  the  purpose  consisted  of  three  mem¬ 
bers  Messrs.  Seymour,  Evans,  and  Auchincloss. 

It  has  been  attempted  in  the  following  images  to  present  to  the  reader 
a  sketch  of  one  of  the  most  important  events  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  to  describe  certain  objects  of  general  interest  in  a  rapid  and,  it  is 
hoped,  popular  way.  There  were  95  classes  in  the  Exposition,  many  of 
them  subdivided  into  other  classes,  and  all  worthy  of  deep  consideration. 
To  obtain  information,  and  to  collate  and  compile  it,  were  matters  of  diffi¬ 
culty,  and  hence  absolute  brevity,  although  it  has  been  attempted,  could 
not,  in  the  nature  of  things,  be  attained.  But  details  have  been  avoided ; 
they  belong  properly  to  the  special  reports.  Nevertheless,  it  has  been 
thought  desirable  to  reproduce  in  English,  from  the  French  official  cata¬ 
logue,  some  of  the  introductions  to  the  principal  classes.  They  have  been 
prepared  with  the  greatest  care,  contain  many  interesting  particulars,  and 
offer  the  latest  data  on  the  subjects  treated. 

Before  concluding  their  labors  the  committee  think  it  proper  in  this 
place  to  acknowledge  the  valuable  assistance  of  the  Commissioner  Gen¬ 
eral,  Mr.  N.  M.  Beckwith,  in  the  preparation  of  these  reports.  Involved  in 
duties  which  were  alike  arduous  and  ungrateful,  because  seldom  properly 
appreciated,  he  was  able,  by  unflagging  attention  to  the  interests  of  the 
commission,  by  great  executive  ability,  unyielding  integrity  of  purpose, 
and  inflexible  resolution,  to  render  great  assistance  to  exhibitors  and  to 
all  who  sought  his  knowledge  and  advice. 

To  Professor  W.  P.  Blake,  of  California,  the  committee  is  indebted  also 
for  much  useful  matter. 

CHAS.  B.  SEYMOUR, 

Chairman  of  Committee. 


GENERAL  SURVEY. 


11 


ORGANIZATION  AND  LOCALITY. 

The  Exposition  of  18G7  takes  its  origin  from  the  imperial  decrees  of  the 
22d  June,  1865,  and  subsequent  dates,  instituting  an  International  Expo¬ 
sition,  to  be  opened  at  Paris  on  the  1st  April,  1867,  and  placing  it  under 
the  direction  of  an  imperial  commission  of  60  members,  of  which  the 
Prince  Imperial  was  named  president;  M.  Rouher,  minister  of  state,  M. 
Forcade  de  La  Roquette,  minister  of  commerce  and  public  works,  and 
Marshal  Vaillant,  minister  of  the  imperial  household,  vice-presidents ;  and 
M.  Leplay,  councillor  of  state,  commissioner  general. 

The  locality  selected  for  the  Exhibition  was  the  Champ  de  Mars,  the 
great  military  parade  ground,  extending  from  the  military  school  to  the 
Seine,  and  from  the  avenue  Labourdonnaye  to  the  avenue  Suffren,  form¬ 
ing  a  rectangle  of  48  hectares,  or  119  acres.  To  this  was  annexed  the 
island  of  Billancourt,  giving  an  additional  area  of  21  hectares,  or  52  acres ; 
making  a  total  of  171  acres  appropriated  to  the  Exposition.  Although 
somewhat  removed  from  the  most  attractive  parts  of  the  city,  it  was  easy 
of  access ;  and  being  also  the  property  of  the  government,  and  without 
any  constructions  which  needed  to  be  removed,  it  was  suitable  for  the 
intended  edifice,  and  was  free  from  expense  on  the  score  of  rent. 

The  ground  was  given  up  by  the  government  on  the  28th  of  September, 
1865,  and  the  first  iron  pillar  of  the  building  was  raised  on  the  3d  of 
April,  1866.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  structure  was  comparatively 
ready  for  the  exhibitors. 

It  is  proper  to  use  the  word  u  comparatively,”  for  there  was  delay  and 
backwardness  on  many  sides;  and  the  opening,  although  it  took  place 
on  the  day  and  hour  announced,  was  a  regulation  rather  than  a  necessity. 
A  few  only  of  the  groups  were  in  a  condition  to  be  fairly  presented  to  the 
public,  and  still  less  to  the  jurors  whose  work  was  to  commence  and  ter¬ 
minate  within  the  first  14  days  of  the  opening  month.  Thanks,  however, 
to  the  efforts  of  the  respective  commissions,  and  the  hearty  good-will  of 
the  exhibitors,  those  who  had  seen  with  dismay  the  condition  of  the 
building  on  the  day  when  the  Emperor  and  Empress  dedicated  it  to  its 
beneficent  and  instructive  purposes,  were  certainly  the  most  gladdened 
and  surprised  to  find  a  fortnight  later  that  order  had  sprung  from  chaos, 
and  that  the  vast  idea  of  this  colossal  undertaking  had  crystallized  into 
an  object  of  beauty. 

As  the  season  progressed  the  enclosure  known  as  the  Park  advanced 
in  clearness  and  interest.  Structures  that  ranged  from  the  nomadic  hut 
of  an  Esquimaux  to  the  gilded  palace  of  a  sultan,  sprang  up  on  every 
side.  These  buildings,  being  constructed  by  the  various  governments 
represented,  were  eminently  national,  and,  in  many  instances,  were  faith¬ 
ful  reproductions  of  edifices  that  are  of  world- wide  fame.  They  were 
rendered  additionally  interesting  from  the  fact  that,  to  whatever  use  they 
were  devoted,  the  attendants,  either  as  workmen  or  servitors,  were  almost 
invariably  national.  It  was  thus  possible  in  many  ways  to  visit  the 


12 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


habitations  and  witness  the  customs  of  the  most  remote  as  of  the  most 
intimate  nations  of  the  earth — a  study  which  can  hardly  be  considered 
inferior  to  any  other  that  was  afforded  on  this  occasion.  It  may  be  men¬ 
tioned  in  this  place  that,  amidst  all  the  allurements  of  strange  designs 
and  blazing  decorations,  the  simple  structures  contrived  for  cheapness, 
and  intended  for  working-men  and  their  families,  attracted  not  only  the 
attention  of  the  public,  but  won  the  highest  prizes  of  the  juries.  It  may 
surely  be  added  as  a  matter  of  congratidation  that  the  Emperor  Napoleon, 
who  planned  this  immense  and  splendid  show,  was  himself  a  competitor 
in  the  simple  walks  of  useful  ingenuity.  He  gave  the  world  a  palace  of 
unequalled  splendor,  and  contributed  himself  a  design  for  small  dwell¬ 
ings,  suitable  for  the  commonest  order  of  laborers.  The  latter  was  so 
excellent  that  it  received  the  principal  prize  awarded  in  such  competition. 

Thus  in  a  short  time  the  appearance  of  the  Champ  de  Mars  was  totally 
changed.  It  was  no  longer  an  arid,  gravelly  surface  without  vegetation 
or  adornment.  It  became  a  place  where  the  palace  and  the  cottage,  often 
together  by  accident,  were  purposely  put  side  by  side  for  examination ; 
where  the  traditions  of  generations  could  be  contrasted  with  the  latest 
discoveries  and  experiences  of  to-day.  The  vast  elliptical  building  in  the 
centre  occupied  190,000  yards,  or  39  acres.  The  circumference  was  1,000 
yards,  or  nearly  a  mile.  Externally  the  effect  was  heavy,  and  by  no 
means  imposing ;  but  it  speedily  became  apparent  that  it  was  admirably 
adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  intended.  The  entire  length 
between  the  Quai  d’Orsay  and  the  military  school  was  1,125  yards,  and 
the  width  between  the  two  avenues  De  Labourdonnaye  and  De  Suffren 
515  yards. 

The  Exposition  was  divided  into  three  portions;  the  first,  called  the 
Park,  comprising  the  palace  and  structures  before  referred  to,  and  the 
banks  of  the  Seine;  the  second,  called  the  Reserved  Garden,  containing 
the  botanical,  horticultural,  and  piscicultural  collections;  the  third,  called 
Billancourt,  from  the  name  of  an  island  in  the  Seine,  where  the  agricul¬ 
tural  implements  were  exhibited.  To  facilitate  the  practical  trials  of  the 
latter,  the  Emperor  was  also  good  enough  to  give  up  to  the  competitors 
all  the  land  and  crops  they  required.  Thus  the  mowing  machines  were 
tried  at  the  Emperor’s  farm  at  Fouilleuse,  near  St.  Cloud,  and  the  reapers 
at  the  imperial  establishment  at  Vincennes. 

PREVIOUS  EXHIBITIONS. 

The  Champ  de  Mars  was  the  site  of  the  first  French  industrial  exhibition, 
held  in  the  year  1 7 98.  This  had  110  exhibitors  and  lasted  three  days.  It  was 
succeeded  by  other  exhibitions  with  a  constantly  increasing  interest 
and  number  of  exhibitors,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  table.  In 
1820  Belgium  and  Holland  united  in  an  exhibition  at  Ghent.  Prussia 
held  an  exhibition  at  Berlin  in  1844,  and  Austria  at  Vienna  in  1846. 
But  the  first  exhibition  which  it  was  proposed  to  make  universal  was 


GENERAL  SURVEY. 


13 


opened  in  London  in  1851  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  It  was  followed  by  an  exhibition  in  New  York  in  1853,  and  by 
the  Universal  Exhibition  at  Paris  in  1855,  held  in  the  Palais  de  ^Industrie, 
also  specially  constructed  for  the  purpose,  and  which  was  the  scene  of 
the  distribution  of  the  prizes  by  the  Emperor  on  the  1st  of  July,  1867. 

The  second  international  exhibition  in  England  was  opened  in  1862 
and  covered  about  17  acres,  exclusive  of  annexes,  and  had  over  26,000 
exhibitors. 

The  relative  importance  of  these  different  exhibitions,  the  space  covered 
by  each,  and  number  of  exhibitors  and  visitors  as  far  as  ascertained,  is 
given  in  the  following  table: 


£ 


cS 

& 

cl 


Year. 


Name  of  country. 


1798 

1801 

1802 

1806 

1819 

1820 
1823 
1827 
1834 
1839 
1844 
1844 
1846 
1849 
1851 

1853 

1854 

1855 
1862 
1867 


France . 

France . 

France  . 

France,  (empire) . 

France,  (restoration) . 

Belgium  and  Holland . 

France  . 

France . 

France,  (Louis  Philippe) . 

France  . 

France . . 

Prussia,  (Berlin) . 

Austria,  (Vienna) . 

France,  (republic) . 

London,  (great  exhibition  of  all  nations) 

New  York,  (world’s  fair) . 

Germany,  (Munich) . 

France,  (Paris  universal  exhibition)  .... 

London,  (international) . 

France,  (exposition  universelle) . 


ft 

m 


S 

£ 


.o 

£ 


23 


110 

220 

540 

1,422 

1,662 


23 


254 

610 

869 


1,  642 
1,695 

2,  447 

3,  281 
3,  960 


1,  091 
1,254 
1, 785 
2,305 
3,253 


88,  027 


5,  494  4,  000 

13,  937  5,  248 


118, 786 
119,  994 
694, 153 


23,  954 
28,  653 
50,  226 


10,  811 


THE  BUILDING. 

The  buildings  erected  for  previous  great  exhibitions  are  generally 
known  as  palaces,  but  the  structure  on  the  Champ  de  Mars  had  nothing 
in  its  appearance,  as  our  previous  remarks  have  hinted,  suggestive  of  the 
name.  In  its  plan  and  construction  architectural  effects  were  subordin¬ 
ated  to  the  great  end  in  view — the  exhibition  of  the  objects  of  all  nations 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  invite  and  facilitate  comparison  and  study.  This 
end  was  attained  by  the  classification  of  the  objects  in  groups,  and  their 
arrangement  in  a  corresponding  number  of  galleries  disposed  side  by  side 
concentrically.  As  three  out  of  the  ten  groups — such  as  the  agricultural 
exhibitions,  live  produce,  &c. — could  not  be  properly  placed  in  the  build- 


14 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ing,  only  seven  galleries  were  required  and  constructed.  These  galleries, 
ellipsoidal  in  form  and  one  story  in  height,  composed  the  building. 

The  ground  plan  was  not  exactly  an  ellipse,  it  was  rather  a.  rectangle 
with  rounded  ends  and  the  sides  running  parallel  with  the  adjoining 
avenues.  The  exterior  lines  of  the  two  sides  ran  straight  for  a  space  of  120 
yards,  one  facing  the  quarter  of  the  Gros-Caillou,  the  other  the  quarter  of 
Grenelle,  and  were  united  by  two  demi-circumferences  of  equal  diameter, 
with  one  side  of  the  rectangle  facing  the  bridge  of  Jena,  and  the  other 
the  military  school.  An  open  space  in  the  centre,  prettily  ornamented 
with  flowers,  statues,  and  fountains,  served  as  the  point  of  radiation  for 
the  seven  enclosing  galleries.  It  was  also  the  site  of  a  central  pavilion 
which  contained  the  exhibition  of  the  weights,  measures,  and  moneys  of 
all  countries. 

In  the  construction  of  this  building  upwards  of  370,000  cubic  metres  of 
soil  had  to  be  removed  to  make  room  for  foundations,  drains,  air  pas¬ 
sages,  and  water-pipes.  The  outer  circle  was  excavated  so  as  to  give  a 
succession  of  vaulted  cellars  built  of  stone  and  concrete  and  lime  with 
cement.  The  two  interior  galleries  of  the  building  were  built  of  stone 
and  the  seven  others  of  iron. 

The  outer  circle,  devoted  to  the  engines  and  machinery,  was  the  highest 
and  the  broadest  of  all.  Its  width  was  114  feet,  and  its  height,  to  the 
top  of  the  nave,  81  feet.  The  roof  was  formed  of  corrugated  iron  and 
supported  by  176  iron  pillars  (each  weighing  24,000  pounds)  upon  which 
the  arches  or  ribs  were  placed.  Along  the  centre  of  the  whole  length  of 
this  great  machinery  gallery  or  arcade  an  elevated  platform  was  sup¬ 
ported  upon  iron  columns,  and  afforded  a  safe  and  convenient  promenade 
and  point  of  view  for  the  machinery  below.  It  appeared  to  support  the 
line  of  shafting  by  which  motion  was  communicated  to  the  various 
machines,  but  this  shafting  was  sustained  by  a  separate  frame. 

The  supply  of  water  for  this  enormous  structure,  and  for  the  Park  and 
its  various  buildings  and  fountains,  was  obtained  from  the  Seine,  and 
was  raised  by  powerful  steam  pumps  to  a  reservoir  placed  upon  the  high 
ground  on  the  opposite  bank.  This  reservoir  had  a  capacity  of  over 
4,000  cubic  yards  of  water,  and  was  made  water-tight  by  a  lining  of  con¬ 
crete.  The  main  conduit  leading  from  this  reservoir  crossed  the  Seine 
by  the  bridge  of  J ena,  and  traversed  the  whole  length  of  the  Champ  de 
Mars.  Complete  details  of  the  hydraulic  service  and  of  the  ventilation 
and  mechanical  appliances  generally  will  be  found  in  the  subsequent  part 
of  this  report  under  class  52,  Group  VI. 

AVENUES  OF  COMMUNICATION  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF 

OBJECTS. 

The  avenues  of  communication  within  the  buildings  and  in  the  Park 
may  be  best  understood  by  reference  to  the  map.  Both  the  Park  and  the 
building  were  bisected  through  the  entire  length  by  one  straight  avenue 
leading  from  the  grand  entrance  opposite  the  bridge  of  Jena  to  the  front  of 
the  military  school  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the  Champ  de  Mars.  This 


GENERAL  SURVEY. 


15 


was  crossed  at  right  angles  by  three  other  broad  avenues  leading  to 
the  side  entrances  upon  the  public  streets.  These  principal  avenues, 
together  with  several  others  at  each  end,  radiating  from  the  central  gar¬ 
den  to  the  outer  circle,  intersected  each  gallery  at  right  angles,  and 
divided  the  whole  building  into  1G  sectors  of  nearly  equal  area. 

The  objects  exhibited  by  France  and  its  colonies  occupied  seven  of 
these  sectors ;  England  filled  two  and  a  half,  and  the  United  States  one- 
third  of  one,  exclusive  of  the  displays  in  the  buildings  outside. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  building  and  the 
disposition  of  its  contents  was  in  harmony  with  the  classification  and 
grouping  adopted  by  the  imperial  commission. 

This  classification  included  10  groups,  subdivided  into  95  classes,  as 
follows : 

Group  I. — Works  of  art,  classes  1  to  5. 

Group  II. — Apparatus  and  applications  of  the  liberal  arts,  classes  6 
to  13. 

Group  III. — Furniture  and  other  objects  for  the  use  of  dwellings, 
classes  14  to  26. 

Group  IV. — Clothing,  including  fabrics,  and  other  objects  worn  upon 
the  person,  classes  27  to  39. 

Group  V. — Products,  raw  and  manufactured,  of  mining  industry,  for¬ 
estry,  &c.,  classes  40  to  46. 

Group  VI. — Apparatus  and  process  used  in  the  common  arts,  classes 
47  to  66. 

Group  VII. — Food,  fresh  or  preserved,  in  various  states  of  prepara¬ 
tion,  classes  67  to  73. 

Group  VIII. — Live  stock  and  specimens  of  agricultural  buildings, 
classes  74  to  82. 

Group  IX. — Live  produce  and  specimens  of  horticultural  works,  classes 
83  to  88. 

Group  X. — Articles  exhibited  with  the  special  object  of  improving  the 
physical  and  moral  condition  of  the  people,  classes  89  to  95. 

To  each  of  the  first  seven  of  these  groups  a  gallery  of  the  building 
was  assigned.  Thus  Group  I,  works  of  art,  occupied  the  inner  circle  or 
gallery  1,  and  so  on  to  Group  VII,  which  occupied  the  outer  circle. 

By  following  one  of  these  galleries  the  observer  passed  in  succession 
among  the  productions  similar  in  kind  of  different  countries.  By  fol¬ 
lowing  the  avenues  he  passed  successively  through  the  different  produc¬ 
tions  of  the  same  country.  The  student  therefore  could  investigate  the 
condition  of  any  particular  art  or  industry  as  manifested  by  different 
nations,  or  he  could  pursue  his  studies  geographically  and  note  the  char¬ 
acteristic  productions  of  each  country,  and  compare  them  as  a  whole 
with  those  of  other  countries.  The  arrangement  facilitated  exhibition, 
prompted  study  and  comparison,  and  in  these  respects  fully  realized  the 
intentions  of  its  authors. 

After  the  adoption  of  this  classification,  it  was  decided  to  devote  a 


16 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION, 


portion  of  the  inner  gallery,  next  to  the  central  garden,  to  antiquities,  so 
as  to  give  a  history  of  human  labor. 

The  order  in  which  the  various  countries  were  ranged  in  the  building, 
the  space  occupied,  and  the  number  of  exhibitors  from  each  country,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table : 


Name  of  country. 

Space  occupied  in  square  metres. 

No.  of  ex¬ 

hibitors. 

In  the  Palace. 

In  the  Park. 

On  the  shore. 

Total. 

France . 

65,  228.  84 

88,  507.  00 

2, 756. 52 

156,  492. 36 

15, 025 

2.  00 

2.00 

1 

Holland . 

1,  995.  84 

4,  764.  50 

6,  760.  34 

538 

6.  60 

6.  60 

6 

7,  325.  60 

9,  273.  90 

16,  599.50 

1,  853 

12,  365.  31 

] 

9,  408. 14 

21,  773.  45 

f 

2,  249 

Hesse . 

242 

Baden . 

i 

203 

Wurtemburg . 

|  ’ 

2,  553.  75 

o,  y5u.  ui  < 

259 

Bavaria . 

J 

i 

414 

8,  381.  25 

9,  820.  60 

18,  201.  85 

2,094 

2,  855.  37 

3,  819.  28 

6,  674.  62 

1,080 

1,  771.  88 

1,  574.  00 

3, 345.  88 

2,644 

Portugal . 

759.  38 

1,  530.  00 

2,  289.  38 

1,648 

Greece  . 

759.  37 

759.  37 

480 

Denmark . 

1,  012.  50 

453.  00 

1,  465.  50 

283 

Sweden . 

\  1,  940.  62 

3,  008.  00 

4,  948.  62  \ 

605 

Norway . 

j 

t 

411 

Russia . 

3,  037.  50 

3, 146.  40 

6, 183.  90 

1,365 

Italy _ _ _ 

3,  459.  37 

3,  035.  28 

6,  494.  62 

4,069 

Rome _ _ 

709. 38 

410.  00 

1, 119.  38 

172 

Roumania . 

663.  02 

1,  767.  00 

2,  430.  02 

1,  056 

Turkey . 

1, 187.  53 

2,  889.  00 

4,  076.  53 

4,  817 

Egypt . 

587.  55 

6,  005.  00 

6,  592.  55 

14 

China . 

1 

r 

80 

Japan  . 

>  1, 784. 18 

4,  075.  37 

5,  859.  55  s 

139 

Persia . 

1 

Siam . 

J 

l 

1 

Tunis . 

f  890. 22 

3,  498.  00 

4,388.  22  \ 

1 

Morocco . 

i 

13 

United  States . 

3, 576.  95 

) 

5, 183.  60 

8, 760. 55 

f 

703 

Brazil . 

1,138 

Republics  of  Cent’l  and  South  America. 

>  1,  387.  82 

815.  20 

2,  203.  02  <{ 

394 

Hawaii . 

J 

l 

52 

Great  Britain . 

23,  033.  42 

12, 137. 20 

1,175.04 

36,  345.  66 

6,  176 

Interior  promenades  • . 

3,  472.  47 

3,  742.  47 

Central  garden . 

5, 882. 65 

5,  882.  65 

Reserved  garden . 

48,  350.  00 

48,  350.  00 

Vestibules . 

77, 792.  96 

77, 792. 96 

Restaurants . 

1,  053.  00 

1,  053.  00 

Roads  and  warehouses _ 

10,  308.  44 

10,  308.  44 

Floating  exposition . 

6,  300.  00 

6,  300.  00 

Total . 

158,  742.  88 

303. 817.12 

21,  593.  00 

484, 153.  00 

50,  226 

PARIS  UPIYERSAL  EXPOSITION  1867 


GENERAL  SURVEY. 


17 


GALLERY  OF  THE  HISTORY  OF  LABOR. 

It  was  a  happy  thought  to  so  arrange  the  antiquities  as  to  give  a  con¬ 
nected  view  of  the  progressive  development  of  the  arts  and  form  a  fitting 
introduction  to  their  present  advanced  condition.  Even  the  pre  historic 
relics  of  the  human  race  were  displayed  there  to  complete  the  series. 
The  Exposition  was  thus  not  only  of  the  present,  hut  of  the  past.  It 
gave  the  history  of  human  labor  in  various  countries  from  the  earliest 
periods,  and  became  to  a  great  degree  an  exposition  of  the  mental  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  human  race.  It  was  impossible  to  pass  successively  from 
the  inspection  of  the  implements  of  stone,  bronze,  iron,  and  finally  of 
steel,  without  recognizing  a  progressive  development  of  humanity.  The 
galleries  of  antiquities  made  the  Exhibition  an  unwritten  history  of  civ¬ 
ilization  which  every  one  could  read,  of  whatever  nation  or  language. 
It  attracted  the  peasant  and  the  scholar,  and  taught  history  and  philos¬ 
ophy  by  the  contrast  of  the  productions  of  human  labor  of  all  periods 
and  countries. 

The  French  exhibit  was  the  most  complete  as  a  whole,  and  was  divided 
by  partitions  into  a  series  of  halls  or  apartments,  so  as  to  more  distinctly 
mark  the  different  periods. 

The  pre-historic  period  was  brought  boldly  forward  by  the  extensive 
collections  which  have  been  made  in  various  parts  of  Europe  during  the 
past  ten  years — such  as  implements  of  stone  from  the  bone  caverns,  peat 
bogs,  and  from  the  lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland. 

The  cases  were  filled  with  enormous  spear  heads  of  flints,  hatchets 
and  other  rudely-made  implements  formed  by  chipping  and  without  pol¬ 
ish.  These  occur  in  association  with  the  bones  and  teeth  of  the  extinct 
cave  bear,  the  elephant,  and  the  mastodon,  and  specimens  of  tliese  were 
displayed  in  the  same  cases.  These  rudely-made  implements  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  belong  to  the  first  or  earliest  stone  period.  A  second  or  later 
period  of  the  stone  age  is  indicated  by  implements  of  a  superior  finish ; 
such  as  were  ground  down  to  smooth  surfaces,  and  in  some  instances 
polished. 

All  these  objects  of  the  pre-historic  period  were  classified  and  dis¬ 
played  under  the  direction  of  a  commission  with  Mr.  Edward  Lartet  at 
the  head.  The  interest  attached  to  the  exhibit  was  greatly  enhanced  by 
the  meeting  during  the  progress  of  the  Exposition  of  the  u  Gongres  Inter¬ 
national  (V Anthropologic  et  d/Archeologie  Prehistoriques”  the  members  of 
which  were  enabled  to  make  studies  and  comparisons  of  the  various  col¬ 
lections. 

The  next  hall  contained  instruments  of  the  bronze  period,  extending 
to  the  Gallo-Roman.  The  objects  consisted  chiefly  of  cutting  instruments, 
agricultural  implements,  lamps,  and  objects  of  ornament,  such  as  brace¬ 
lets  of  bronze  and  of  gold,  rings  and  pins.  Of  the  latter  a  large  collec¬ 
tion  contained  pins  with  a  shield  for  the  points,  and  a  spiral  spring  at 
2  u  E 


18 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tlie  back  almost  identical  in  form  with  some  of  the  patent  pins  of  the 
present  day. 

The  next  hall  was  devoted  to  the  Celtic  and  Gallic  relics,  and  contained 
the  remarkable  golden  necklaces  from  the  museum  of  Toulouse.  The 
representation  of  the  work  of  the  middle  ages  was  characterized  by  a 
variety  of  church  ornaments  and  relics,  such  as  oak  chests,  seals,  caskets, 
croziers,  bronzes  set  with  masses  of  rock  crystal,  like  those  of  China  and 
Japan  ;  ivory  carvings,  illuminated  missals  of  vellum,  swords,  and  chain 
armor. 

The  fifth  hall  contained  objects  of  the  sixteenth  century,  or  the  Benais- 
sance  period.  Here  were  found  curiously  fashioned  iron  locks  and  keys, 
cutting  instruments,  jewels,  and  a  few  nearly  spherical  watches.  The 
enamels  of  Limoges  occupied  a  large  space,  and  came  in  great  part  from 
the  collection  of  Baron  Kotlischild. 

At  the  entrance  of  the  sixth  hall,  representing  the  arts  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  a  curious  collection  of  high-heeled  boots 
and  shoes  attracted  considerable  attention.  Here,  also,  were  seen  the 
faiences  of  Bouen,  and  the  productions  of  the  renowned  Palissy,  old  fur¬ 
niture,  mirrors,  inlaid  cabinets,  black  letter  books,  and  specimens  of 
bookbinding.  The  collections  of  this  period  were  continued  in  the  halls 
beyond,  and  contained  the  porcelains  of  Sevres,  richly  wrought  table 
services  of  silver,  tapestries,  miniatures,  snuffboxes,  thread  lace,  and 
elaborately  decorated  fans. 

Among  the  curious  relics  from  other  countries  the  most  noteworthy 
were  the  cradle  of  Charles  XII  of  Sweden,  the  elaborately  fashioned 
trappings  of  the  horse  that  Mahommed  rode  in  1331  at  the  siege  of  the 
town  of  Castro  el  Bio,  and  a  variety  of  specimens  of  ancient  arms  and 
armors.  The  richest  collection  of  ancient  arms  was  sent  from  the  Impe¬ 
rial  Museum  of  Austria,  and  contained  a  number  of  guns  with  ivory 
stocks,  richly  inlaid  with  metal,  and  steel  bows,  also  mounted  in  ivory. 

Among  the  ancient  ornamental  works  and  jewels  of  Austria  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  there  was  a  remarkable  display  of 
tankards,  vases,  and  goblets  of  rock  crystal,  of  great  size,  and  showing 
a  high  degree  of  taste  and  skill  in  the  art  of  the  lapidary  at  that  time. 

There  were  several  interesting  relics  and  works  of  ancient  art  in  the 
English  section,  among  them  a  table  covered  with  silver  in  repousse ,  or 
beaten  work,  belonging  to  her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria,  and  another  table 
made  in  1700.  A  selection  of  old  armor  from  the  Tower  of  London  occu¬ 
pied  one  of  the  cases,  and  in  another  were  various  specimens  of  silver 
and  gold  plate,  and  tablets  of  Wedge  wood’s  porcelain. 

Although  the  collection  of  antiquities  as  a  whole  was  very  large  and 
interesting,  it  could  not  be  regarded  as  a  complete  exhibit  of  the  progress 
of  human  labor  up  to  the  present  time.  The  wonderful  advances  made 
in  the  mechanical  arts  of  the  present  century,  and  the  various  applica¬ 
tions  of  science  to  the  arts,  were  not  historically  shown.  The  collection 
was  also  deficient  in  representations  of  the  ancient  arts  and  civilization 
of  China,  Japan,  of  Egypt,  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  Peru. 


GROUP  I 


WORKS  OF  ART. 


Class  L  Paintings  in  Oil.— Class  2.  Other  Paintings  and  Drawings.— Class  3. 

Sculpture,  Die-sinking,  Stone,  and  Cameo  Engraving.— Class  4.  Architectural 

Designs  and  Models. — Class  5.  Engraving  and  Lithography. 

CLASS  1.— PAINTINGS  IN  OIL. 

The  interior  circle  of  the  Exposition  was,  as  already  indicated,  devoted 
to  works  of  art.  Thus,  by  an  arrangement  which,  if  accidental,  was,  at 
all  events,  poetic,  we  passed  from  the  gross  necessities  of  life  such  as 
the  cereals,  the  wines,  &c.,  to  the  machinery  which  represents  industrial 
force ;  to  the  manufactures  which  conduce  to  individual  comfort ;  to  the 
instruments  which  add  to  the  intelligent  perception  of  all  natural  phe¬ 
nomena,  and  so  to  that  last  and  refining  phase  where  the  immagination 
excites  its  most  powerful  and  refining  influence. 

The  fine  arts  naturally  involve  certain  cognate  professions.  Group  I 
was  therefore  made  up  of  five  classes,  thus  tabulated:  1.  Paintings  in 
oil  j  2.  Other  paintings  and  drawings ;  3.  Sculpture,  die-sinking,  stone 
and  cameo  engraving;  4.  Architectural  designs  and  models ;  5.  Engrav¬ 
ing  and  lithography.  The  various  articles  exhibited  in  these  classes 
occupied  a  considerable  but  broken  space  in  the  Exposition.  Several 
nations  feeling  that  the  space  allotted  to  them  for  pictures  in  the  first 
gallery,  which,  in  accordance  with  the  original  plan,  was  subdivided  into 
fourteen  compartments,  was  inadequate,  declined  to  avail  themselves  of 
it.  They  found  it  preferable  to  erect  structures  of  their  own  in  the  Park. 
The  statuary  was  more  houseless  than  the  pictures,  and  was  scattered, 
not  always  disadvantageous^  for  effect,  through  the  entire  surface  of 
the  Champ  de  Mars.  The  theory  on  which  the  central  gallery  was 
devoted  to  the  fine  arts  was,  perhaps,  good,  but  practically  it  was  open 
to  serious  objection.  The  rapidly  closing  concentric  lines  had  the  effect 
of  presenting  many  of  the  best  works  at  inconvenient  angles.  This  was 
particularly  the  case  in  the  small  portions  devoted  to  foreign  countries, 
which,  being  in  the  elbows  of  the  building,  were  exposed  to  many  cross 
lights.  Probably  no  two  sections  were  more  unfortunate  in  this  respect 
than  the  American  and  English.  They  occupied  the  same  gallery  and 
worthily.  But  the  United  States,  with  nothing  to  complain  of  in  their 
portion  of  the  gallery  itself,  were  unhappily  compelled  by  the  number  of 
their  contributions  to  take  refuge  for  the  surplus  in  the  adjacent  passage, 
called  by  a  ludicrous  accident  of  neighborhood  “the  street  of  Africa.” 
In  no  respect  of  light  or  atmosphere  could  this  be  considered  a  favorable 


20 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


location ;  but  it  bad  its  advantages  in  point  of  popularity.  A  large  pro¬ 
portion  of  those  who  even  transiently  visited  the  Exposition  passed 
through  this  artery,  and,  it  may  be  presumed  from  their  expressions, 
were  gratified  with  and  interested  in  the  display  which  was  provided  for 
their  examination. 

One-half  the  entire  space — and  the  best  half  because  the  lateral  half — 
was  occupied  by  works  of  art  contributed  by  French  artists.  It  does 
not  fall  within  the  province  of  a  brief  review  like  the  present  to  discuss 
the  merit  of  individual  pictures,  or  to  contest  the  claims  of  the  French 
school  of  art,  which  most  assuredly  is  capable  of  taking  care  of  itself, 
and  which,  without  question,  was  nobly  and  amply  represented.  It  is 
agreeable  to  the  writers  of  this  report  to  state  this  at  once,  for,  from  some 
discussions  in  the  preliminary  committees  appointed  on  the  subject  of  the 
fine  arts,  it  was  understood  that  the  collection,  although  admirable,  did 
not  by  any  means  represent  the  full  vigor  of  the  nation.  Owing  to  this 
cause  it  has  been  stated  by  writers  of  eminence  that  the  display  was  not 
equal  to  that  made  at  the  Palais  de  PIndustrie  in  1855. 

But  it  was  rich  in  the  French  masters  who  are  most  known  and 
admired  in  America,  many  of  whom  indeed  were  on  the  jury  and  received 
the  highest  honors  that  were  awarded  to  the  class.  Gerome  was  repre¬ 
sented  by  a  large  and  valuable  collection  of  singularly  accurate  and 
impressive  scenes,  depicting  for  the  most  part  the  savage  side  of  eastern 
life  or  the  similar  episodes  of  Boinan  history.  There  was  nothing  from 
this  artist,  however,  that  was  unknown  to  Americans.  The  majority  are 
familiar  in  a  photographic  form,  and  several  are  owned  by  our  private 
collectors  who  loaned  them  for  the  present  occasion.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  the  productions  of  Meissonier,  whose  minute  masterpieces, 
difficult  to  obtain  and  highly  prized  by  their  fortunate  possessors,  are 
great  favorites  in  America.  Each  of  these  masters  contributed  more 
than  a  dozen  works — children  of  studios  that  had  been  scattered  for 
years,  but  had  been  brought  together  by  the  interest  of  the  Exposition 
and  the  worthy  pride  of  their  creators  who  gathered  them  together  for 
this  solemnity.  Gerome  and  Meissonier  represent  the  most  popular  form 
of  French  art,  or  rather  that  phase  of  it  which,  requiring  the  greatest 
accuracy  of  detail  and  closeness  of  study,  produces  its  results  at  long 
intervals,  in  small  forms,  and  with  extreme  concentration  of  thought 
and  action.  The  canvases  are  of  the  most  modest  cabinet  dimensions, 
and  protest  with  singular  emphasis  against  the  vastness  which  vulgarizes 
the  many  battle-pieces  of  the  larger  national  picture  galleries.  Nothing 
could  be  more  dramatic  or  free  from  the  clap-trap  of  commonplace  than 
Meissonier’s  picture  of  “Napoleon  I  in  Russia.77  The  tone  of  the  work, 
expressing  a  disaster  without  depicting  it;  its  fulness  of  detail  and  clear 
faithfulness  of  particulars,  cannot  be  sufficiently  praised.  A  work  of 
almost  equal  importance  represents  “Napoleon  III  at  Solferino.77  Both 
indicate  a  larger  scope  in  composition  than  we  are  apt  to  expect  in  this 
fine  colorist  and  genial  but  microscopic  artist,  who  usually  is  content  with 


WORKS  OF  iRT. 


21 


one  or  two  figures.  Gerome  lias  been  accused  of  hardness  in  the  matter 
of  drawing,  and  a  selection  of  subjects  which  are  ordinarily  painful,  or, 
at  all  events,  repulsive.  Conscious  of  this  reproach  he  exhibited  a  paint¬ 
ing  called  “Louis  XIV  and  Moliere,”  in  which  the  monarch  and  the  poet 
are  exhibited,  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  latter  in  point  of  conde¬ 
scension.  The  courtiers  express  their  amazement  and  contempt  at  the 
easy  ways  of  the  writer,  but  the  King  is  obviously  overwhelmed.  Such 
a  subject  naturally  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  contrast  of  many 
physiognomies,  and  for  the  display  of  much  variety  in  the  matter  of 
color  and  costume.  The  success  of  Gerome  in  this  neAV  field  has  not 
been  pronounced  as  positive.  Most  impartial  spectators  regarded  the 
stern,  nay,  dismal  tragedy  of  the  “Duel  after  the  Masquerade”  with 
more  interest  than  the  insipid  smiles  and  supercilious  sneers  of  the  big- 
wigged  actors  who  make  up  the  tableau  of  “Louis  XIV  and  Moliere.” 
Thus  it  would  seem,  so ‘far  as  the  Exposition  of  1867  permits  us  to  judge, 
that  Meissonier  can  step  more  easily  and  successfully  out  of  his  ordinary 
sphere  of  action  than  Gerome.  Both,  be  it  added,  are  great  and  strong, 
and  the  deviations  noticed  are  a  matter  of  curiosity  rather  than  of  criti¬ 
cism. 

Very  different  from  these  pillars  in  art  is  Corot,  a  painter  whose  every 
work  is  extolled  to  the  skies  or  condemned  to  pitiless  ridicule  by  his 
countrymen.  So  far,  no  other  people  has  put  itself  to  the  trouble  of 
going  to  either  of  these  extremes.  In  Xew  York,  Corot’s  pictures  vrere 
exhibited  without  producing  even  a  pecun iary  result.  They  were  returned 
with  promptness  to  the  country  of  their  birth,  and  many  visitors  from 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic  were  surprised  to  find  them  turn  up  again 
in  the  Exposition.  The  artist  has  touched  the  wdiole  range  of  art,  and 
his  knowledge  is  as  undisputed  as  his  eccentricity.  He  has  a  style  of 
his  own,  inasmuch  as  no  one  has  ever  thought  of  imitating  it ;  neverthe¬ 
less  it  has  many  admirers.  It  is  characterized  by  a  singular  vaporiness 
of  color,  and  a  consequent  faintness  of  outline  which  suggests  haste,  but 
is  the  result  of  an  elaborate  effort  to  be  dreamy.  To  live  in  a  constant 
atmosphere  of  fog,  surrounded  by  objects  of  ghostly  aspect,  is  not  agree¬ 
able  to  most  spectators ;  but  such  as  are  predisposed  this  way  will  find 
congenial  feeling  in  the  canvases  of  the  eccentric  Corot. 

Classical  art  was  represented  by  Cabanel,  who  had  six  pictures — three 
of  the  number  being  on  epic  subjects,  and  the  other  three  portraits. 
The  largest  of  the  former  was  from  “Milton’s  Paradise  Lost,”  and  rep¬ 
resented  the  Deity  surrounded  by  his  heavenly  ministers — an  effort  which 
is  seldom  successful,  and  was  not  rendered  so  on  this  occasion.  This 
and  its  companions,  however,  displayed  great  academic  skill  and  the 
influence  of  a  school  which  makes  the  study  of  the  form  the  first  neces¬ 
sity  of  its  existence,  and  w  hich  has  recently  lost  its  greatest  exponents 
in  the  lamented  Ingres  and  Flandrin. 

In  a  semi-classical  vein,  but  with  a  quaint  infusion  of  sentiment  and 
allegory,  were  many  works,  mostly  by  artists  who  OAve  their  education  to 


22 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


the  liberality  of  the  government.  The  productions  of  Hamon,  Bouge- 
reau,  and  others,  are  of  this  agreeable  class.  These  gentlemen  have 
each,  at  various  times,  taken  the  prix  de  Rome.  This  is  more  than  a 
recompense:  it  is  like  a  presentation  to  a  college,  and  means  a  classical 
education.  Those  who  are  fortunate  enough  at  the  academy  competition 
to  gain  it  are,  for  five  years,  nursed  and  cherished  as  men  of  superior 
ability  and  trained  in  a  settled  and  severe  way.  They  are  sent  to  Borne, 
and  during  each  year  of  their  sojourn  in  the  Imperial  City  they  are 
expected  to  send  specimens  of  their  progress  to  the  powers  of  the 
academy  in  Paris.  These  specimens  are  preserved  with  national  care, 
being  placed  in  a  building  where  they  are  at  all  proper  times  exposed  to 
the  view  of  the  public.  The  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts  and  of  the  Luxem¬ 
bourg  are,  to  a  great  extent,  representations  of  the  art  progress  of  the 
country,  and  the  pupils  who  each  year  contribute  to  their  treasures 
remember  that  they  have  vast  reputations  to  contend  with.  They  are 
encouraged,  too,  with  the  reflection  that  these  reputations  were  no  greater 
than  their  own  when  their  fortunate  possessors  sent  their  first  contribu¬ 
tions  to  the  academy.  It  may  be  interesting  to  state  that  the  earliest  of 
these  canvases  was  sent  by  Sarrabat,  and  bears  the  date  of  1688.  The 
school,  which  also  comprises  an  academy  of  architecture,  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  164& — the  architectural  section  being  founded  in  1671,  and  the 
pupils  being  sent  to  Greece  instead  of  Italy.  It  includes  also  three 
studios  for  sculpture,  one  for  copperplate  engraving,  and  one  for  engrav¬ 
ing  on  medals  and  fine  stones.  A  competition  for  the  Grand  prix  de 
Rome  takes  place  every  year  for  painters,  sculptors,  and  architects; 
every  two  years  for  engravers;  every  three  years  for  engravers  on 
medals  and  fine  stones.  After  remaining  two  years  at  Borne  the  young 
students  are  permitted  to  travel.  Engravers  on  medals  and  fine  stones 
have  only  three  years'  provision  made  for  them,  and  must  remain  two 
years  in  Borne.  The  governor  of  the  establishment  sends  official  reports 
every  six  months  of  the  progress  and  pursuits  of  the  pupils. 

So  far  as  painting  is  concerned  strict  attention  to  design  is  of  the 
highest  importance.  But  as  the  manner  of  the  age  drifts  slowly  from 
the  stern  manner  of  the  ancients  we  find,  as  in  the  case  of  the  artists 
just  named,  a  tendency  to  fanciful  subjects,  with  just  sufficient  of  the 
classic  element  to  remind  the  spectator  of  good  training  and  of  the  intel¬ 
lectual  restraint  of  other  and  older  schools  where  inanimate  art  wras  con¬ 
ventionalized  by  uniformity  and  straightness  in  such  things  as  foliage, 
and  animate  art  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  exhibition  of  the 
nude  figure. 

Hamon 7 s  pictures  are  familiar  everywhere.  They  have  been  reproduced 
by  the  process  of  the  engraver  equally  with  that  of  the  photographer. 
Every  one  has  seen  in  some  way  a  reproduction  of  his  u  Aurora,79  where 
the  goddess  of  morning  sips  from  the  lips  of  the  cup  the  first  liba¬ 
tion  of  day.  The  pose  of  the  figure  is  charming,  and  whilst  showing 
the  coquettish  knowdedge  of  the  female  form  w  hich  French  artists  pos- 


WORKS  OF  ART. 


23 


sess  and  display  with  a  gracefulness  all  their  own,  it  seems  also  to 
answer  the  purposes  of  the  life  study  which  those  who  win  the  prix  de 
Rome  are  expected  to  pursue.  Bougereau  is  perhaps  less  known  in 
America.  He  is  more  severe  than  Hamon,  and  his  sense  of  color  is  more 
positive.  The  object  of  referring  to  these  artists  is  not  so  much  to 
explain  what  they  have  done,  and  still  less  to  tell  the  American  people 
how  they  have  done  it,  which  indeed  would  be  a  difficult  task.  But,  to 
add  a  further  statement,  they  occupy  a  very  prominent  position  before 
the  most  intelligent  community  in  the  world.  Whatever  comes  from 
their  easel  is  in  demand — great  demand — a  demand  which  can  scarcely 
be  supplied.  It  is  pleasant  to  know,  therefore,  that  a  portion  of  the 
time  so  much  occupied  is  devoted  to  other  purposes.  It  is  to  the  co-opera¬ 
tion  of  such  thoroughly  informed  artists  that  the  government  manufac. 
tories  of  France  owe  their  unquestionable  pre-eminence. 

The  government  of  France  indeed  exercises  a  direct  and  practical 
influence  on  art  which  cannot  be  overestimated.  It  is  paternal  in  the 
means  it  affords  to  its  youth  to  avail  itself  of  the  opportunity  to  study, 
and  it  is  liberal  in  purchasing  what  has  been  done.  Out  of  the  625 
numbers  mentioned  in  the  catalogue  as  appertaining  to  France,  no  fewer 
than  252  are  contributed  by  the  government.  Many  of  the  others,  as 
we  have  before  hinted,  were  loaned  for  the  special  occasion  of  the  Exposi¬ 
tion,  being  traced  by  their  painters  to  their  distant  homes  in  the  Old  and 
Vew  Worlds. 

The  dramatic  phase  of  historic  art — that  in  which  an  action  is  expressed 
to  the  eye — was  very  largely  represented.  From  the  soldier  who  wraps 
his  wounded  leg  in  his  pocket-handkerchief,  to  the  tyrant  who  lays  his 
head  prayerfully  on  the  block,  it  is  in  this  department  the  same  thing, 
namely,  a  matter  of  what  can  be  remembered  or  felt,  and  mainly  in 
French  art,  of  what  can  be  remembered.  The  innumerable,  colossal,  and 
tedious  battle  pieces  which  prevail  in  every  museum  of  France  are  an 
evidence  of  this.  Versailles  tells  the  history  of  France  with  the  coarse, 
smoky  gusto  of  a  dragoon.  Throughout  the  pitiless  range  of  chambers 
there  is  not  a  scene  which  recalls  a  pleasing  incident  of  battle,  of  tri¬ 
umph,  or  of  defeat.  The  battle  pieces  at  the  Exposition  were  almost 
entirely  of  this  character.  They  displayed  an  idea  of  action,  a  thorough 
sense  of  what  is  called  situation,  and  an  utterly  faithful  amount  of  details, 
topographical,  military,  and  otherwise.  To  the  eye  not  inanately  tutored 
to  the  beauties  of  red,  there  seemed  too  much  in  these  productions,  but 
the  uniform  which  offends  the  foreign  eye  from  its  brilliancy  is  naturally 
the  recognition  point  of  Frenchmen,  and  appealing  with  earnestness  to 
the  recollection,  recalls  the  liveliest  interest.  The  government,  of  course, 
was  the  principal  exhibitor  in  this  department.  The  pictures  were  the 
product  of  commissions  given  to  various  artists  and  intended  for,  or  bor¬ 
rowed  from,  various  museums  of  the  country.  History  and  poetry  alike 
delight  to  record  the  triumphs  of  valor,  but  it  is  only  of  late  years  that 
painting  has  attempted  to  do  so.  The  attempts  have  nowhere  been  so 


24 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


successful  as  in  France.  It  may  be  questioned  if  any  one  will  desire  to 
essay  more  than  Yvon  has  accomplished,  an  artist  of  splendid  abilities, 
whose  two  pictures  of  the  “ Taking  of  the  Malakoff,77  and  the  “Struggle 
in  the  Gorge  of  Malakoff,77  are  perfect,  but  it  may  be  asked  if  such  gigan¬ 
tic  productions  are  desirable  even  as  records  of  patriotism.  As  works 
of  art  they  excite  the  regret  that  such  splendid  ability  should  be  thrown 
away  on  a  scene  which  could  be  rendered  with  greater  effect,  and  pre¬ 
cisely  the  same  color,  at  a  minor  theatre  of  the  city. 

Nearly  five  per  cent,  of  all  the  pictures  exhibited  in  the  French  depart¬ 
ment  were  battle  pieces.  The  three  which  from  their  real  sentiment  and 
vigor  of  drawing  attracted  the  most  attention  were  by  Protais :  “  The 
Morning  before  the  Attack,77  the  “Evening  after  the  Combat,77  and  the 
“Bet  urn  to  Camp,77  a  work  of  very  singular  vigor,  although  windy,  and 
which  was  contributed  by  the  celebrated  Bellanger.  It  depicts  the  episode 
of  Waterloo,  described  in  every  French  history,  but  which  Victor  Hugo 
has  put  himself  to  the  trouble  of  refuting,  namely,  that  the  Old  Guard 
was  prepared  to  die,  but  not  to  surrender. 

In  animal  paintings  the  French  department  was  represented  by  Eosa 
Bonheur,  Fromentin,  and  Troyou,  deceased.  Animal  paintings,  or,  to 
speak  more  closely,  the  desire  for  animal  paintings,  is  the  fancy  of  a  day. 
Judging  from  the  productions  of  the  artists  named,  it  would  seem  that 
the  fancy  is  somewhat  out  of  fashion.  Eosa  BonlieuPs  powers  were  finely 
represented,  but  recent  productions  of  the  lady  do  not  maintain  her  very 
high  reputation. 

Of  that  large  class  of  subjects  which  are  called  “genre,77  and  which 
relate  to  little  episodes  of  life  or  peculiarities  of  costume,  there  was  an 
endless  variety.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  French  artists  in  this 
respect,  may  be  mentioned  Plassau,  Ficliel,  Poulmouclie,  and  Wetter, 
who  each  exhibited  a  number  of  interesting  figure  subjects  charmingly 
suggestive  and  exquisitely  painted.  Of  the  painters  of  rustic  life,  Breton 
and  Millet  preserved  their  well-known  pre-eminence. 

In  the  way  of  landscape  artists,  the  most  agreeable  and  well  known 
were  Theodore  Eousseau,  Lambinet,  Daubigny,  Cabat,  and  Dupre  $  the 
most  singular  was  Corot. 

The  French  collection,  as  before  remarked,  consists  of  no  fewer  than 
625  pictures,  of  which  many  were  the  personal  property  of  the  Emperor 
or  the  nation.  It  was  said  by  French  critics  that  the  display  did  not 
indicate  any  progress,  and  contained  very  little  that  was  new.  With 
few  exceptions  all  the  important  pictures  had  been  exhibited  elsewhere. 
This  remark,  however,  applies  with  equal  force  to  every  other  nation. 
The  fine  arts  department  of  the  great  undertaking  was  intended  as  an 
exposition,  not  as  a  competition.  Otherwise  it  would  have  been  unfair 
to  have  given  such  marked  preference  to  reputations.  As  an  exposition 
it  was  exceptional  excellence,  and  represented  very  forcibly  the  promi¬ 
nent  position  occupied  by  several  artists  of  France. 

There  were  four  nations  who,  not  finding  themselves  sufficiently  pro- 


WORKS  OF  ART. 


25 


vided  with  space  in  the  interior,  obtained  permission  to  build,  and  there¬ 
upon  erected  galleries  of  their  own  in  the  Park.  These  Avere  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  Holland,  and  Bavaria.  Of  these  outside  collections  the 
most  important  was  that  made  by  the  government  of  Belgium,  it  con¬ 
sisting  of  180  pictures,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  France,  it  was  more  a  dis¬ 
play  of  individual  and  well-established  reputations  than  a  competition 
of  numbers.  Of  the  180  frames  no  fewer  than  52  were  contributed  by 
five  artists  only.  These  were  Leys,  Stevens,  Willems,  Yerlat,  and  Clays, 
(marine.)  The  names  suggest  almost  everything  that  is  vital  in  the  Bel¬ 
gian  school.  Of  the  fhre,  the  least  known  in  America  is  Alfred  Stevens. 
This  artist  has  no  fewer  than  18  pictures,  all  of  them  of  cabinet  size,  and 
having  for  subjects  familiar  episodes  of  life,  many  of  them  touching  and 
simple,  and  all  of  them  interesting  to  the  eye.  Thus  the  picture  called 
aTous  les  Bonheurs,”  representing  the  serene  content  and  bliss  of 
a  young  mother  nursing  her  infant,  may  be  cited  as  a  happy  illus¬ 
tration  of  the  artist’s  powers.  Stevens  paints  with  great  boldness,  and 
his  coloring  from  its  brilliancy  is  occasionally  offensive  to  the  eye,  but 
iiis  power  is  unquestionable.  In  his  selection  of  subjects,  lioAvever,  he 
sometimes  borders  on  the  “  demi-monde.”  This  is  a  fault  which  cannot 
be  charged  against  his  colleague  Willems,  Avhose  extreme  delicacy  of 
fancy  is  apt  to  immde  the  realms  of  the  insipid.  Ho  one  ever  under¬ 
stood  the  swirl  of  a  lady’s  satin  dress  better  than  Willems,  Avhose  knowl¬ 
edge  of  this  texture  is  singularly  exact.  Indeed,  the  details  of  all  his 
work  are  remarkable  for  their  truth  and  delicacy.  They  are  never  in  the 
way,  and  interest  the  mind  only  as  a  part  of  the  recollection  of  a  very 
charming  impression.  The  subjects  selected  by  Willems  are  of  the  sim¬ 
plest  character,  and  neither  suggest  invention  nor  any  other  form  of  intel¬ 
lectual  activity.  But  as  they  invariably  represent  a  lady  of  relined 
appearance  and  elegant  costume,  Avitli  hair  and  eyes  of  exquisite  hues, 
they  ne\rer  fail  to  be  interesting.  As  specimens  of  faithful  and  consci¬ 
entious  work  they  are  unequalled.  The  most  important  work  exhibited 
by  this  renowned  artist,  and  one  Avhieli  marks  an  ambitious  step  in  the 
way  of  composition,  was  “  L’accoucliee,”  a  quiet  interior  which  tAvo  vis¬ 
itors  are  entering  on  tip-toe.  A  young  Avife  sleeps  peacefully  on  a  bed, 
and  not  far  from  her  is  the  nurse  holding  in  her  arms  the  first  offspring 
of  a  happy  house.  The  tone  of  the  picture  and  the  treatment  are  in 
every  way  admirable.  The  subject  too  is  clearly  expressed ;  a  soft  and 
tranquil  stillness,  not  of  death,  but  of  exhaustion,  hangs  about  the  apart¬ 
ment  like  a  spell.  It  would  be  a  sin  to  disturb  that  fair  young  mother. 
“Two  loA^ers  exchanging  a  ring,”  another  large  picture — if  the  term  can 
be  used  of  this  artist,  whose  canvases  are  always  of  the  smallest — dis¬ 
plays  the  indications  of  a  new  style,  bolder  in  color  and  in  treatment 
than  that  with  which  heretofore  we  have  been  familiar.  There  is  no 
artist,  possibly  with  the  exception  of  Coomans,  who  understands  so 
thoroughly  how  to  harmonize  the  most  delicate  tints. 

A  thorough  contrast  in  this  respect  is  found  in  the  12  works  exhibited 


26 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


by  tlie  Baron  Leys,  the  pre-Baphaelite  prophet  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
characteristics  of  this  singular  mediaeval  style  are  too  pronounced  to 
escape  notice.  The  prevailing  color  is  dead  red  or  brick  color.  Bricks 
indeed  of  every  color  are  favorite  objects  with  the  baron,  as  also  are  the 
cobble-stones  which  line  his  thoroughfares  with  painful  distinctness. 
All  the  figures  stand  with  their  legs  astride,  a  position  more  comfortable 
than  graceful.  All  the  legs  are  in  red  stockings,  which,  added  to  the 
cobble-stones  and  the  bricks,  contribute  to  a  massive  monotony  of  tone 
which,  no  doubt,  is  highly  characteristic  of  the  period  and  might  serve 
as  a  warning  to  the  present  generation.  In  the  faces  there  is  invariably 
a  painful  expression,  as  if  the  toothache  were  a  mediaeval  invention  that 
had  recently  been  discovered.  It  is  impossible  to  resist  the  laughable 
side  of  this  school.  But  it  has  another  and  a  serious  significance.  These 
lurching  and  lugubrious  figures  that  seem  to  be  failing  out  of  the  frames 
are  at  least  correctly  garbed.  Every  detail  of  dress  or  habitation  or 
decoration  is  the  result  of  learned  investigation  and  study.  The  details 
of  Leys’s  pictures  are  revelations  of  archaeological  lore.  To  a  certain  class 
of  minds,  too,  this  seeming  antiquity  is  irresistible.  Leys’s  pictures  were 
of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  The  subjects  were  taken  for  the  most  part  from 
the  stirring  period  of  the  great  struggle  with  Spain  for  religious  and 
civil  liberty  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Verlat’s  tendencies  are  more  classic.  He  exhibited  a  very  beautiful 
u  Virgin  and  Child,”  a  work  quite  exceptional  in  its  excellences.  Also 
a  u  Dead  Christ  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross.” 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  speak  further  of  the  pictures  in  this  excel¬ 
lent  collection.  The  tendency  of  the  Belgian  school  is  ambitiously 
French,  except  in  the  case  of  Leys,  who  is  individual  and  pre-Baphaelistic. 

The  government  of  Holland  exhibits  170  pictures,  among  which  are 
many  works  of  unquestionable  excellence.  Israels  is  the  head  of  this 
school,  and  is  distinguished  by  delicacy  of  sentiment  and  simplicity  of 
statement.  He  had  five  frames,  all  of  which  were  worthy  of  attention. 
But  it  is  evident  that  this  artist  and  nearly  all  the  others  in  the  gallery 
attach  more  importance  to  the  teachings  of  the  French  school  than  to 
the  traditions  of  the  Dutch.  Bles,  Alma,  Tadema,  Bukkerliorff,  Scliendel, 
Scheltema,  and  Verveer,  contributed  acceptably  to  the  display. 

The  Swiss  collection  was  composed  of  112  pictures,  most  of  them  of 
local  interest.  Where  indeed  could  a  Swiss  artist  find  grander  scenes 
for  study  than  those  of  his  own  country '? 

Bavaria,  as  we  have  before  mentioned,  had,  like  the  three  preceding 
countries,  her  own  building  in  the  Park  for  the  display  of  her  art  treas¬ 
ures.  Her  principal  artists  were  Piloty,  Horsclielt,  Adam,  Schuets, 
Schwind,  and  Lizzenmayer,  in  figure  subjects;  Woltz,  in  cattle  pieces; 
Lier,  in  landscapes;  and  Lenbach,  in  portraits.  The  number  of  oil  paint¬ 
ings  contributed  by  Bavaria  was  211.  A  large  proportion  were,  avow¬ 
edly,  sent  for  sale,  and  hence  the  display  was  neither  so  national  nor  so 
good  as  in  other  countries. 


WORKS  OF  ART. 


27 


Prussia,  for  reasons  of  various  kinds,  did  not  do  justice  to  lierself. 
Many  of  her  best  artists  were  unrepresented.  The  number  of  works  in 
all  was  but  98,  and  a  large  proportion  was  the  property  of  the  artists. 
Nevertheless  there  were  several  works  of  interest,  such  as  Knaus’s  “  Sal- 
timbanque,”  well  known  by  the  engraving,  and  others  equally  familiar 
to  the  frequenters  of  our  print-shops.  Knaus’s  style  is  genial  and  ear¬ 
nest,  and  he  possesses  the  power  of  concentration  in  an  eminent  degree. 

Austria  contributed  89  pictures,  the  most  important  of  which  was  the 
“Diet  of  Warsaw,  1773,”  by  Matejik,  a  very  bold  and  well-distributed 
composition,  laid  on  in  heavy  but  effective  masses  of  color. 

Spain  was  represented  by  42,  Portugal  by  23,  Greece  by  4,  Denmark 
by  29,  Sweden  by  54,  and  Norway  by  45  oil  paintings. 

Among  the  63  contributions  of  Kussia  were  several  that  attracted 
attention.  The  subjects  were  mostly  original,  but  the  treatment  had  no 
distinctive  national  characteristic.  It  was,  however,  good,  and  worthy 
of  comparison  with  the  best  in  the  gallery.  Such  comparison  would  be 
out  of  place  here.  The  principal  contributions  were  Gue,  sacred  sub¬ 
ject;  Sinnnler,  history;  Peroff,  Rizzoni,  and  Popoff,  genre;  Kotzebue, 
battles;  and  Clodt,  landscapes. 

Italy,  the  mother  of  arts,  contributed  51  oil  paintings,  none  of  which 
were  distinctive,  and  but  few  of  which  were  above  mediocrity.  The 
Papal  states  sent  25,  Turkey  7  paintings. 

Next  in  the  order  of  the  catalogue — which  we  have  followed,  except 
when  speaking  of  the  establishments  in  the  Park — came  the  limited  space 
allotted  to  the  United  States  of  America.  In  another  portion  of  this 
report,  devoted  to  the  special  consideration  of  objects  exhibited  in  the 
American  department,  will  be  found  a  description  of  the  75  works 
there  put  on  view.  The  collection  was  in  every  way  a  creditable  one. 
The  foundry  scene  of  Weir  was  the  best  work  of  the  kind  in  the  Expo¬ 
sition  ;  indeed,  it  was  entitled  to  even  greater  consideration,  for  it  was  the 
only  work  of  its  kind.  The  landscapes  of  Church,  Kensett,  and  Bier- 
stadt  were  also  eminently  national,  and  the  productions  of  Boughton, 
Huntingdon,  Hart,  Johnson,  Healy,  Hunt,  Whistler,  &c.,  drew  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  connoiseurs  who  knew  nothing  of  their  origin.  For,  be  it  remem¬ 
bered,  most  of  these  paintings  occupied  the  extreme  end  of  the  English 
gallery,  and  it  was  natural  to  suppose  that  they  formed  a  portion  of  it. 
This  in  itself  was  no  advantage.  Nothing  can  convince  a  continental 
critic  that  art  is  either  known  or  practiced  in  the  British  isles;  and, 
owing  to  this  cause,  the  stranger  paid  but  passing  heed  to  what  was 
there  displayed. 

In  the  schools  we  have  so  far  hastily  glanced  at  there  has  been  a  cer¬ 
tain  uniformity  of  effort,  which  we  have  explained  by  describing  the  mode 
of  study  practiced  by  Prance.  French  influence  in  art  at  this  moment 
extends  to  every  continental  country.  The  distinctiveness  of  the  Dus- 
seldorff  school  is  rapidly  disappearing.  That,  too,  it  is  evident,  will 
become  French.  It  is  useless  to  look  elsewhere.  But  if  we  cross  the 


28 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


channel  we  shall  find  a  totally  different  state  of  affairs.  Instead  of 
5,000  men  who  paint  precisely  alike,  and  differ  from  each  other  only  in 
the  order  of  their  intellectual,  emotional,  or  mechanical  force,  we  shall 
not  find  five  who  have  agreed  on  any  settled  plan  or  style.  The  lack  of 
regular  methodical  instruction,  combined  with  a  total,  or  almost  total, 
deficiency  of  government  support,  throws  the  art  student  entirely  on  his 
own  resources.  He  is  compelled  to  seek  the  manner  which  is  readiest  to 
him,  and  select  the  subjects  which  are  more  congenial  to  private  taste. 
The  government  will  neither  show  him  the  way  which  is  best,  nor  reward 
his  efforts  for  pursuing  it  successfully.  A  certain  number  of  picture  gal¬ 
leries,  to  be  sure,  are  provided,  and  the  student  may  do  as  he  likes  about 
following  the  style  of  any  master  there  exposed.  Ho  direct  influence 
controls  his  studies,  and  he  consequently  wanders.  There  is  something 
to  be  regretted  in  this,  but  a  great  deal,  also,  to  be  commended.  Self- 
help  is  tedious  and  slow  in  its  results,  but  it  has  often  proved  that  it  is 
the  best  kind  of  help,  and  certainly  in  art,  as  in  everything  else,  it  has 
shown  on  many  occasions  that  it  is  better  than  blind  subjection  to  estab¬ 
lished  rule.  There  is  character  in  the  English  exhibition,  as  there  is  in 
the  American — so  much  character,  so  much  contrast,  so  much  individual 
effort,  that  the  dilletant  who  is  familiar  only  with  the  smooth  competi¬ 
tion  of  the  schools  is  bewildered,  and  condemns  where,  perhaps,  it  might 
be  better  to  investigate.  Certain  it  is  that  the  French  critics  have  been 
unusually  severe  on  the  English  exhibition,  and  also  on  the  pictures 
exhibited  in  the  American  section.  The  remarks  we  have  made  may 
seem  an  easy  way  of  accounting  for  this  severity.  They  have,  at  all 
events,  their  value  with  unprejudiced  persons. 

CLASS  2.— OTHER  PAIHTIHGS  AHD  DRAWINGS. 

Under  this  general  head  were  comprised  miniatures,  aquarelles,  pastels 
and  drawings  of  all  kinds ;  paintings  on  enamel,  on  porcelain,  on  crock¬ 
ery  ;  cartoons  for  frescoes  and  for  glass  windows  ;  mosaics. 

Water-color  drawing  (aquarelle)  or  painting  is,  comparatively  speak¬ 
ing,  a  new  art.  It  has  been  brought  to  its  greatest  perfection  in  Eng¬ 
land,  where  Turner  is  still  regarded  as  its  best  exponent.  On  the  con¬ 
tinent  it  has  attracted  some  attention,  but  it  is  regarded  with  distrust. 
Water-color  drawing  differs  from  oil-color  painting  in  many  mechanical 
matters  of  detail.  The  separate  names  of  these  two  arts  suggest  the 
most  important  of  these  differences ;  the  one  is  wrought  in  oil  and  the 
other  in  water.  But  beyond  this  there  is  a  general  distinction,  which  is 
often  overlooked:  In  a  water-color  drawing  all  the  colors  are  transparent 5 
the  u lights”  are  obtained  from  the  original  surface  on  which  the  draw¬ 
ing  is  made.  In  oil  color,  all  the  lights  are  superimposed  on  the  canvas, 
and  the  original  surface  is  of  no  value  at  all.  Some  of  the  finest  artists 
that  England  has  possessed  have  devoted  attention  to  this  very  pleasing 
branch  of  art;  among  others,  may  be  mentioned  Turner,  Cox,  Dewint, 
Hunt,  Copley,  Fielding,  and  Stanfield. 


WORKS  OF  ART. 


29 


The  only  important  collection  was  in  the  English  gallery,  where  the 
pictures,  glazed  and  framed,  occupied  swinging  panels  in  the  centre  of 
the  apartment.  Other  nations,  in  their  respective  departments,  con¬ 
tributed  a  few  specimens ;  but  the  whole,  put  together,  were  greatly 
inferior  in  number  and  quality  to  the  English.  It  was  intended  in  this, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  oil  painting,  to  illustrate  the  past  ten  years,  not  to 
assert  positively  what  had  been  done  from  the  very  recent  date  of  its 
birth.  The  drawings  were,  of  course,  entirely  sujqflied  from  private 
sources,  the  government  having  no  museums  from  whence  to  draw  a 
supply.  Of  late  years  these  private  sources  have  been  called  upon  very 
often  to  give  up  their  treasures.  Local  art  exhibitions  have  been  rife  in 
England,  Ireland,  and  other  parts  of  the  British  isles.  Pictures  have 
been  borrowed,  and,  after  due  exhibition,  returned  to  their  owners  in  an 
injured  condition.  It  has  been  affirmed  that,  owing  to  these  causes,  the 
owners  of  valuable  works  declined  to  run  the  risk  of  sending  them  across 
the  channel,  and  that,  in  consequence,  the  collection,  good  as  it  was, 
could  scarcely  be  said  to  represent  satisfactorily  the  present  condition  of 
the  art  in  England.  Nevertheless,  there  were  many  works  of  sterling 
value,  and  nearly  all  were  worthy  of  examination.  It  would  be  useless 
to  describe  the  excellencies  of  particular  frames,  but  it  may  be  service¬ 
able  to  refer  to  the  comments  of  an  admirable  artist,  who  seems  to  think 
that  the  art  has  taken  a  downward  tendency.  He  bases  this  opinion  on 
the  ground  that  in  nearly  every  picture  exhibited  opaque  colors  were 
used.  By  this  expression  he  meant  little  masses  of  mineral  substance 
placed  in  prominent  places,  and  heightening,  by  a  sort  of  embossed  bril¬ 
liancy,  the  effects  of  the  lower  tones.  It  is  affirmed  by  the  best  critics 
that  water-color  drawing  should  be  entirely  transparent,  and  that  this 
tendency  to  overlay  the  natural  source  of  the  light  is  meretricious. 
Moreover,  it  is  known  to  be  detrimental  to  the  permanent  value  of  the 
drawing.  The  imposed  substance  drops  off,  from  climatic  causes,  and 
is  especially  effected  by  the  glass  covering  which  gives  protection  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  picture.  This  point  is  of  importance  to  purchasers  of 
water-color  drawings,  and  of  interest  to  artists  who  may  not  themselves 
be  familiar  with  a  fact  which,  while  increasing  their  present  popularity, 
endangers  their  permanent  fame.  Mr.  Horsley  speaks  feelingly  on  the 
subject.  He  says: 

“A  water-color  draughtsman  who  cherishes  the  beautiful  ground  he 
works  upon  for  his  lights,  or,  if  he  has  lost  this,  scrapes  or  washes 
them  out,  has  a  far  harder  and  more  anxious  time  of  it  than  he  who, 
by  the  aid  of  opaque  mixtures,  dabs  them  on  in  a  moment  and  renews 
them  at  pleasure.  It  may,  however,  readily  be  conceded  that  another 
and  worthier  reason  for  the  use  of  opaque  color  is  the  yearning  of 
the  artist  to  have  substance  and  solidity  in  his  material ;  but  when  he 
feels  this,  and  that  he  is  flagging  in  devotion  to  those  qualities  of  art 
which  water-color,  and  water-color  alone,  can  produce,  he  should  become 
an  oil  painter,  and  cease  to  be  a  water-color  draughtsman.” 


30 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


There  were  scanty  displays  of  water-color  drawings  from  France,  from 
Austria,  from  the  Pontifical  States,  from  Greece,  from  Sweden,  and  from 
Eussia.  The  latter  were  by  far  the  best.  China,  too,  exhibited  a  dis¬ 
temper  painting  of  almond-eyed  beauties,  with  skins  that  seemed  to  have 
been  wound  up  tight  by  means  of  the  hair  dresser,  and  their  under  lips 
painted  green. 

Of  pastels  and  drawings  of  all  kinds  there  was  no  end.  Every  design, 
indeed,  could  be  brought  under  one  of  these  two  heads,  and  almost  every 
country  contributed  to  the  store.  The  word  u pastel”  in  these  days  means 
anything  from  chalk  up  to  body  color.  The  French  department  offered 
fine  specimens  of  the  various  processes.  Bavaria  presented  a  remark¬ 
able  display  of  drawings  and  models,  showing  the  various  stages  of 
study  from  the  cast  and  from  life. 

The  subjects  of  u painting  on  enamel,  earthenware,  and  on  china,”  do 
not  greatly  interest  the  American  community,  except  in  their  practical 
bearing  on  housekeeping;  but  in  Europe  they  engage  the  attention  of 
the  better  classes,  and  give  occupation  to  the  highest  kind  of  skilled  labor. 
Thus,  while  it  happens  that  beauty  and  permanency  are  often  attained, 
it  is  often  the  case  that  the  local  fame  of  an  artist  and  his  tedious 
patience  take  the  prize  which  the  former  should  have  commanded.  Mr. 
Horsley,  writing  on  this  subject,  says: 

“It  seems  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  not  only  the  principles  of  art 
that  should  be  applied  to  these  various  branches  of  industry,  but  also  to 
suggest  that  peculiar  abstraction  of  mind  is  in  some  instances  requisite 
in  order  to  appreciate  the  results,  as  far  as  the  arts  of  pictorial  designs 
and  execution  are  concerned.  Take,  for  instance,  what  it  is  presumed 
would  be  considered  the  highest  class  of  enamelled  works  in  the  Exhibi¬ 
tion — those  of  Lepec  and  Eudolphi,  who  exhibit  enamels  on  gold  and 
other  metals.  The  pictorial  art  exhibited  in  those  works  is  both  puerile 
and  bad,  as,  for  example,  the  ‘Angelique  and  Eoger,’  by  Lepec,  which  is 
placed  among  the  French  miniatures.  Nothing  can  be  less  worthy  of 
regard,  in  an  artistic  point  of  view,  and  his  portrait  is  little  better. 
Lepec  has  also  a  case  of  enamelled  vases,  executed  with  the  rarest 
skill  and  ability,  with  fabulous  prices  attached  to  and  given  for  them ; 
yet  the  painting  which  is  intended  to  ornament  these  objets  de  luxe 
is  quite  beneath  notice.  Again,  look  at  the  series  of  elaborate  enamels 
in  porcelain  in  the  Bavarian  annexe ,  by  Wiinmer,  of  Munich,  and 
other  German  artists,  after  well-known  pictures.  What  are  these  but 
wicked  copies  of  immortal  works  ? — so  bad  as  to  be  irritating  to  the 
artist  who  looks  at  them;  copies,  which,  if  made  on  canvas  or  paper, 
would  not  fetch  as  many  pence  as  the  pounds  which  are  now  given  for 
them.  Then,  what  quality  is  it  that  makes  these  productions  so  readily 
marketable?  It  can  be  only  that  of  permanency — a  quality  appealing 
to  minds  so  constituted  as  to  derive  satisfaction  in  the  possession  of 
‘Angelique  and  Eoger,’  of  Lepec,  or  one  of  Wimmer’s  travesties  of 
Eapliael  and  Eubens,  simply  because  they  are  works  which  will  never 


WORKS  OF  ART. 


31 


tone  with  age  or  fade  with  time.  Great  as  may  be  the  charms  to  some 
minds  of  the  sense  of  permanency,  it  must  be  permitted  to  those  of  more 
artistic  sensitiveness  to  assert  that  this  quality  does  not  compensate  for 
other  wants.” 

The  same  able  critic  also  makes  the  following  remarks,  which  are  in 
every  way  worthy  of  attention : 

“  To  come  to  wliat  maybe  termed  painting  proper  upon  porcelain,  i.  e., 
the  decoration  of  vessels  of  various  forms  for  ornament  and  use,  it  may 
be  submitted  that  the  general  principle  to  be  observed  in  applying  art 
to  such  work  is  that  it  should  harmonize  in  every  way  with  the  forms 
receiving  it.  As  these  forms  are  of  a  well-defined  and  architechtonic 
form,  so  the  pictural  adjunct  should,  as  far  as  possible,  partake  of  the 
same  qualities.  Thus,  speaking  broadly,  all  landscape  subjects  and  those 
requiring  picturesque  treatment  are  undesirable  and  incongruous  for  the 
object  in  view.  Occasionally  in  the  present  exhibition  you  will  come 
upon  a  vase  on  which  a  landscape  is  painted,  which  commencing  on  the 
body  of  the  vessel,  is  made  to  meander  (trees,  sky,  buildings,  and  all) 
over  the  concave  and  convex  forms  to  be  found  at  its  neck.  Can  there 
be  a  more  absurd  departure  from  true  taste  in  ornamentation  than  such 
an  example  as  this  ?  ” 

There  were  many  cartoons  for  stained  glass  and  fresco,  but  they  were 
of  interest  chiefly  to  artists  who  work  in  this  extensive  way.  It  is  hardly 
desirable  to  refer  to  productions  which  may  never  come  before  the  public 
again.  In  America  everything  that  is  painted  on  a  ceiling  or  a  wall  is 
called  a  fresco.  Such  work  is  ordinarily  executed  in  distemper,  in  wax, 
water-glass,  or  oil.  True  fresco  has  a  peculiar  quality  of  its  own  which 
eminently  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  methods  of  painting.  It  is  this : 
that  a  fresco  is  a  non-absorbent  of  light.  The  fresco  ground  is  composed 
of  certain  proportions  of  lime  (from  which  the  heating  element  has  to  a 
great  extent  been  washed  out)  and  sand,  and  this  mixture  is  used  by  the 
painter  in  its  moist  state.  The  wet  lime,  absorbing  carbonic  acid  from 
the  atmosphere,  becomes  carbonate  of  lime,  and  in  combination  with  the 
sand  produces  an  impermeable  cement  which  is  formed  over  the  surface 
of  the  ground  during  the  day’s  labor,  and  in  which  the  color  used  is  incor¬ 
porated  and  fixed.  This  cemented  surface  has  been  stated  to  be  suf¬ 
ficiently  crystalline  to  reflect  light ;  but  whether  this  be  so  or  not,  its  non- 
absorbency  of  light  is  unquestionable.  Thus,  where  an  oil  painting  would 
be  invisible  a  fresco  is  clearly  seen. 

The  Russian  mosaic  work  was  by  far  tlie  finest  in  the  exhibition  and 
deservedly  attracted  much  attention.  It  came  from  the  atelier  of  Michel 
Chmielevski,  of  St.  Petersburgh,  and  was  designed  by  Professor  ISToff. 
The  subject  was  a  group  of  ecclesiastics  in  their  vestments,  and  the  object 
the  decoration  of  a  Greek  church.  The  Roman  mosaics  were  far  inferior. 


32 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


CLASS  3. — SCULPTURE,  DIE- SINKING,  STONE  AND  CAMEO 

ENGRAVING. 

It  would  be  impossible  in  the  space  devoted  to  this  report  to  do  jus¬ 
tice,  even  cursorily,  to  the  many  specimens  of  sculpture  exhibited  in  the 
various  sections  of  the  Exposition,  and  it  may  be  added,  too,  that  it  would 
be  entirely  uninteresting  to  do  so.  To  the  majority  of  people,  statuary, 
at  best,  is  a  sealed  book.  It  creates  no  sensation  when  it  is  visibly  before 
them,  and  it  would  certainly  create  less,  if  it  were  possible,  when  simply 
described  by  the  feeble  power  of  a  reporter.  Nevertheless,  it  is  the 
grandest,  most  ancient,  and  most  durable  of  the  arts.  The  works  which 
delight  the  critic  of  to-day  and  are  believed  to  mark  the  golden  age  of 
statuary,  date  their  origin  many  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
full  beauty  of  the  human  form  has  never  been  so  accurately  described  as 
by  the  Greek  sculptors.  The  mythology  of  the  country  gave  to  their 
efforts  an  elevation  and  purity  of  thought  which  in  these  days  cannot  be 
conveyed  to  similar  subjects  however  skilfully  manipulated.  Hence  the 
tendency  of  sculpture  has  been  to  moderate  the  severity  of  the  ancient 
school  and  to  create  another  in  which  clothes  should  not  be  wholly  dis¬ 
regarded.  The  toga  imposed  itself  on  the  thoughts  and  consciences  of 
artists.  Were  it  a  booted  warrior  with  a  cocked  hat  that  had  to  be 
depicted  he  was  found  clad  in  the  garb  of  a  Roman  senator.  An  absurdity 
so  conspicuous  could  not  long  continue.  A  new  school  sprang  up.  Its 
aim  was  to  call  a  spade  a  spade.  If  top  boots  and  a  cocked  hat  were 
wanted  the  disciples  of  that  school  were  ready  to  supply  them.  Nay,  if 
Achilles,  himself,  in  addition  to  his  one  natural  defect,  had  also  had  a 
pimple  on  the  top  of  his  nose,  they  would  have  alighted  upon  it  with 
enthusiasm.  Excess  of  any  kind  naturally  leads  to  reaction,  and  a  reaction 
took  place.  But  the  various  theories  still  remain.  The  purists  and  the 
realists  contend  for  their  separate  ideas,  and  the  able  men  on  either  side 
prove  how  easy  it  is  for  both  to  be  right. 

There  never  was  a  better  battle-field  than  the  Champ  de  Mars,  where 
statuary  of  colossal  proportions  contended  with  the  humbler  but  equally 
interesting  productions  of  our  own  Roger,  whose  small  domestic  groups 
for  the  mantelpiece  are  well  known  to  loyal  people.  Nothing  could 
be  more  realistic  than  these  touching  incidents  of  the  late  war.  While 
thus  bending,  as  all  young  nations  will,  to  the  ideas  which  are  newest, 
it  happened  curiously  enough  that  the  gem  of  the  classical  school  was 
also  of  American  origin.  The  composition  referred  to  was  by  Miss  Hos- 
mer,  and  was  called  the  u  Sleeping  Faun.”  The  attitude  of  the  principal 
figure  is  graceful  and  natural,  the  expression  of  the  face  thoroughly  win¬ 
ning.  A  mischievous  child  faun  is  most  happily  introduced  in  the  group. 
He  is  partly  hidden  behind  the  trunk  of  the  tree  beneath  which  the  elder 
faun  is  reposing,  and  amuses  himself  by  knotting  the  tail  of  the  latter 
into  the  tail  of  a  lion’s  skin  upon  which  the  elder  faun  reposes. 

The  French  statuary,  by  its  numbers  and  the  variety  of  its  styles  and 
subjects,  was  considered  the  best.  The  Italians  also  exhibited  much  that 


WORKS  OF  ART 


33 


was  very  marked  in  character,  and  sufficient  to  show  that  in  this  respect 
Roman  art  yet  maintains  her  own.  One  of  the  most  striking  statues  in 
the  Italian  vestibule  was  “  The  Last  Days  of  Napoleon  I.”  This  was 
another  realistic  work,  and,  so  far  as  execution  went,  its  details  were 
worked  out  Avith  a  skill  and  power  of  execution  that  was  not  to  be  found 
elsewhere.  But  its  subject  was  painful.  It  may  be  questioned  whether 
any  amount  of  skill  justifies  an  artist  in  exhibiting  a  hero  in  so  decrex>id, 
diminute,  and  hopeless  a  condition.  Sculpture  has  nothing  whatever  to 
do  with  decrepitude.  Its  office  is  to  ennoble  and  idealize  the  grandest 
types  of  humanity.  Napoleon  seated  in  his  arm-chair,  with  his  head 
drooping  forward,  his  eyes  heavy  and  sad,  and  the  hour  of  dissolution 
visibly  upon  him,  is  a  spectacle  which  robs  history  of  a  hero.  The  French, 
however,  were  satisfied  with  the  work,  and  a  gold  prize  was  awarded  to 
the  artist.  It  may  be  added  here  that  there  was  a  very  curious  and 
interesting  collection  of  busts  of  Napoleon  I.  They  were  six  in  number ; 
but  only  three  or  four  of  the  six  were  derived  from  authentic  sources. 
The  authority  for  the  last,  “Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,”  may  be  disputed, 
and  the  first,  representing  him  as  a  child,  has  no  other  authority  than  an 
apocryphal  sketch  in  pencil  which  may  be  seen  yet  at  the  Louvre.  Taking 
them,  however,  as  real  presentments  of  the  boy  and  the  man,  they  are 
in  the  highest  degree  interesting  and  valuable. 

In  the  Belgian  department  were  exhibited  some  small  terra  cotta  models 
belonging  to  the  familiar  picture  sculpture  school  and  representing  scenes 
from  domestic  life  and  from  Shakespeare  and  Moliere.  Their  merit  con¬ 
sisted  in  their  broad  humor  and  true  expression,  to  which  may  be  added 
great  care  and  ability  shown  in  the  modelling. 

The  sculptor  Westmacott,  in  concluding  his  official  report  on  the 
statuary  of  the  Exposition,  says :  “  The  impression  left  by  a  careful 
examination  of  the  works  in  sculpture  of  different  nations  is  on  the 
whole  of  a  favorable  character.  That  there  is  much  that  challenges 
criticism  must  be  admitted ;  but  the  general  practice  of  the  art  affords 
satisfactory  evidence  that  while  its  employment  is  very  greatly  extended 
there  is  also  manifest  improvement  in  sculptors,  in  knowledge  of  form 
and  in  a  feeling  for  the  beautiful,  showing  the  value  of  close  observation 
of  nature  regulated  by  the  discipline  derived  from  a  careful  study  of  the 
best  ancient  examples.  There  is  also  considerable  technical  power  shown 
in  execution,  in  carving,  modelling,  casting,  and  chasing,  proving  beyond, 
question  that  in  the  material  exercise  of  the  art  there  is  good  ground  for 
congratulation.” 

French  artists  have  long  been. eminent  for  their  attention  to  and  skill 
in  medal  engraving  and  die-sinking.  It  has  always  been  the  practice  of 
France,  from  a  very  early  date,  to  encourage  these  arts,  and  the  sculptors 
have  worthily  responded  to  the  patronage  and  protection  thus  accorded. 
Some  of  these  works  in  the  present  Exposition  were  of  large  size,  con¬ 
sisting  of  groups  and  conqmsitions  admirably  treated.  Others  display¬ 
ing  beautiful  workmanship,  although  merely  portraits,  were,  in  fact,  gems 
of  art. 


34 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


CLASS  4. — ARCHITECTURAL  DESIGNS  AND  MODELS. 

The  display  of  architectural  designs  and  models  was  ample.  The  lat¬ 
ter  especially  exhibited  remarkable  skill  of  production  and  elaborateness 
of  detail.  Both  pertain  to  subjects  that  do  not  come  within  the  range 
of  this  report,  which  is  not  technical  but  general.  Among  professional 
jnen  it  was  thought  that  a  better  show  might  have  been  made,  particu¬ 
larly  in  the  case  of  works  that  are  now  actually  progressing.  The  most 
perfect  exhibition  was  made  by  the  Suez  Canal  Company,  which,  topo¬ 
graphically,  architecturally,  and  otherwise,  exhibited  the  difficulties  which 
beset  that  great  undertaking,  the  way  they  have  been  overcome,  and 
what  yet  remains  to  be  accomplished.  These  details  occupied  an  entire 
building  in  the  Park,  and  formed  a  special  attraction  of  themselves. 

CLASS  5.— ENGRAVING  AND  LITHOGRAPHY. 

The  subjects  in  this  group  appeal  in  a  thousand  ways  to  every  taste, 
and  are  especially  valuable  alike  for  amusement  as  for  instruction.  There 
is  hardly  a  work  of  any  importance  in  the  scientific  world  that  does  not 
in  some  way  appeal  to  or  depend  upon  one  or  other  of  these  sister  arts. 
The  larger  and  more  important  part  of  all  engravings  are  transcripts 
from  paintings,  and  this  mode  of  reproduction  has  of  late  become  so 
popular  that  the  number  of  those  who  pursue  the  profession,  which  was 
declining,  has  greatly  increased.  Of  the  innumerable  body  of  engravers 
on  wood  it  is  impossible  to  speak.  A  fair  exposition  of  their  products 
would  have  filled  half  the  building.  There  has  been  no  marked  improve¬ 
ment  either  in  engraving  or  lithography  during  the  past  decade,  save 
what  could  be  traced  to  increased  skill  on  the  part  of  those  who  exercise 
these  professions. 


GROUP  II 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL 

ARTS. 

Class  6.  Printing  and  Books.— Class  7.  Paper,  Stationery,  Binding,  Painting, 
and  Drawing  Materials.— Class  8.  Application  of  Drawing  and  Modelling  to 
the  Common  Arts.— Class  9.  Photographic  Proofs  and  Apparatus.— Class  10. 
Musical  Instruments.— Class  IJ.  Medical  and  Surgical  Instruments  and 
Apparatus.— Class  12.  Mathematical  Instruments  and  Apparatus  for  Teach¬ 
ing  Science. — Class  13.  Maps  and  Geographical  and  Cosmographical  Apparatus. 

CLASS  6. — PRINTING  AND  BOOKS. 

The  principal  contributions  in  this  class  were  from  France,  Austria, 
England,  and  the  United  States.  The  following  extracts  from  the  intro¬ 
duction  by  E.  Dentu,  to  the  catalogue  of  the  exhibitors  in  the  French 
section,  present  a  condensed  view  of  the  condition  of  the  publishing  trade 
in  France,  and  some  general  observations  upon  the  present  state  of  the 
typographic  art : 1 

“The  productions  comprised  in  Class  6  may  be  divided  into  eight  sec¬ 
tions  :  I.  Specimens  of  typography.  II.  Autographic  proofs.  III.  Lith¬ 
ography  in  black  and  colors.  IV.  Engravings.  V.  New  books  and  new 
editions  of  various  works.  VI.  Collection  of  works  forming  special  libraries. 
VII.  Periodical  publications.  VIII.  Drawings,  atlases  and  albums, 
technical  or  educational.  This  class  includes  144  exhibitors  from  seven¬ 
teen  departments  of  France.  Paper  and  ink,  and  in  a  less  degree  vellum, 
and  objects  in  paper  and  pasteboard,  are  the  raw  materials  of  printing  and 
the  library.  These  articles  make  part  of  class  7.  Good  quality  of  the 
raw  material,  and  perfection  in  the  manufacture,  are  the  essential  requi¬ 
sites  for  paper,  which,  in  the  form  of  books,  lithographs,  or  engravings, 
is  destined  to  bear  the  test  of  time.  The  facilities  afforded  for  Jhe  export 
of  rags  from  France  have  not  yet  been  counterbalanced  by  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  substitutes  so  eagerly  sought  in  the  manufacture  of  printing- 
paper.  Periodical  publications,  produced  in  large  numbers  and  of  ephe¬ 
meral  interest,  alone,  employ  paper  containing  ligneous  or  other  sub¬ 
stances  mixed  with  waste  textile  materials.  Parchment  and  vellum  are 
only  used  for  a  few  special  matters ;  such,  for  instance,  as  patents  and 
diplomas.  The  imitations  of  vellum  in  paper,  having  the  strength  and 
surface  of  the  skin,  are  more  generally  employed  in  choice  editions.  The 
quality  of  the  ink  has  a  great  effect  on  printing  and  on  the  beauty  of 
the  work  produced ;  its  price  varies  according  to  the  degree  of  fineness. 

1  This  and  the  subsequent  extracts  from  the  Official  Catalogue  have  been  taken  from  the 
English  version,  published  under  the  authority  of  the  Imperial  Commission  by  J.  M.  John¬ 
son  &  Sons,  London. 


3G  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

It  should  dry  rapidly,  give  clear  lines,  and  reproduce  the  finest  strokes. 
The  manufacture  of  colored  printing-inks  has  been  much  improved,  and 
they  are  now  applied  in  many  ways  in  printing.  The  series  of  colors 
and  tints  is  very  varied ;  some  are  remarkable  for  tone  and  brilliancy  5 
but,  unfortunately,  their  price  is  relatively  high,  especially  in  the  case  of 
those  which  include  the  aniline  colors  in  their  composition.  Since  the 
day  when  Guttenberg  conceived  the  idea  of  producing  the  characters  of 
the  text  accompanying  engravings  in  movable  types,  to  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  present  century,  the  improvements  introduced  in  the  art  of 
printing  were  but  few.  Sixty  years  ago  hand-presses  were  still  in  usey 
with  the  vertical  pressure  which  had  replaced  the  originally  lever  arrange¬ 
ment  $  the  ink  was  still  ground  by  hand  with  a  rnuller,  and  the  ball  still 
inked  the  type  or  engraving  in  relief.  The  impression  was  still  taken 
from  the  forms  composed  of  movable  characters.  The  progress  of  modern 
society  soon  rendered  these  primitive  means  insufficient.  The  problem 
to  be  solved  was,  how  to  arrive  at  the  most  rapid  and  most  economic 
production.  This  was  resolved  by  the  invention  of  stereotyping,  or 
method  of  converting  into  single  plates  the  pages  composed  in  separate 
types.  The  galvano-plastic  process  afterwards  enabled  the  stereotyped 
plates  to  be  formed  with  increased  rapidity,  and,  moreover,  assured  their 
preservation.  The  transformation  was  completed  by  the  invention  of 
cylinder  machine.  Chromo-lithograpliy,  or  lithographic  printing  in 
several  colors,  in  consequence  of  improvements  in  the  methods  of  regis¬ 
tering,  and  in  the  facilities  of  multiplying  without  great  cost  the  number 
of  stones  necessary  for  the  printing  in  various  colors,  has  assumed  enor¬ 
mous  importance.  It  has  thus  been  made  applicable  to  the  demands  ot 
trade,  especially  in  the  production  of  decorated  tickets  and  show-cards. 
One  of  the  happiest  applications  of  chromo-lithography  is  the  reproduc¬ 
tion  of  the  miniatures  and  stained  glass  of  the  middle  ages,  and  the 
publication  of  fac  simile  copies  of  ancient  manuscripts  and  illuminated 
missals.  Independently  of  designs  executed  directly  on  the  stone,  lith¬ 
ography  is  applied  to  the  printing  of  maps,  engraved  drawings  of  machi¬ 
nery,  to  writing  transferred  to  stone  by  means  of  autographic  paper,  to 
copperplate  and  wood  engravings,  and  to  typographical  printing.  Photo¬ 
lithography,  which  has  for  its  object  the  obtaining  of  photographic 
pictures  011  stones,  and  the  production  of  printed  impressions,  begins  to 
yield  some  practical  results.  Copperplate  printing,  which  consists  in 
inking  a  copper,  steel,  or  pewter  plate  by  the  ball  or  by  the  hand,  is  still 
executed  by  hand-presses ;  the  mechanical  processes  attempted  have  yet 
yielded  but  small  results.  Engraving  and  ornamental  printing  has  been 
greatly  aided  by  the  galvano-plastic  process,  which  supplies  stereotype 
plates  as  perfect  as  the  plates  or  block  cut  by  the  engraver,  and  which 
thus  allow  an  unlimited  number  of  impressions  to  be  taken  without  affect¬ 
ing  the  original.  The  plates  furnished  by  this  process  for  chromo-typo¬ 
graphy,  or  typographic  color  printing,  possess  an  exactness  which  it  has 
been  found  impossible  to  obtain  by  other  means.  They  enable  the  printer 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS.  37 

to  produce  for  a  few  halfpence  excellent  impressions  worked  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  plates,  in  register,  each  with  a  different  color  or  shade.  The 
numerous  and  persevering  attempts  made  to  reproduce  in  relief  the 
original  designs  of  the  artist,  and  to  convert  drawing  and  writing  on 
stone  into  typographic  stereotype  plates,  have  yielded,  if  not  perfect  results, 
at  any  rate  sufficient  proofs  that  the  problem  is  in  reality  solved.  Paticon- 
ography,  a  chemical  process  which  produces  blocks  in  relief  from  the 
hollows  of  engraved  plates,  is  now  employed  in  the  illustration  of  many 
important  publications.  It  is  used  with  success  for  printing  maps,  fac 
similes ,  and  music. 

The  publisher  is,  at  the  present  day,  a  real  producer  ;  carrying  on,  not 
a  house  of  business,  but  a  sort  of  collective  workshop,  in  which  the 
designer,  the  engraver,  the  printer,  the  paper-maker,  &c.,  work  together 
under  his  guidance  with  a  fixed  object.  He  has  also  another  claim  to 
the  title  of  producer.  He  not  only  issues  new  or  old  works  in  choice  or 
popular  editions,  but  he  creates  collections  of  works  with  special  objects, 
periodical  or  encyclopedical  publications,  and  supplies  subjects  for  treat¬ 
ment.  It  is  by  such  combinations  that  the  greater  part  of  the  extensive 
publications  now  issued  are  brought  to  light.  The  extension  of  the  home 
trade  in  books  would  be  considerably  increased  if  the  law  of  colportage, 
(hawking  and  sale  at  stalls,)  and  the  limitation  of  printers’  licenses,  did 
not  diminish  the  means  of  action.  Working  printers  are  divided  into 
two  classes :  those  who  work  by  the  task  and  those  who  are  paid  by  the 
day.  Compositors  employed  at  task  work  receive  for  a  thousand  letters 
[ens?]  55  centimes  to  1  franc  40  c.,  according  to  the  type  employed,  and 
the  language  in  which  the  copy  is  written.  Those  who  work  by  the  day 
are  paid  according  to  a  tariff  arranged  by  the  employers  and  workmen 
in  common,  and  of  which  the  lowest  rate  is  5  francs  50  centimes  per  day 
for  ten  working  hours.  The  pressmen  stand  in  the  same  condition,  and 
their  wages  are  as  high  as  those  of  the  compositors.  The  workmen  who 
attend  the  machines  only  earn  4  francs  a  day,  and  the  children  employed 
as  assistants  receive  from  1  franc  to  1  franc  50  a  day.  Wages  in  the 
provinces  are  about  30  per  cent,  lower  than  in  Paris.  The  employment 
of  women  in  printing  establishments,  after  having  encountered  great 
opposition,  has  at  length  been  carried  out,  and  gives  very  satisfactory 
results.  The  wages  which  they  receive  are  very  nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  the  men.  The  great  printers  have  established  relief  funds ;  but  only 
one  in  Paris,  equally  prominent  for  the  importance  of  his  business,  and 
his  personal  character,  has  admitted  his  workmen  to  a  participation  of 
profits.  The  principal  centres  of  the  business  are :  Paris,  Tours,  Eouen, 
Lille,  Lyon,  Limoges,  Eennes,  and  Epinal.  Strasburg  stands  in  the  second 
line;  and  afterwards  come  Bordeaux,  Marseilles,  Grenoble,  Caen,  and 
Chatillon.  The  printers  are  divided  into  typographical  printers,  avIio 
number  about  900  in  France  ;  and  lithographic  printers,  amounting 
to  800,  of  whom  391  are  in  Paris.  As  to  the  copperplate  printers, 
Paris  possesses  about  138.  There  are  but  very  few  in  the  provinces. 


38 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  number  of  works  printed  in  the  year  1866,  including  new  books 
as  well  as  reprints  of  all  works,  amounted  to  13,883.  Of  this  number 
the  u  Belles  Lettres”  and  novels,  form  the  greater  portion.  Political 
and  religious  works  amounted  to  nearly  2,000;  history,  geography, 
voyages,  and  travels  to  nearly  1,500;  scientific  works,  1,900;  works 
on  commerce  and  agriculture  to  nearly  1,000.  The  production  of  engrav¬ 
ings,  lithographs,  photographs,  plans,  maps,  charts  and  drawings  of  all 
kinds,  amount  to  about  30,000 ;  to  which  must  be  added  9,000  publica¬ 
tions  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music.  These  productions  represent  on 
an  average  20,000,000  of  francs  in  the  total  exportation  of  France,  and 
employ  2,500  tons  of  paper.  There  are  also  printed  in  France  1,771  peri¬ 
odical  publications,  of  which  336  are  political  journals,  and  the  remain¬ 
ing  1,435  literary,  scientific,  and  miscellanous.  Among  the  improve¬ 
ments  introduced  into  the  printing  and  bookselling  trades  since  1855,  the 
following  may  be  pointed  out:  1.  The  variety  and  clearness  of  the  types 
produced  in  the  foundries,  and  the  better  choice  of  types  employed  in 
the  printing  of  books,  as  regards  the  subject  and  the  object  of  the  pub¬ 
lication.  2.  The  progress  made  in  chromo-lithography  and  chromo-typo¬ 
graphy.  3.  The  improvement  made  in  stereotyping,  both  as  regards 
rapidity  and  perfection ;  the  development  of  stereotyping  by  the  galvano- 
plastic  process,  and  the  employment  of  paniconographic  stereotype  plates. 
4.  The  improvement  and  cheapness  of  the  impressions  obtained  by  the 
excellent  method  of  cutting  employed  in  engraving,  and  the  general  intro¬ 
duction  of  improved  printing  presses  driven  by  steam;  the  satisfactory 
result  obtained  by  the  application  of  these  presses  to  lithography  and 
chromo-lithograpliy;  the  skill  exhibited  in  the  composition  of  tabular 
matter;  and,  above  all,  the  increasing  number  of  printing  establishments 
capable  of  executing  difficult  work  with  great  perfection.” 

The  exhibition  from  the  United  States  was  by  no  means  as  complete 
as  it  should  have  been.  Only  two  or  three  of  the  prominent  publishers 
were  represented  by  their  publications.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  sent  a  bound 
copy  of  the  New  American  Encyclopedia;  Merriam  &  Co.,  of  Spring- 
field,  sent  specimens  of  their  printing,  and  Brewer  &  Tileston  sent  a 
copy  of  Worcester’s  Dictionary.  The  choice  and  beautifully  printed 
works  from  the  presses  of  Cambridge,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia,  were 
not  to  be  found.  The  books  and  apparatus  for  the  use  of  the  blind 
attracted  much  notice. 

The  very  interesting  display  made  by  the  American  Bible  Society 
should  be  noted  here  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  typographi¬ 
cal  and  publishing  exhibits  of  the  Exposition.  This  society,  organized 
in  1816,  has  issued  22,118,475  copies  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  in  about  50 
different  languages,  at  home  and  abroad;  such  as  English,  German, 
French,  Spanish,  Italian,  Portuguese,  Welsh,  Irish,  Gaelic,  Dutch,  Dan¬ 
ish,  Swedish,  Latin,  Greek, ^ebrew,  Polish,  Russian,  Esthoman,  Hun¬ 
garian,  Finnish,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Armenian,  Hebrew-Spanish,  Armino- 
Turkish,  Arabo-Turkish,  Mpongwe,  Zulu,  Arrawack,  Grebo,  Benga,  Choc- 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS  39 

taw,  Chickasaw,  Ojibwa,  Dakota,  Mohawk,  Delaware,  Creolese,  Hawa¬ 
iian,  Micronesian  in  several  dialects,  Chinese  in  several  dialects,  Siamese, 
Hindu,  and  Urdu. 

A  very  interesting  and  valuable  series  of  publications  upon  science, 
art,  medicine,  and  morals  was  sent  by  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  as  speci¬ 
mens  of  typography  from  the  government  establishment,  Boulac,  Cairo. 
The  government  of  Hawaii  sent  various  specimens  of  native  publica¬ 
tions  in  English  and  the  Hawaiian  language.  The  latter  works  were 
curiosities,  simply  showing  the  mechanical  march  of  letters  into  regions 
where  education  had  scarcely  penetrated.  They  had  no  claims  to  typo¬ 
graphical  merit.  The  perfection  of  a  printed  page  is  to  look  clear.  It 
must  never  look  crowded,  whatever  be  the  type  in  which  it  is  printed. 
The  proportion  of  each  letter  must  be  mathematically  correct.  The  capi¬ 
tals  must  bear  a  true  relation  to  the  small  letters,  and  neither  escape 
the  attention  nor  attract  the  eye  too  much.  The  spaces — or  intervals 
between  the  letters  and  words — must  be  well  determined,  not  capricious, 
for  in  the  latter  case  the  effect  would  be  spotty.  In  this  art,  modern 
printers  may  yet  learn  much  from  their  predecessors.  The  regularity  of 
black  letters  was  favorable  to  uniformity,  and  the  contrast  of  black  and 
white  was  more  positive  from  the  heaviness  of  the  characters  used.  In 
the  earliest  books,  the  capital  letters  were  left  to  be  illuminated  by 
hand,  but  very  soon  wood  engravings  were  used  both  for  the  capitals 
and  as  borders  for  the  last.  Later,  the  borders  were  abolished  and  large 
ornamental  capitals  cast  in  type  metal  were  used  for  the  capitals  of  each 
chapter.  These  were  succeeded  by  engravings  on  copper  with  head  and 
tail  pieces,  many  of  which  were  the  works  of  the  first  artists  of  their 
time.  The  process  was  a  slow  one,  inasmuch  as  it  involved  two  distinct 
modes  of  printing.  It  was  in  due  time  abandoned,  and  the  fashion  has 
now  returned  to  borders  cut  in  wood,  or  types,  and  to  illumination,  a  new 
process  involving  lithography  as  well  as  common  printing,  expensive  but 
very  beautiful. 

There  were  admirable  specimens  of  books  in  the  Oriental  languages. 
The  Hebrew  types  are  the  clearest  and  most  elegant  that  exist.  They 
have  long  had  this  renown,  and  the  Arabic,  although  stiffer,  are  still  more 
elegant  than  any  other  type  cast  in  Europe.  The  charm  probably  lies 
in  the  respective  alphabets. 

GLASS  7.— PAPER,  STATIONERY,  BINDING,  PAINTING  AND 
DRAWING  MATERIALS. 

The  following  statistical  data  are  extracted  from  the  report  of  Messrs. 
Haro  and  Roulhac,  members  of  the  committee  of  admission  of  class  7  in 
the  French  department.  The  facts  relate  chiefly  to  France,  but  are  of 
general  interest. 

The  articles  exhibited  in  class  7  comprehended  stationery  proper,  book¬ 
binding,  the  various  objects  comprised  under  the  title  of  office  requisites, 
and  artistic  materials. 


40 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


STATIONERY,  AND  PAPERS. 

There  are  few  departments  which  do  not  possess  several  paper-mills. 
Angoumois,  Ardeche,  Vosges,  Isere,  and  the  basin  of  the  Loire  are  the  most 
important  as  regards  the  number  of  the  mills.  The  rags  employed  in  the 
manufacture  are  nearly  all  purchased  in  France.  Since  the  treaty  of  com¬ 
merce,  these  materials,  of  which  the  export  was  previously  prohibited,  may 
be  exported  on  the  payment  of  a  small  duty,  which  is  gradually  being 
reduced  to  extinction.  The  importation  of  cotton  and  linen  rags  and  old 
cordage  amounted,  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1866,  to  2,830  tons. 
The  importation  of  foreign  rags,  including  cotton,  linen,  and  old  cordage, 
during  the  same  period,  amounting  to  7,914  tons.  The  number  of  vats 
for  hand-made  paper  in  France  is  said  to  be  140  ;  that  of  great  machines 
for  making  white  or  colored  paper,  sized  or  unsized,  270;  and  of  machines 
for  making  wrapping  papers,  230.  These  vats  and  machines  occupy  about 
34,000  persons,  of  whom  11,000  are  women,  and  produce  more  than 
129,000  pounds  of  paper.  The  annual  consumption  of  the  rags  may  be 
estimated  at  115,000  tons.  The  average  price  of  hand-made  paper  does 
not  amount  to  more  than  two  francs  the  kilogram;  that  of  printing 
and  writing  papers  is  about  one  franc  ten  centimes  the  kilogram ;  that 
of  packing  and  wrapping  papers,  forty  centimes  the  kilogram.  The 
greater  part  of  the  paper  manufactured  in  France  is  consumed  in  the 
country.  Exportation,  however,  tends  to  develop  itself;  it  has  consider¬ 
ably  augmented  since  1865.  During  the  first  nine  months  of  1866,  it  rose 
to  7,578  tons.  As  to  the  importation  of  foreign  papers  it  is  unimportant; 
the  amount,  during  the  same  period,  did  not  exceed  100  tons.  The  com¬ 
mittee  of  admission  of  class  7  points  out,  among  the  improvements 
carried  out  in  the  paper  manufacture :  1.  The  use  of  motive  power,  which 
during  the  last  few  years  has  increased  at  least  10  per  cent.;  2.  The 
gradual  and  intelligent  application  of  substitutes  for  rags  in  those  places 
where  the  latter  are  wanted  or  are  dear;  3.  A  positive  amelioration  in 
the  general  economy  of  the  manufacture,  which  has  surmounted  all  diffi¬ 
culties  by  reducing  the  price,  in  spite  of  the  constantly  increasing  cost  of 
the  raw  material  and  of  everything  which  contributes  to  the  production 
of  paper. 

PASTEBOARD. 

Pasteboard  is  divided  into  three  sorts :  1.  Pasteboard  in  sheets,  which 
is  obtained  by  uniting  sheets  of  paper  one  upon  the  other  by  means  of 
pulp  paste ;  2.  Pulp  pasteboard,  which  is  made  in  the  frame  with  waste 
paper,  old  paper  collected,  paper  cuttings,  and  often  with  the  aid  of  a 
mixture  of  straw  and  other  materials ;  3.  Machine-made  cardboard,  which 
is  nothing  more  than  cardboard  made  by  machines  similar  to  those 
employed  in  making  paper.  This  mode  of  manufacture  only  dates  from 
1846.  Among  the  pasteboard  which  is  employed  in  a  special  manner 
must  be  cited  bitumenized  pasteboard,  the  pasteboard  which  serves  for 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS  41 


the  Jacquard  loom;  the  pasteboard  of  which  railway  tickets  are  made; 
and  especially  the  glazed  pasteboard  used  in  the  dressing  of  shawls, 
stuffs,  and  papers.  This  last  manufacture  is  developing  very  consider¬ 
ably,  and  there  is  no  country  that  can  equal  France  in  this  kind  of  pro¬ 
duct.  The  manufacturers  of  ordinary  cardboard  are  to  be  found  in  all 
the  districts  of  France.  They  have  little  connection  with  foreign  coun¬ 
tries;  they  exported,  however,  during  the  first  nine  months  of  1866,  211 
tons  to  various  countries.  Paris  employs  in  this  branch  of  trade  more 
than  500  work  people,  and  the  annual  amount  of  business  exceeds 
£120,000. 

PLAYING  CARDS. 

The  manufacture  of  playing  cards  comprises  the  making  of  the  card ; 
the  impression  of  the  design;  the  coloring  of  the  engraved  figures;  the 
glazing.  The  French  cards,  that  is  to  say,  those  of  which  the  designs  and 
the  ace  of  spades  are  furnished  by  the  government,  are  divided  into  fine 
cards,  demi -fine,  and  common.  The  fancy  cards,  of  which  the  price  is 
higher,  are  charged  with  a  tax  of  50  centimes.  Foreign  cards,  intended 
for  exportation,  pay  no  duty.  The  home  consumption  of  this  article  is 
increasing,  but  the  exportation  is  not  extending.  A  large  number  of 
playing  cards  is  exported  to  Mexico,  to  Hayti,  to  Peru,  and  South  America 
generally. 

FANCY  PAPERS. 

This  name  is  given  to  all  papers  gilt,  silvered,  colored,  printed, 
embossed,  pierced,  &c.,  which  are  used  in  making  objects  in  paper  for 
bookbinding,  confectionary,  pharmacy,  drugs,  and  laces.  Among  these 
papers,  some,  such  as  marbled  papers,  are  made  entirely  by  hand; 
others,  printed,  watered,  and  shagreened,  are  machine-made.  All  these 
articles  are  manufactured  with  white  French  paper,  more  or  less  fine. 
This  trade  exports  little,  in  spite  of  the  incontestable  superiority  which 
an  immense  assortment  and  excellent  taste  confer  upon  it.  The  manu¬ 
facture,  in  France,  of  these  fancy  papers  amounts  to  nearly  £280,000. 
Paris  is  the  centre  of  this  interesting  specialty,  which  employs  more  than 
1,200  work-people. 

OBJECTS  MADE  OF  PAPER  AND  PASTEBOARD. 

This  class  includes  a  multitude  of  articles  small  and  large,  rich  and 
common,  for  offices,  warehouses,  travelling  necessaries,  packing,  and  the 
makers  of  fancy  articles.  This  trade  is  essentially  Parisian,  and  is  con¬ 
tinually  on  tlie  increase.  There  are  nearly  400  makers  in  the  two  branches 
of  the  trade  above  indicated ;  they  employ  more  than  2,500  work-people, 
and  the  total  amount  of  business  may  be  safely  estimated  at  £400,000. 

OFFICE  STATIONERY,  ETC. 

This  term  includes  account-books,  pocket-books,  ink-stands,  sealing- 
wax,  wafers,  pen-holders,  pencils,  and  miscellaneous  articles.  This  trade 


42 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


is  essentially  Parisian.  Its  various  brandies  include  309  makers,  who 
employ  1,436  work-people,  and  do  business  to  the  amount  of  9,220,860 
francs,  (£368,834.)  The  article  of  account-books  is  the  most  important; 
it  is  treated  with  great  care  and  superiority  in  all  parts  of  France,  but 
particularly  in  Paris,  where  130  manufacturers  and  stationers  do  business 
to  the  extent  of  not  less  than  £252,880  in  this  one  article.  The  invention 
of  artificial  lead  for  pencils  has  given  rise  to  an  industry  which  is  essen¬ 
tially  French.  The  sealing-wax  manufacture  is  interesting  from  the  pro¬ 
gress  which  it  has  made  since  the  treaty  of  commerce.  The  custom  which 
prevails  of  gumming  envelopes  interferes  seriously  with  the  fabrication 
of  sealing-wax  and  wafers. 

ENVELOPES. 

There  are  few  trades  which  exhibit  a  development  equal  to  that  of 
envelope  making.  This  specialty  dates  from  1838,  but  only  began  to 
grow  into  importance  in  1851.  All  the  envelope  makers  are  found  in 
Paris,  and  they  do  not  produce  less  than  2,500,000  a  day.  Nearly  all  the 
operations  are  performed  by  mechanical  means :  folding  and  gumming 
are  done  by  machines ;  even  the  boxes  in  which  the  envelopes  are  sold 
are  produced  mechanically.  The  annual  product  of  this  article  exceeds 
£80,000. 

artists’  materials. 

The  number  of  painters,  professors  of  drawing,  of  water-color  and  min¬ 
iature  painting,  pastel  drawing,  of  engravers,  Avood  and  lithographic 
draughtsmen,  &c.,  amounts  to  more  than  6,000.  These  6,000  artists — all 
of  whose  names  are  not,  doubtless,  celebrated,  but  at  least  obtain  a  living 
by  their  pencil,  chisel,  or  burin — employ  more  than  £240,000  worth  per 
annum  of  fine  colors,  canvas,  panels,  brushes,  varnish,  &c.  To  the  cost  of 
materials  to  these  artists  must  be  added  the  still  larger  sum  expended  by 
their  pupils  and  by  amateurs  every  year.  It  is  quite  safe,  therefore,  to 
estimate  the  total  amount  of  this  industry  at  £800,000.  Machinery  plays 
a  certain  part  in  the  preparation  of  colors,  trituration,  grinding,  and 
washing,  but  it  is  not  universally  employed.  Each  establishment  has 
still  the  aspect  of  those  of  the  alchemists  of  the  middle  ages,  and  works 
without  publishing  its  processes,  its  secrets — in  a  word,  that  A\rhicli  con¬ 
stitutes  its  specialty.  It  is  admitted  that  France  makes  the  best  of  oil 
colors,  pastels,  and  canvas ;  the  last  are  superior,  as  regards  finish  and 
dimensions,  to  those  made  in  other  countries.  The  proofs  lie  in  the 
orders  received  from  foreign  artists,  and  even  foreign  go\rernments.  It 
must  be  admitted,  howe\rer,  that  with  respect  to  water  colors  the  French 
makers  haAre  serious  competition  to  contend  with,  as  regards  quality, 
especially  in  the  case  of  England ;  but  some  French  houses  have  made 
great  efforts  to  rival  the  quality  of  the  English  colors,  while  at  the  same 
time  selling  them  at  a  lower  price.  The  instruments  and  apparatus 
employed  by  painters,  engravers,  lithographers,  architects,  engineers, 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS.  43 

and  sculptors,  present  an  immense  variety.  Pencils  and  brushes  occupy 
in  their  production  more  than  2,000  men  and  \vomen.  French  brushes  are 
greatly  preferred  by  foreigners  to  those  of  their  own  make,  and  amount 
in  value  to  several  millions  of  francs.  Drawing-boards,  T — squares, 
&c.,  used  especially  by  architects  and  engineers,  form  a  remarkable  branch 
of  industry,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Indian  ink,  printing  ink,  chromo- 
lithographic  colors,  and  engravers’  and  lithographers’  materials.  The 
making  of  lay  figures  for  painting  draperies  calls  for  serious  study  of 
anatomy  and  mechanism.  It  requires  encouragement,  as  it  does  not 
supply  sufficient  remuneration  to  the  persons  engaged  in  it.  Neverthe¬ 
less,  by  perseverance,  several  manufacturers  have  achieved  results  which 
deserve  to  be  noticed.  The  same  remark  will  apply  to  easels,  color-boxes, 
and,  above  all,  to  the  metal  tubes  which  enclose  color  ground  in  oil.  The 
transfer  from  their  canvas,  the  remounting  and  the  reparation  of  pic¬ 
tures — in  short,  the  means  used  for  preserving  works  of  art,  form  a 
branch  of  art  to  which  too  much  attention  cannot  be  invited.  As  an 
industry  it  is  equally  useful  and  interesting,  and  it  may  be  affirmed  that 
the  best  results  and  the  greatest  study  have  been  made  in  France  in  con¬ 
nection  with  it,  and  that  it  is  still  the  object  of  highly  praiseworthy 
efforts. 

There  were  but  two  exhibitors  of  paper  from  the  United  States.  Jessup 
&  Moore,  of  Philadelphia,  sent  specimens  of  paper  made  from  wood, 
straw,  and  hemp.  The  other  display  consisted  of  white  and  straw  papers, 
of  excellent  qualities,  from  the  San  Lorenzo  mills,  Santa  Cruz  county, 
California.  This  establishment  has  beer^  in  operation  about  six  years, 
and  now  produces  annually  about  31,000  reams  of  straw  paper  and  7,000 
reams  of  white  newspaper ;  the  total  production  is  valued  at  over  $100,000. 

In  the  Wurtemberg  section  a  machine  for  making  paper  pulp  or  paste 
out  of  wood  was  shown  in  operation.  Logs  of  wood  at  one  end  of  the 
machine  were  cut  into  billets  a  foot  long  by  a  circular  saw.  These  billets 
were  then  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  machine,  and  were  delivered  at 
the  other  end  in  the  form  of  a  white  paste  or  pulp,  which  is  used  to  mix 
with  rag  pulp  to  the  extent  of  from  25  to  60  per  cent.  This  invention  is 
claimed  by  the  firm  of  H.  Wolker  &  Sons,  at  Heidenheim. 

There  are  now  20  paper  establishments  in  operation  at  Wurtemberg, 
having  28  machines  and  237  rag-mills,  and  29  establishments  where  hand 
labor  alone  is  employed.  The  total  production  of  paper  is  about  15,800,000 
pounds,  representing  a  value  of  £265,708,  most  of  which  is  exported. 
The  principal  localities  of  the  manufactures  are  Dettingin,  Faurndeau, 
Goppingen,  Heidenheim,  Helbronn,  and  Pfullingen. 

In  addition  to  paper  made  from  wood  and  straAV,  there  was  exhibited 
in  the  French  section  paper  made  of  u  esparto,”  (the  Spanish  rush,)  the 
fibres  of  the  palm  tree,  the  aloe,  the  Indian  fig  or  cactus,  and  from  sea¬ 
weed.  Excepting  the  last,  these  are  all  fibrous  plants,  possessing  in 
some  instances  a  length  of  fibre  sufficient  even  for  other  manufacturing 
purposes.  The  sea-weed,  in  addition  to  its  known  tenacity,  possesses  a 


44 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


sort  of  glue,  which,  it  is  claimed,  renders  it  valuable  as  a  mixture  with 
other  substances. 

France  excels  in  many  varieties  of  paper,  especially  those  used  for 
printing  and  fancy  purposes.  England  manufactures  most  of  the  finest 
qualities,  and  enjoys  almost  a  monopoly  for  certain  kinds  used  in  the 
arts.  Holland  was  once  famous  for  its  paper.  It  had  but  two  exhibit¬ 
ors.  The  paper  of  Venice,  inferior  to  that  of  Holland,  enjoyed  a  great 
reputation  200  years  ago.,  and  up  to  a  late  period  the  letter  paper  of 
Naples  was  considered  the  best  in  the  world.  No  one  would  have  that 
opinion  now.  Spanish  paper  has  also  had  its  vogue ;  but  the  only  branch 
of  the  manufacture  in  which  Spain  now  excels  is  in  the  paper  for  cigar¬ 
ettes.  Linen  is  still  the  ordinary  wear  of  the  peasantry  in  Spain ;  linen 
rags  are  there  more  easily  obtained  than  in  other  countries,  and  from 
these  a  thin  and  admirably  tough  paper  is  conscientiously  made. 

CLASS  8.— APPLICATIONS  OF  DRAWING  AND  MODELLING  TO 
THE  COMMON  ARTS. 

Class  8  comprises  artistic  productions  applicable  as  models  and  orna¬ 
ments  for  industrial  purposes.  They  are:  1.  Designs  for  printing — 
Dresses,  fancy  silks,  foulards,  ribbons,  muslins,  cotton  fabrics,  woollen 
goods,  chintzes,  &c.  2.  Designs  for  weaving — Shawls,  carpets,  hang¬ 
ings,  &e.  3.  Designs  for  embroidery,  lace,  &c.  4.  Designs  for  furnish¬ 
ing — Paper  hangings,  furniture,  pottery,  &c.  5.  Designs  for  ornamenta¬ 
tion,  models,  &c. — for  jewelry,  plate,  fine  iron  and  lock  works,  cameos, 
engravings,  wood,  copper,  ivory,  bronze,  and  other  metals,  stained  glass, 
&e.  G.-  Designs  and  objects  of  Industrial  modellings,  obtained  by  mechan¬ 
ical  means,  (reductions,  enlargements,  and  photo-sculpture.) 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  number  and  variety  of  objects  exhibited 
in  this  class  was  very  great,  comprising  not  only  drawing  upon  paper  for 
tissues,  but  models  for  carvings  in  wood,  ivory,  metal,  glass,  and  stone. 

There  were  but  two  exhibitors  in  the  United  States  section — one  of 
embossed  locket  and  miniature  frames $  the  other,  J.  Rogers,  of  New 
York,  three  groups  of  statuettes. 

The  Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  South  Kensington  museum, 
London,  sent  a  series  of  illustrations  of  the  course  of  drawing,  painting, 
and  modelling,  and  studies  for  the  improvement  of  manufactures  pursued 
in  that  institution,  and  also  a  collection  of  reproductions  of  works  of  art, 
for  the  use  of  museums  or  similar  schools  of  art. 

Inasmuch  as  these  articles  form  an  entirely  new  branch  of  commerce 
as  well  as  of  useful  instruction,  and  have  for  their  end  the  instruction 
of  labor  where  skill  is  required,  it  is  thought  desirable  to  give  a  full 
description  of  wliat  they  consist.  They  are  commercial  to  the  extent 
that  any  museum  or  school  can  procure  exact  copies  of  them,  and  thus 
be  on  a  satisfactory  level  at  once  with  the  material  of  a  good  art  school. 
A  few  particulars  will  explain  the  value  of  this  fact.  In  all  countries 
examples  of  more  or  less  excellence  for  the  use  of  art  schools  have  been 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS  45 

prepared.  They  are  easily  obtained.  But,  besides  the  production  of 
work  to  be  used  as  a  course  of  study  for  training  the  hand  and  the  eye, 
the  culture  of  taste  and  of  sound  principles  of  art  have  to  be  promoted 
by  placing  before  the  decorative  artist  the  purest  specimens  of  ancient 
and  modern  production,  wherein  handicraft  skill  has  realized  beautiful 
design.  For  this  end  all  countries  have  gradually  awakened  to  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  founding  museums  and  collections  of  rare  and  beautiful  objects 
for  use  and  reference.  Such  works,  however,  were  difficult  to  obtain, 
and  as  museums  multiplied  the  difficulty  naturally  increased.  It  then 
became  absolutely  necessary  to  discover  a  means  of  reproduction  that 
was  at  once  faithful  and  cheap.  The  various  processes  of  the  electro¬ 
type,  of  photography,  of  chromo-lithography,  of  gelatine  and  gutta¬ 
percha  moulding,  &c.,  were  called  into  play.  The  English  government, 
in  the  interest  of  their  own  schools  of  industrial  art,  left  no  means 
untried,  and  at  length  succeeded.  After  the  Exposition  of  1855,  the 
French  Emperor  responded  to  its  request  to  allow  the  most  valuable 
jewels,  crystals,  enamels,  &c.,  in  the  Louvre  to  be  photographed,  and  he 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  English  government  the  means  of  carefully 
coloring  those  photographs  after  the  originals.  On  a  subsequent  occa¬ 
sion  he  added  permission  to  mould,  for  electrotyping,  the  finest  pieces  of 
armor  in  the  Musee  d’Artillerie,  and  allowed  repetitions  to  be  made  from 
the  casts  prepared  for  France  from  the  Trajan  column.  Other  countries 
have  since  permitted  similar  reproductions,  so  that  now  almost  any 
remarkable  object,  exactly  reproduced  in  size,  color,  and  present  appear¬ 
ance,  can  be  obtained.  The  boon  is  of  inestimable  value.  It  places 
within  the  reach  of  small  associate  bodies  of  students  the  power  of 
studying  the  finest  specimens  of  art  from  all  quarters  of  the  earth,  to 
visit  which,  apart  from  the  matter  of  expense,  would  be  the  work  of  a 
lifetime.  An  idea  of  the  material  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  in 
the  British  section  were  shown  plaster  casts  from  the  pulpits  of  Gio¬ 
vanni  and  Mcolo  Pisano ;  of  part  of  the  door  of  Santiago  de  Compos- 
tella  in  Spain;  electrotypes  from  the  gates  of  the  cathedral  of  Pisa;  from 
the  bases  of  the  standards  on  the  piazza  at  Venice;  electrotypes  of 
armor  in  the  Musee  d Artillerie ;  of  the  coronation  plate  in  the  Tower  of 
London;  of  rare  objects  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  and  of  colored 
imitative  drawings,  photographs,  etchings,  and  chromo  lithographs  of 
the  choicest  works  of  Europe. 

There  were  22  exhibitors  in  this  class  from  England,  36  from  Italy,  and 
41  from  Switzerland.  In  the  French  section  there  were  240  exhibitors, 
mostly  of  designs  and  engravings.  The  following  observations  upon  the 
relations  of  the  French  school  of  design  to  the  manufactures  of  the  empire 
are  translated  from  the  introduction  to  the  Class  in  the  catalogue : 

u  Schools  of  design,  established  in  most  of  the  great  manufacturing 
centres,  have  contributed  to  disseminate  in  France  the  most  elevated 
notions  of  industrial  art.  Paris  is  the  centre  par  excellence  from  which 
radiate  to  the  varied  branches  of  our  national  industry  the  highest  inspi- 


46 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


rations  of  taste,  elegance  and  novelty.  The  most  distinguished  pupils 
of  the  provinces  come  to  Paris  to  perfect  themselves  in  design,  and  many 
establish  themselves  advantageously  there.  It  is  in  Paris,  then,  that  we 
must  seek  the  source  of  the  great  artistic  current.  In  certain  industries 
many  large  manufacturers  who  formerly  had  designers  attached  to  their 
establishments  now  prefer  to  apply  to  Parisian  artists  for  designs  more 
novel  in  themselves  and  more  adapted  to  the  various  demands  of  the 
consumer.  Some  artists  work  alone,  or  assisted  by  a  small  number  of 
pupils;  but  all  those  who  have  made  themselves  a  name  have  created 
ateliers ,  where  young  men  come  to  perfect  themselves  in  their  art.  Some 
of  these  workshops  confine  themselves  to  one  specialty;  others,  veritable 
sources  of  industrial  information,  combine  several  branches  of  design. 
The  raw  material  holds  an  insignificant  place.  The  intrinsic  value  of 
the  draAvings  and  models  is  merely  nominal.  Their  importance  and  merit 
are  due  to  the  artistic  inspiration  alone.  The  methods  employed  are 
extremely  simple;  in  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  no  manufacture, 
properly  so-called,  because  the  mechanical  processes  merely  ser\Te  to 
carry  out  or  to  produce  the  designs  or  the  models,  which  are  the  personal 
work  of  the  artists.  The  manufacture  only  commences  with  the  indus¬ 
trial  execution,  that  is  to  say,  with  the  manufactured  product;  the 
design  itself,  Avhatever  may  be  the  material  to  which  it  is  applied,  has 
few  essential  differences.  As  already  remarked,  the  establishment  of 
ateliers  is  on  the  increase.  In  such  cases  the  artist  selects  his  assistants 
and  portions  out  the  work  according  to  circumstances.  He  remunerates 
his  employes  by  the  day  or  by  task  Avork;  sometimes,  even,  by  annual 
salaries,  according  to  their  merit  or  to  the  Aralue  of  their  work.  From 
the  first  idea  placed  upon  paper  or  plaster  to  the  finished  design  or  model 
which  is  to  serAre  for  the  manufacture,  each  sketch  passes  through  a  long 
series  of  artistic  elaborations.  The  master-artist  finds  in  the  co-opera¬ 
tion  of  others  acting  under  his  orders  at  once  economy  as  regards  time 
and  greater  perfection  of  execution.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  supply 
any  exact  information  relative  to  the  Aralue  of  works  of  industrial  art, 
because  the  cost  is  included  and  mixed  up  with  the  price  of  the  manu¬ 
factured  objects.  The  price  of  this  artistic  contribution  ATaries  with  the 
products.  It  is  higher  or  loAver  in  proportion  to  the  demand  for  the 
objects  tliemseHes.” 

The  fullest  exhibition  of  the  Avorks  of  pupils  in  art  schools  was  made 
by  Wurtemberg.  The  students,  as  in  England,  seem  to  be  taught  prac¬ 
tical  geometry,  perspective  and  mechanical  draAving,  of  which  good 
examples  Avere  exhibited;  the  course  of  orthographic  projection  being 
Arery  full.  In  freehand  drawing,  a  clear  and  precise  system  of  outline 
seems  to  be  sought  after,  and  the  early  training  of  the  hand  and  eye  to 
correctness  carefully  attended  to.  The  shading  from  the  casts  was  more 
with  the  point  than  with  the  stump,  the  object  of  the  schools  apparently 
being  to  form  good  draughtsmen  and  modellers — intelligent  artisans 
skilled  to  handle  the  pencil  and  the  modelling  tool,  and  able  thoroughly 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS  47 


to  comprehend  working  drawings  rather  than  to  instruct  designers  for 
manufacture  or  to  instil  the  principles  of  decorative  art.  Italy,  Bava¬ 
ria,  and  Austria  also  exhibited  specimens  of  their  schools  of  art.  They 
were  similar  to  those  from  Wurtemberg  without  being  better. 

CLASS  9—  PHOTOGRAPHIC  PROOFS  AND  APPARATUS. 

Class  9  includes:  1st.  Photographs  on  paper  or  on  glass;  2d.  Photo¬ 
graphic  enamels;  3d.  Photographs  obtained  in  printing  ink  by  the  vari¬ 
ous  processes  of  heliographic  engraving,  or  of  photo  lithography;  4th. 
Photographs  obtained  on  metal  or  on  paper,  with  the  colors  of  nature;  5th. 
Specimens  of  the  various  applications  of  photography;  6th.  Apparatus 
and  wood- work  for  photography,  chemical,  and  all  other  accessories. 

The  Exposition  was  exceedingly  rich  in  the  number  and  variety  of 
photographs  exhibited,  but  the  specimens  were  in  general  widely  separa¬ 
ted  and  not  displayed  to  advantage.  If  all  could  have  been  assembled 
in  a  special  gallery  the  interest  in  them  would  have  been  greatly  increased 
and  there  would  have  been  an  opportunity  for  direct  comparisons.  France 
had  165  exhibitors,  Great  Britain  105,  Austria  58,  Prussia  52,  Italy  42, 
and  the  United  States  17. 

There  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  recent  marked  advance  in  the 
art.  The  progress  has  been  chiefly  in  the  direction  of  production  of  photo¬ 
graphs  in  enamel  and  upon  porcelain  and  glass,  and  in  the  heliographic 
process,  by  which  the  pictures  are  engraved  upon  copper  or  steel,  so  that 
they  may  be  multiplied  by  printing.  There  are  several  exhibitors  of 
such  plates  and  of  photographs  engraved  upon  lithographic  stones. 
Lackerbauer,  of  Paris,  exhibited  lithographic  engravings  of  objects  and 
microscopic  preparations  magnified  from  5  to  2,500  times.  No  satisfac¬ 
tory  results  in  the  attempts  to  produce  colored  pictures  appear  to  have 
been  obtained. 

In  the  English  section  there  was  a  very  interesting  series  of  views  of 
the  ancient  architecture  of  India,  as  shown  in  the  temples  and  palaces 
of  the  interior  of  that  country. 

The  most  notable  display  from  the  United  States  was  made  by  Mr.  0. 
E.  Watkins,  of  San  Francisco,  who  sent  a  series  of  30  views  of  the  Yo 
Semite  valley  of  California,  and  views  of  the  great  trees.  These  photo¬ 
graphs  were  not  only  interesting  as  pictures  but  as  splendid  specimens 
of  the  art.  The  jury  awarded  a  bronze  medal.  A  similar  series  was 
sent  by  the  firm  of  Lawrence  &  Houseworth,  of  the  same  city,  with  the 
addition  of  a  great  number  of  stereoscopic  views  of  the  interior  mining 
regions  of  California,  showing  in  a  very  distinct  manner  the  various  pro¬ 
cesses  in  use  there  for  the  extraction  of  gold  from  the  soil. 

The  contributions  in  this  department  of  Mr.  L.  M.  Rutherford,  of  New 
York,  are  to  be  particularly  noted  for  their  high  scientific  value  as  well 
as  peculiar  excellence  as  photographs,  and  for  the  subjects  represented. 
One  is  a  large  photograph  of  the  moon,  representing  its  pitted  surface 
as  seen  through  a  powerful  telescope ;  and  the  other  is  a  photograph  of 


48 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


the  solar  spectrum,  two  feet  long,  showing  the  almost  infinite  number  of 
dark  lines.  These  two  photographs,  although  scarcely  noticed  by  the 
multitude,  excited  great  attention  and  interest  among  the  savans,  and 
received  a  silver  medal  from  the  jury. 

The  exhibition  of  photographic  apparatus  and  chemicals  was  very 
large.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  photographic  art  has  exerted  a  very 
marked  influence  upon  various  branches  of  manufacture,  particularly  of 
chemicals,  and  that  it  has  given  great  impulse  to  industry  and  commerce 
in  these  directions.  The  demand  for  photographic  apparatus  and  mate¬ 
rials  is  so  large  as  to  require  many  considerable  establishments  devoted 
exclusively  to  their  production. 

Certain  substances,  such  as  hyposulphite  of  soda,  which  formerly  were 
rarely  employed  and  therefore  rather  expensive,  have  been  so  much  used 
in  photographic  operations  as  to  cause  them  to  be  made  on  a  large  scale, 
and  thus  to  reduce  their  prices  to  half  or  one-third,  or  even  one- sixth,  of 
their  former  value.  We  may  mention  also  the  sulphocyanides  of  potassa, 
and  ammonia,  which  were  only  used  before  in  the  chemist’s  laboratory,  but 
are  now  manufactured  extensively  at  gas  works,  where  large  quan¬ 
tities  can  be  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  coal.  Photography  in 
Prance  has  given  rise  to  considerable  trade  with  foreign  countries.  Not 
only  are  apparatus,  paper,  and  chemicals  largely  exported,  but  also 
stereoscopic  views  on  paper  and  other  materials. 

CLASS  10.— MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

The  following  information  upon  the  variety  of  the  objects  exhibited  in 
the  French  section,  and  upon  the  condition  of  the  French  manufactures 
of  musical  instruments  and  materials,  is  extracted  from  the  translation 
of  the  report  of  Mr.  Wolf,  of  the  committee  of  admission  : 

“  The  products  exhibited  in  Class  10  include  eight  principal  series,  viz : 
1st.  Church  organs ;  2d.  Harmoniums;  3d.  Pianos;  4th.  Stringed  instru¬ 
ments;  5th.  Wind  instruments;  6th.  Percussion  instruments ;  7th.  Acces¬ 
sories  for  the  manufacture ;  8th.  Editions  of  musical  works.” 

“Paris  is  the  only  important  manufacturing  place  for  organs,  pianos,  and 
harmoniums.  Then  follows,  according  to  importance,  Marseilles,  Lyons, 
Nancy,  Toulouse,  and  Bordeaux,  where  pianos  are  chiefly  manufactured. 
Stringed  instruments  are  made  principally  at  Mirecourt;  wind  instru¬ 
ments,  in  wood — such  as  flutes,  clarionnets,  hautbois — are  more  specially 
manufactured  at  Lacouture,  (Eure.)  All  kinds  of  instruments  are  also 
made  in  Paris.  Chateau-Thierry  has,  likewise,  no  specialty;  nearly  all 
kinds  are  manufactured  there. 

“The  woods  for  musical  instruments  are  produced  from  France,  Russia, 
Norway,  Brazil,  St.  Domingo,  and  Isle  Bourbon.  The  native  woods  most 
frequently  employed  are  oak,  fir,  lime,  beach,  maple,  box  and  pear.  These 
vary  in  price  from  55  to  200  francs  the  cubic  metre.  Box  is  sold  from  50 
to  60  francs  the  100  kilograms.  The  exotic  woods  most  used  are  rose- 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS.  49 

wood,  mahogany,  cedar,  and  cedrine,  ebony  and  gren  addle,  which  cost 
from  15  to  150  francs  the  50  kilograms.  Those  more  generally  used 
are  oak,  fir,  and  beech  for  the  heavy  parts  of  pianos,  organs  and  har¬ 
moniums;  cedar,  lime,  maple,  and  pear-tree  for  the  mechanical  parts; 
rosewood  and  mahogany  for  veneering  and  ornamentation;  box,  ebony, 
and  gren  addle  for  wind  instruments.  Beech  and  mahogany  are  chiefly 
in  use  for  bassoons.  Ivory  for  piano  keys  is  sold  from  22  to  45  francs  the 
set  (50  keys.)  The  felt,  woollen  stuffs,  skins,  and  glue  for  pianos  are 
manufactured  in  France.  Part  of  the  felt  comes  from  England.  There 
is  in  France  no  manufacture  of  metallic  cords.  Those  in  steel  are 
imported  from  England  and  Germany,  and  are  worth  about  8  francs  per 
kilogram.  The  copper  covering  for  strings  is  worth  from  5J  francs  to 
7J  francs  per  kilogram.  The  metals  most  in  use  are  iron,  lead,  cop¬ 
per,  for  wind  instruments;  tin  for  organ  pipes.  The  gut  cords  are  manu¬ 
factured  in  France. 

“  The  tools  employed  for  working  the  wood  are  the  ordinary  tools  of  the 
joiner  and  cabinetmaker.  However,  we  must  notice  the  profile  machine 
for  making  panels,  which  is  only  an  improvement  of  the  parquetry 
machine ;  and  also  the  special  steel  perforators  for  wooden  wind  instru¬ 
ments.  The  only  special  tools  in  use  for  working  metals  are  mandrils, 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  wind  instruments.  We  must  mention 
also,  wheels  for  covering  cords.  All  these  tools  were  unknown  in  1855, 
or  rather  have  been  very  much  improved  since  then. 

“In  Paris  and  all  the  large  towns  the  men  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  musical  instruments  work  together  in  the  workshops ;  scarcely  any 
work  at  home.  At  Mirecourt,  on  the  contrary,  the  men,  about  250  in 
number,  all  work  at  home.  Half  the  Paris  workmen  work  by  the  piece ; 
the  other  half  by  the  day.  The  salary  varies  from  3  francs  25  centimes 
for  common  workmen,  and  from  5  to  11  francs  for  the  superior  artisan. 
The  musical  instrument  trade  employs  few  women  and  children. 

“Part  of  these  articles  are  sold  in  France,  and  part  to  commission  mer¬ 
chants,  who  buy  for  exportation ;  a  third,  perhaps  the  most  considerable, 
is  exported  direct,  to  order,  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  small  instru¬ 
ments  are  worth  from  50  to  200  francs;  harmoniums  from  100  to  1,500 
francs ;  violins  and  violoncellos  from  200  to  500  francs ;  copper  instru¬ 
ments,  80  to  400  francs;  wind  instruments,  in  wood,  80  to  300  francs 
pianos,  500  to  4,000  francs;  church  organs,  from  2,500  to  100,000  francs. 
The  profits  of  the  manufacturers  vary  from  12  to  18  per  cent.  The  manu¬ 
facture  of  musical  instruments  represents  a  sum  of  twenty  or  twenty- 
three  millions  of  francs  per  year.  Baw  materials  are  imported  into 
France  to  the  value  of  five  or  six  millions.  About  half  the  produce 
goes  to  foreign  countries,  and  is  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  but 
particularly  to  America,  and  chiefly  to  South  America.  The  importation 
is  next  to  nothing. 

“The  committee  of  admission  for  class  10  points  out  among  the 
improvements  made  during  the  last  ten  years,  in  the  manufacture  of 
4  u  E 


50 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


musical  instruments :  1st.  Tlie  considerable  extension  given  to  mechan¬ 
ical  processes,  and  the  general  use  of  steam  machinery;  2d.  The  appli¬ 
cation,  as  far  as  possible,  of  the  principles  of  the  division  of  labor;  3d. 
Piece-work  substituted  in  most  cases  for  work  by  day.” 

There  was  no  class  in  the  Exhibition  more  thoroughly  and  completely 
represented  than  this.  Every  nation  contributed  its  quota  to  the  huge 
aggregate.  That  the  art  of  music  “  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage 
breast”  was  amply  demonstrated.  The  wildest  and  strangest  countries 
contributed  their  eccentric  contrivances  of  bamboo  and  hide — instruments 
that  were  dulcet  to  native  ears,  but  hideous  to  the  average  tympanum  of 
civilized  Europe.  There  were  large  and  small  drums,  in  wood  and  clay, 
used  by  the  Tinkaonis ;  rude  violins  covered  with  gazelle  skin  and  orna¬ 
mented  with  horns  and  men’s  heads ;  trumpets  made  of  antelope  horn  and 
elephant’s  tusks,  of  which  the  sound  is  heard  at  the  distance  of  a  league; 
and  perhaps  worse  than  this,  the  bagpipes  of  the  Arab  tribes  used  in 
the  region  of  Cordovan.  Many  of  these  instruments  were  of  the  greatest 
antiquity,  and  were  played  upon  by  “professors”  in  the  various  depart¬ 
ments  precisely  in  the  same  way  as  when  they  were  invented.  A  few 
steps  sufficed  to  take  the  spectators  to  an  adjacent  section  where  the 
latest  improvements  of  Europe  were  standing  side  by  side — improve¬ 
ments  which  require  the  greatest  technical  skill  to  appreciate  or  use. 

The  United  States  had  nine  exhibitors.  Numerically  considered,  the 
display  was  insignificant,  but  the  objects  comprised  in  it  were  of  the 
highest  excellence.  The  piano-fortes  contributed  by  the  New  York  firm 
of  Steinway  &  Sons  and  the  Boston  house  of  Chickering  &  Sons  were 
considered  the  best  in  the  entire  Exposition.  Each  was  awarded  a  gold 
medal.  The  latest  improvements  are  to  be  found  in  these  instruments^ 
which  are  almost  wholly  constructed  on  original  plans  and  produce  results 
of  a  very  satisfactory  character.  For  length  of  tone,  brilliancy,  sympa¬ 
thetic  quality,  and  magnificence  of  power  they  are  unrivalled.  The  broad 
merits  of  both  pianos  were  found  to  be  so  superior  that  the  jury,  having 
but  four  gold  medals  to  award,  unanimously  voted  two  to  America — an 
honor  which  cannot  be  overstated,  for  it  was  remarkable  enough  that 
pianos  should  be  sent  at  all  from  America  to  Paris,  and  still  more  sin¬ 
gular  that  they  should  there  be  regarded  as  the  best. 

The  harmoniums  and  cabinet  organs  of  Messrs.  Mason  &  Hamlin  were 
also  objects  of  much  interest,  and  gained  the  award  of  a  silver  medal. 
They  were,  like  the  pianos,  admired  for  their  workmanship  and  for  the 
singularly  pure  tone  which  they  possessed.  The  mode  of  producing  this 
tone  was  the  subject  of  much  curiosity,  inasmuch  as  it  differs  essentially 
from  the  European  plan,  and  in  America  has  entirely  superseded  it. 

The  wind  instruments  of  the  Schreiber  Cornet  Manufacturing  Com¬ 
pany  and  the  string  instruments  of.  Gemiinder,  both  of  New  York,  also 
obtained  prizes.  The  brass  instruments  of  the  former  were  regarded  as 
excellent  specimens  of  manufacture.  The  violins,  &c.,  of  Gemiinder  were 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS.  51 

greatly  admired  for  tlieir  forms  and  for  certain  improvements  which  that 
maker  has  introduced  into  the  construction  of  the  instrument. 

The  general  display  of  piano-fortes  was  unusually  large.  All  the 
European  centres  of  the  trade  sent  their  best  specimens.  These  were  of 
the  ordinary  forms — grand,  upright,  oblique,  square,  and  cycloid.  (There 
was  a  specimen  of  the  latter  in  the  American  department  and  several 
specimen  s  elsewhere. )  France  was  represented  by  Erard,  Pleyel  &  W olff, 
and  Henry  Herz  j  England  by  Broadwood  and  Kirkman  ;  Prussia  by 
Blutliner  and  Bechstein;  Wurtemberg  by  Schiedmayer  •  Austria  by 
Streicher,  &c.  Of  these  Broadwood  took  the  prize  for  England  and 
Streiclier  for  Vienna.  The  pianos  of  the  latter  house  are  made  on  the 
plan  of  Messrs.  Stein  way  &  Sons. 

Of  the  infinite  variety  of  wind  instruments  it  is  impossible  to  speak. 
It  will  suffice  to  say  that  the  efforts  of  all  modern  makers  is  to  introduce 
a  homogeneous  quality  into  the  separate  families,  namely,  that  all  those 
composed  of  wood  should  sound  like  each  other ;  that  all  those  formed 
of  brass  should  bear  a  respectable  and  not  overbearing  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  family.  Many  curious  instruments  have  been  invented  for 
military  bands  by  which  orchestral  effects  can  be  better  imitated. 

There  were  innumerable  specimens  of  stringed  instruments,  but  with 
this  it  is  the  singular  fashion  to  go  backwards,  and  progress  therefore 
had  to  be  looked  for  in  an  inverse  ratio.  The  ancient  model  of  Stradiva- 
rius  seemed  to  be  the  model  most  in  favor. 

There  were  but  few  organs  in  the  Exhibition,  and  the  best,  on  account 
of  the  size,  had  to  be  accommodated  in  the  machinery  department.  It 
was  of  French  make  and  is  intended  for  the  new  church  at  Nancy. 

CLASS  11.— SURGICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

In  this  class  France  had  101  exhibitors,  Prussia  18,  Austria  19,  Italy  38, 
United  States  22,  Great  Britain  31. 

aTlie  articles  exhibited  in  this  class  were  very  numerous  and  varied; 
they  related  to  the  practice  of  medicine,  surgery,  and  hygiene,  and 
included — 1.  Surgical  instruments  used  in  operations,  such  as  cutting 
instruments,  forceps,  tenaculse,  suture  needles,  instruments  employed  in 
amputations,  setting  broken  bones,  &c.  2.  Special  instruments  used  in 
certain  operations  connected  with  diseases  of  the  organs  of  sense,  the 
respiratory  passages,  and  the  male  and  female  genito  urinary  organs. 
3.  Instruments  or  apparatus  intended  to  cure  natural  or  accidental 
deformity,  such  as  orthopoedic  instruments,  bandages,  belts,  and  elastic 
stockings.  4.  Articles  relating  to  dental  art  which  have  greatly  improved 
of  late  years.  5.  Instruments  usually  employed  in  determining  the 
diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the  heart,  lungs,  eyes,  &c.,  and  those  which  are 
used  in  experimental  physiology.  6.  Apparatus  used  in  public  or  private 
hygiene,  such  as  bathing  and  hydropathic  appliances,  instruments 
employed  in  friction,  the  two  systems  of  application,  electricity,  arti¬ 
ficial  lactation,  and  various  appliances  used  in  domestic  gymnastics. 


52 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


In  France  the  principal  centre  of  the  manufacture  of  surgical  instru¬ 
ments  and  apparatus  is  Paris,  after  which  rank  those  large  towns  which 
possess  a  faculty  or  a  secondary  school  of  medicines,  such  as  Strasburg^ 
Montpellier,  Lyons,  Toulouse,  &c.  In  the  different  manufactures  con¬ 
nected  with  class  11,  the  principal  materials  employed  are  the  metals, 
such  as  steel,  iron,  gold,  platinum,  silver,  and  German  silver,  so  that, 
from  one  point  of  view,  this  class  is  closely  connected  with  metallurgy. 

Besides  the  metals,  many  products  of  the  mineral  and  vegetable  king¬ 
doms  are  used;  such  as  ivory,  horn,  skins,  gum,  and,  above  all,  India- 
rubber.  The  articles  exhibited  in  class  11  partake  of  the  nature  of  cut¬ 
lery  and  of  mathematical  and  philosophical  instruments,  but  this  class 
of  manufactures  possess  comparatively  limited  resources,  and  the  trade 
is  necessarily  spread  over  a  large  area  and  a  more  numerous  constituency. 

u  The  delicacy  of  manipulation  and  intelligence  necessary  in  making 
surgical,  hygienic,  and  orthopcedic  instruments  requires  the  greatest 
attention  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  workmen.  A  certain  number  make 
only  special  articles,  either  at  their  own  homes  or  in  their  employers’ 
workshops.  Women  are  employed  in  a  large  proportion.  It  is  calculated 
that  the  manufacture  of  surgical  instruments  and  orthopcedic  apparatus 
ill  Paris  and  the  provinces,  gives  employment  to  from  3,500  to  4,000 
workers,  male  and  female.  A  large  number  of  these  articles  are  sent 
into  the  country  or  abroad.  Foreign  manufacturers  also  have  closely 
copied  our  own  inventions,  and  have,  nearly  everywhere,  endeavored  to 
reproduce  French  instruments  and  apparatus.  It  is  difficult  to  estimate 
the  value  of  the  articles  produced  in  this  complicated  trade.  Simply 
taking  into  consideration  surgical  instruments,  bandages,  and  ortho¬ 
pcedic  apparatus  made  in  France,  the  productions  may  be  valued  at 
13,000,000  to  14,000,000  francs.  These  figures  would  be  largely  increased 
if  hygienic,  hydropathic,  and  other  apparatus  were  included  in  the  esti¬ 
mate.  This  committee  has  but  few  changes  to  point  out  since  the  exhi¬ 
bition  of  1855,  either  in  the  instruments  themselves  or  in  the  mode  of 
manufacture,  but  the  improvements  in  the  instruments  have  been  very 
numerous;  such  as  the  extended  application  of  certain  products,  caout¬ 
chouc,  for  instance,  and  the  progress  made  in  the  management  of  baths 
and  thermal  establishments.” — (Extract  from  the  report  of  the  members 
of  the  committee  of  admission  of  class  11.) 

Among  the  many  interesting  objects  from  the  United  States  in  this 
class,  the  exhibition  made  by  the  Surgeon  General  was  particularly  com¬ 
plete  and  worthy  of  attention.  It  included  ambulances,  medicine  wagons, 
army  field  hospitals,  and  litters  wTdcli  were  used  throughout  the  war,  and 
the  best  artificial  limbs  which  have  been  invented. 

The  display  of  American  artificial  teeth  and  of  dental  instruments  and 
apparatus  was  very  creditable  to  this  branch  of  the  healing  art. 

Pertaining  to  this  class  and  described  elsewhere  was  the  exhibition 
of  the  societies  for  aiding  wounded  soldiers  and  sailors. 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS  53 


CLASS  12.— MATHEMATICAL  INSTRUMENTS  AND  APPARATUS 
FOR  TEACHING  SCIENCE. 

The  French  exhibition  in  this  department  is  decidedly  the  largest  and 
most  interesting.  The  manufacturers  of  instruments  of  precision  have 
fully  maintained  their  high  reputation  for  the  accuracy,  elegance,  and 
cheapness  of  their  productions.  Of  the  107  exhibitors  in  this  class,  we 
may  note  the  following  as  prominent  in  their  respective  specialties: 
Ruhmkorff  exhibits  a  variety  of  electrical,  magnetic,  and  electro-mag¬ 
netic  instruments,  and  particularly  several  enormous  coils  bearing  his 
name,  but  known  in  the  United  States  as  the  Ritchie  coil.  Auchet  & 
Son  exhibit  a  great  variety  of  excellent  microscopes,  arranged  for  one  or 
more  observers  at  the  same  time,  and  an  apparatus  for  microscopic  pro¬ 
jection  and  reproduction.  Soleil  exhibited  several  optical  instruments 
of  interest  to  mineralogists  and  chemists,  particularly  a  polarizing  micro¬ 
scope  upon  the  pattern  of  M.  Descloizeaux,  together  with  numerous 
crystals  cut  and  polished  so  as  to  show  their  optical  characters.  Deleuil 
exhibited  philosophical  and  assay  balances,  photometers,  machine  for 
the  solidification  of  gas,  pneumatic  machines,  force  pumps,  Foucault’s 
pendulum  for  demonstration.  M.  Deschanel,  member  of  the  committee 
of  admission,  subdivides  class  12  as  follows,  and  adds  some  interesting' 
general  observations : 

ul.  Instruments  intended  for  scientific  research  and  education.  2. 
Special  optical  instruments,  microscopes,  telescopes,  and  field-glasses. 
3.  Mathematical  instruments,  graduated  rules  and  compasses,  levels  of 
all  kinds,  and  geodetical  circles,  whether  for  the  use  of  the  marine  or  of 
engineers.  4.  Barometers  and  thermometers,  of  which  glass  forms  the 
principal  element  of  manufacture.  5.  Apparatus  intended  to  carry  a 
new  idea  into  effect,  or  to  execute  a  known  operation  by  a  new  process, 
and  special  apparatus,  which,  without  being  new,  have  a  special  object, 
and  consequently  do  not  enter  into  the  preceding  series.  Lastly,  col¬ 
lections  of  natural  or  artificial  preparations  intended  to  illustrate  the 
three  great  natural  kingdoms.  This  series  of  the  naturalist’s  prepa¬ 
rations,  logically  connected  as  much  with  that  of  medical  art  as  with 
natural  philosophy,  also  forms  part  of  another  class.  The  production 
of  philosophical  instruments  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  Paris.  In 
some  of  the  ports,  however,  there  are  special  makers  of  mariners’  com¬ 
passes  for  ordinary  navigation.  In  the  Jura  and  in  Picardy  are  to  be 
found  some  manufactories  of  optical  glasses,  intended  for  common  instru¬ 
ments,  and  which  draw  their  materials  from  the  works  of  St.  Gobain. 
For  carefully  constructed  instruments,  glass  of  a  special  kind  is  produced 
in  P aris  itself.  For  other  kinds  of  instruments  ordinary  glass  is  employed. 
According  to  the  statistics  collected  by  order  of  the  Chamber  of  Com¬ 
merce  in  the  year  I860,  the  value  of  this  manufacture  in  Paris  amounted 
to  15,801,720  francs.  Since  the  exhibition  of  1855  the  progress  in  the 
construction  of  scientific  instruments  has  followed  that  of  science  itself. 


54 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Among  tlie  articles  which  exhibit  a  decidedly  enhanced  importance,  we 
may  mention  telescopes  with  silvered  reflectors,  apparatus  for  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  inductive  currents,  electro-magnetic  machines,  the  regulators 
for  the  electric  light,  and  optical  indicators  of  the  vibrations  of  sonorous 
bodies.” 

In  the  American  section  the  instruments  sent  by  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey  comprised  some  of  the  instruments  of  navigation,  and  a 
thermometer  for  measuring  the  temperature  of  the  sea  at  great  depths. 
The  beautiful  graduated  rules,  squares,  and  gauging  instruments  made 
by  Darling,  Bangor,  Maine,  attracted  much  attention  from  those  inter¬ 
ested  in  such  objects. 

CLASS  13.— MAPS  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  COSMOGRAPHI- 

CAL  APPARATUS. 

The  following  complete  and  instructive  apergu  of  the  exhibition  made 
by  France  in  this  class,  is  a  translation  of  the  introduction  to  the  class 
by  the  committee  of  admission : 

u  The  objects  of  class  13,  which  figure  for  the  first  time  in  a  universal 
exhibition,  may  be  divided  into  four  series :  1.  Maps,  whether  separate 
or  forming  atlases,  including  geographical,  cosmographical,  astronomical, 
marine,  hydrographical,  topographical,  geological,  agronomical,  histori¬ 
cal,  itinerary,  meteorological,  or  other  maps.  2.  Terrestrial  or  celestial 
globes,  uranographic  apparatus,  &c.  3.  Maps  and  charts  in  relief.  4. 
Works,  tables,  pictures,  and  other  accessories  of  geography  and  cos¬ 
mography.” 

“Paris  is  the  only  centre  of  production  of  these  works,  even  of  those 
which  are  edited  or  published  in  the  provinces.  Among  the  material 
employed,  the  copper  and  steel  are  prepared  in  Paris  by  the  planers  and 
polishers,  who  supply  the  engravers.  The  lithographic  stones  come  prin¬ 
cipally  from  Bavaria,  (near  Munich,)  but  during  the  last  few  years  they 
have  been  obtained  also  at  Vigan,  (Gard,)  nearly  of  equal  value  and  at 
a  much  lower  price.  Quarries  have  also  recently  been  discovered  in 
Isere,  (Cerin,  Crey.)  The  sized  paper,  almost  the  only  kind  employed, 
is  produced  in  the  Yosges,  Isere,  (Rives,)  and  Angouleme ;  the  unsized 
paper  is  obtained  from  Nievre  (Clemency)  and  the  Marais,  (Seine  and 
Marne.)  The  processes  of  the  manufacture  are :  Engraving  on  copper, 
steel,  and  stone ;  engraving  on  wood  or  metal ;  lithography  or  drawing 
on  stone ;  autography $  the  transfer  on  to  stone  of  engraved  work,  and 
chromo-lithography.  The  laying  down  of  the  maps  on  cloth  constitutes 
a  supplementary  operation  frequently  called  into  use.  The  persons 
engaged  in  this  branch  of  industry  include  designers  or  draughtsmen, 
map  and  writing  engravers,  colorists,  mounters  and  binders,  globe  and 
sphere  makers,  lithographers  and  few  photographers,  and  lastly,  copper¬ 
plate  and  lithographic  printers.  The  last  named  are  generally  engaged 
in  large  establishments,  in  which  the  printing  of  maps  is  but  a  secondary 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS.  55 

matter ;  the  rest  work  either  at  home  or  in  small  work- shops,  where  not 
more  than  25  or  30  persons  at  the  utmost  are  engaged. 

a  There  are  in  Paris  about  a  dozen  employers  and  150  artists  and  work¬ 
men  engaged  in  the  specialty  of  geographical  industry.  The  produc¬ 
tions  of  French  cartographic  establishments  are  principally  destined  for 
the  institutions  of  public  instruction  in  France  ;  the  remainder  is  sent 
to  South  America,  Russia,  Germany,  North  America,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
England.  Egypt  and  Algeria  also  take  a  certain  quantity.  The  depot 
of  the  war  department  and  that  of  the  marine  assist  greatly  in  this  expor¬ 
tation,  either  through  the  mediums  of  booksellers  or  by  their  depots 
abroad.  The  maps  and  globes  imported  come  principally  from  England, 
and  the  total  value  is  between  40,000  and  45,000  francs.  The  export  is 
estimated  at  about  150,000  francs,  out  of  a  total  production  of  the  value 
of  400,000  francs.  The  military  and  naval  establishments  furnish  about 
one-quarter,  not  including  the  large  number  of  maps  which  they  supply 
to  various  public  departments,  and  especially  to  the  naval  service  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  state.” 

Among  the  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  this  business  dim¬ 
ing  the  last  12  years,  the  following  may  be  pointed  out :  “1.  Imparting  a 
steel-like  hardness  to  copper  plates,  with  the  view  of  making  them  serve 
for  a  longer  period.  2.  The  employment  of  photography  as  an  expedi¬ 
tious  method  of  multiplying,  enlarging,  and  reducing  drawings.  3.  The 
lieliograpliic  method  of  engraving  on  stone  or  copper.  4.  Chromo-lith¬ 
ography  and  chromo-printing.  Many  colors  are  now  applied  to  maps,  par¬ 
ticularly  for  special  maps.  5.  The  extended  use  of  relief  maps,  made  to 
the  same  scale,  as  regards  the  vertical  and  horizontal  measurements. 
G.  Printing  on  curved  surfaces  for  globes.  7.  The  increased  use  of  vari¬ 
ous  methods  of  projection.  The  above  information  applies  to  the  draw¬ 
ing  out  of  maps.  As  to  the  original  operations  of  surveying  and  pro¬ 
jection,  they  are  centralized,  as  far  as  regards  terrestrial  geography,  at 
the  war  office,  and  for  navigation  at  the  admiralty.  The  publishers  gen¬ 
erally  avail  themselves  of  the  productions  of  these  two  departments  for 
the  preparation  of  maps  for  the  trade,  making  use,  however,  also  of  offi¬ 
cial  documents  furnished  by  foreign  governments,  as  well  as  of  the  works 
of  travellers  and  literarti  of  all  countries.” 

MAPS  FROM  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

Among  the  numerous,  large,  and  interesting  maps  from  various  coun¬ 
tries,  one  from  Russia,  a  relief  map  of  Caucasus,  is  worthy  of  particular 
notice.  It  was  upon  a  large  scale,  so  that  the  highest  mountains  rose 
fully  six  inches  above  the  sea  level,  and  every  detail  of  the  topography 
and  the  distribution  of  forests  appeared  to  be  accurately  given.  In  the 
English  section  a  relief  map  of  India  on  a  large  scale  showed  the  chain 
of  the  Himalaya,  the  high  plains  of  Asia,  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  and 
the  lines  of  railway,  in  a  most  striking  manner. 

The  Geological  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom  sent  a  full  series  of  its 


56 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


geological  maps  and  sections,  all  elegantly  bound,  and  specimen  sheets 
of  the  ordnance  maps  were  to  be  found  in  the  same  section. 

In  the  United  States  section  the  principal  contributions  were  from  the 
Coast  Survey  office,  Washington,  of  a  full  series  of  the  published  maps 
of  the  survey,  printed  on  large,  thick  paper. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  British  ordnance  maps,  resource  has  been 
had  to  processes  comparatively  unknown,  and  the  facilities  thus  discov¬ 
ered  have  led  to  interesting  results.  These  were  exhibited  in  the  same 
department,  and  may  be  briefly  described.  They  consisted  of  two  very 
remarkable  publications,  namely,  a  photozincograpliic  foe  simile  of 
“ Doomsday  Book”  and  the  “Ordnance  Survey  of  Jerusalem.”  Every 
boy  who  has  studied  history  has  heard  of  “Doomsday  Book.”  It  was 
made  by  order  of  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1086.  It  contains  a  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  owners  and  inhabitants  of  every  manor,  hundred,  village,  &c., 
in  Eu  gland,  with  the  exception  of  Northumberland,  Cumberland,  West¬ 
moreland,  and  Durham,  and  an  estimate  of  the  area  of  the  lands  and 
their  cultivation.  Besides  its  value  as  an  ancient  historical  document,  it 
is  of  great  interest  as  showing  the  ownership  of  the  country  at  that 
remote  period.  A  copy  of  “Doomsday  Book”  was  published  at  the  end 
of  the  last  century  at  great  cost,  but  the  type  was  accidentally  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  copies  are  now  rare  and  expensive.  By  the  art  of  photozin¬ 
cography  an  exact  fac  simile  has  been  reproduced  at  a  comparatively 
insignificant  cost.  A  county,  for  instance,  costs  from  $2  to  $6  currency. 
The  modus  operandi  by  which  the  result  is  obtained  is  thus  described :  A 
photographic  negative  of  the  map  or  drawing  to  be  reproduced  is  first 
made.  A  positive  print  is  then  taken  on  paper  prepared  with  a  solution 
of  gelatine  and  bichromate  of  potash,  mixed  up  with  lithographic  ink. 
The  effect  of  the  light  on  this  solution  is  to  render  it  insoluble ;  therefore, 
after  the  print  has  been  taken,  those  portions  which  were  protected  from 
the  light  can  be  washed  away,  leaving  intact  the  remaining  insoluble  por¬ 
tions  which  correspond  to  the  lines  of  the  map  or  drawing.  This  can  then 
be  transferred  at  once  to  zinc  or  stone,  and  printed  in  the  same  way  as  if 
the  plan  had  been  drawn  on  lithographic  transfer  paper.  Thus  a  plan 
which  it  would  take  weeks  or  months  to  copy  by  hand  for  lithography, 
can,  by  this  process,  be  executed  in  a  few  hours,  and  with  a  fidelity  which 
no  copyist  could  hope  to  rival. 

The  survey  of  Jerusalem  was  made,  in  1864-’65,  by  a  party  of  sappers 
who  were  detached  for  that  purpose  from  the  ordnance  survey  of  England. 
The  funds  Avere  provided  by  Miss  Burdett  Coutts,  and  others,  the  special 
object  being  to  obtain  a  basis  on  which  to  work  for  improving  the  sani¬ 
tary  condition  of  the  city,  especially  as  regards  drainage  and  water 
supply.  Thus  for  the  first  time  a  map  of  the  Holy  City  has  been  produced 
that  can  be  relied  on  with  certainty  in  discussing  the  localities  and  events 
connected  with  its  history,  Avliich  are  of  such  deep  interest  to  the  A\diole 
civilized  world.  The  map  is  accompanied  by  photographs  of  different 
parts  of  the  city  and  neighborhood,  Avliich  were  taken  while  the  survey 


APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS.  57 


was  in  progress,  and  also  by  pliotozineographs.  During  the  course  of 
the  survey  the  ancient  aqueduct  from  Solomon’s  pools,  which  supplied 
the  city  with  water,  was  traced.  It  is  a  work  of  the  highest  engineering 
skill,  and  in  so  good  a  state  of  preservation  that,  at  very  little  cost,  it  has 
been  put  into  such  a  state  of  repair  that  water  has  actually  been  again 
conveyed  through  it  for  the  use  of  the  city.  In  connection  with  this 
survey  a  line  of  levels  was  also  run  between  the  Mediterranean  and  Dead 
seas,  in  order  to  settle  accurately  the  much  vexed  question  of  the  amount 
of  depression  of  the  latter  below  the  former.  The  result  showed  it  to  be 
1,290  feet. 

Austria  and  Switzerland  exhibited  beautiful  maps,  showing  and  not 
showing  the  hill  features  of  the  respective  countries.  The  object  of  the 
latter  is  to  secure  greater  clearness.  Austria  exhibits  a  map  of  Bohemia, 
the  most  ridgy  and  mountainous  country  in  her  possession,  without  the 
indication  of  an  elevation.  The  well-known  map  of  Switzerland,  by 
General  Dufour,  is  still  regarded  as  the  best  work  of  its  kind  in  exist¬ 
ence.  It  is  a  complete  and  picturesque  representation  of  the  most 
romantic  country  in  Europe. 

Elsewhere  in  this  report  mention  has  been  made  of  a  well-executed 
model  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  In  the  French  court  was  also  exhibited 
an  interesting  map  of  the  region  by  Goujon,  of  Paris,  showing  the  course 
of  the  proposed  canal.  The  undertaking  being  of  general  interest,  a  few 
particulars  here  of  its  progress  may  not  be  out  of  place.  The  map  and 
model  show  the  works  not  as  they  are,  but  as  they  will  be  when  com¬ 
pleted.  These  works  consist  of  two  distinct  portions,  a  fresh-water  and 
a  maritime  canal;  the  former  is  about  six  feet  deep,  and  50  or  60  feet 
broad  at  the  top,  with  shelving  sides.  It  starts  from  the  Nile  at  Cairo, 
runs  in  an  easterly  direction  as  far  as  Lake  Tinisah,  which  forms  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  maritime  canal,  and  then,  bending  to  the  south,  terminates  at 
Suez.  This  canal  is  completed.  Its  object  is  to  supply  with  fresh  water 
the  laborers  and  machines  employed  in  the  maritime  canal,  and  also  to 
afford  to  the  town  of  Suez  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  water,  which  was 
much  needed. 

The  maritime  canal  is  still  in  a  very  miniature  state.  It  starts  from 
Port  Said,  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  to  traverse  the  isthmus  to 
Suez,  with  sufficient  works  at  its  extremities  to  afford  good  harbors  in 
both  seas.  Its  breadth  is  to  be  100  metres  (rather  more  than  100  yards) 
at  the  level  of  the  water,  and  its  depth  about  26  feet.  The  portion 
between  Port  Said  and  Lake  Tinisah  is  so  far  advanced  that  barges, 
towed  by  steam  tugs,  can  traverse  it  to  the  latter  point,  where,  by  means 
of  locks,  they  are  placed  on  the  fresh- water  canal,  by  which  they  can 
reach  Suez.  Thus,  there  is  already  water  communication  from  sea  to  sea ; 
but,  before  the  fleets  of  the  world  can  be  transported  across  the  isthmus, 
much  time  must  elapse,  and  a  vast  amount  of  money  must  be  expended. 
The  cost  of  the  works  up  to  this  time  is  said  to  be  $45,000,000  specie. 

In  all  the  countries  of  Europe  the  necessity  has  been  recognized  of 


58 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


having  a  detailed  and  accurate  map  which  should  he  available  for  mili¬ 
tary  and  other  purposes.  The  scales  on  which  these  surveys  have  been 
published  have  varied  from  about  three  inches  to  a  mile  to  about  three 
miles  to  an  inch.  First  in  point  of  scale  comes  the  little  electorate  of 
Hesse,  now  politically  extinct,  the  excellent  map  of  which  is  published 
on  a  scale  of  1  in  25,000,  or  about  three  inches  to  a  mile.  Belgium  comes 
next,  1  in  40,000 ;  then  Baden,  Bavaria,  Sardinia,  Holland,  Wurtemberg, 
Oldenberg,  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse,  1  in  50,000 ;  Saxony,  1  in  57,600 ; 
Great  Britain,  1  in  63,360,  (afterwards  increased  to  1  in  10,560,  and  again 
to  1  in  2,500 ;)  Denmark,  France,  and  part  of  Prussia,  1  in  80,000  ;  Lom¬ 
bardy,  Yenetia,  States  of  the  Church,  Tuscany,  Parma,  Placentia,  Guas- 
tella,  1  in  86,400 ;  Hanover,  Portugal,  Prussia,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  1 
in  100,000;  Schleswig-Holstein,  1  in  120,000;  Russia  in  Europe,  1  in 
126,000 ;  Austria,  1  in  144,000 ;  Norway  and  Greece,  1  in  200,000.  The 
survey  of  Great  Britain  commenced  in  1784;  that  of  France  (the  new 
map)  in  1818.  Belgium  has  been  late  in  the  field.  Only  a  few  sheets 
are  published.  The  last  country  in  Europe  to  recognize  the  necessity  of 
a  government  survey  (except  Turkey)  was  Spain.  Within  the  last  year 
or  two  steps  have  been  taken  to  remedy  the  defect.  In  Turkey  no  gov¬ 
ernment  survey  exists. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  particulars  that  the  only  important  step 
in  the  way  of  topographical  precision  has  been  taken  by  the  British  gov¬ 
ernment.  It  was  found  that  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  a  mile  was  not  suf¬ 
ficiently  large  to  make  the  maps  available  for  many  important  operations 
in  which  maps  are  specially  necessary — such  as  the  apportionment  of 
taxation,  the  registry  and  transfer  of  property,  &c.  It  was  therefore 
determined  to  increase  the  scale  to  six  inches  to  a  mile,  and  subsequently 
to  25  inches  to  a  mile,  on  which  scale  the  ordnance  survey  of  England 
and  Scotland  is  now  being  carried  on.  Specimens  of  the  English  maps 
on  all  three  scales  were  exhibited,  and  also  of  town  surveys  on  the  extra¬ 
ordinary  scales  of  five  and  ten  feet  to  a  mile. 


GROUP  III 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  THE  USE 
OF  DWELLINGS. 


Class  14.  Furniture.— Class  15.  Upholstery  and  Decorative  Work.— Class  16. 
Flint  and  Other  Glass;  Stained  Glass.— Class  17.  Porcelain,  Earthenware, 
and  other  Fancy  Pottery. — Class  18.  Carpets,  Tapestry,  and  Furniture 
Stuffs.— Class  19.  Paper-hanging.— Class  20.  Cutlery.— Class  21.  Gold  and 
Silver  Plate.— Class  22.  Bronzes  and  other  Artistic  Castings,  and  Re¬ 
pousse  Work.— Class  23.  Clock  and  Watch-work.— Class  24.  Apparatus  and 
Processes  for  Heating  and  Lighting. — Class  25.  Perfumery. — Class  26. 
Leather  Work,  Fancy  Articles,  and  Basket  Work. 

CLASS  14. — FURNITURE ;  AND  CLASS  15.— UPHOLSTERY  AND 
DECORATIVE  WORK. 

Class  11  included  furniture,  such  as  sideboards,  bookcases,  tables,  bed¬ 
steads,  chairs,  billiard  tables,  &c. ;  and  class  15  comprehended  upholstery, 
bed  furniture,  coverings,  curtains,  hangings,  articles  of  ornament,  and 
ecclesiastic  as  well  as  domestic  furniture. 

The  principal  displays  of  fine  furniture  were  to  be  found  in  the  French, 
English,  and  the  Italian  sections.  In  the  former  there  were  220  exhibit¬ 
ors,  in  the  next  41,  and  in  the  latter  66.  The  United  States  numbered 
only  nine.  It  cannot  be  said  that  there  were  any  prevailing  styles.  The 
principal  objects  might  be  referred  to  the  Gothic,  Renaissance,  Egyptian, 
Etruscan,  and  Pompeian. 

The  observer  from  the  United  States,  accustomed  only  to  the  furniture 
there,  could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  general  use  of  ebony  as  the 
material  for  ornamental  furniture,  and  with  the  richness  of  the  decora¬ 
tions  of  ivory,  porcelain  tablets,  and  enamels,  and  with  metallic  bas- 
reliefs,  medallions,  and  figures.  It  is  evident  that  the  use  of  these  deco¬ 
rations  is  largely  increasing,  and  that  a  great  impulse  is  thereby  to  be 
given  to  the  reproduction  of  suitable  ornaments  and  to  new  designs. 
The  metallic  ornaments  consist  chiefly  of  the  choicest  productions  of  the 
galvano-plastic  art,  and  they  are  left  either  in  their  usual  bronzed  condi¬ 
tion,  or  are  silvered,  and  in  some  cases  thickly  gilded  by  the  same 
process. 

The  finer  and  highest  colored  stones,  such  as  lapis-lazuli,  malachite, 
and  the  choice  marbles,  are  now  freely  used  in  the  fronts  and  sides  of 
fine  cabinets,  sideboards,  and  similar  pieces.  Some  of  the  richest  exam¬ 
ples  of  such  inlaying  were  found  in  the  Italian  and  Russian  sections.  In 
the  former  lapis-lazuli  tablets  and  columns  ornamenting  ebony  cabinets 


60 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


were  abundantly  displayed,  together  with  choice  Florentine  mosaics  and 
a  series  of  splendid  inlaid  tables. 

The  Russian  cabinets  in  the  style  of  Louis  XIY  were  remarkable  for 
their  beauty  and  value,  being  made  of  ebony  and  iidaid  with  broad  tab¬ 
lets  of  the  finest  colored  lapis-lazuli,  and  adorned  with  bunches  of  fruits 
and  flowers,  carved  with  wonderful  fidelity  to  nature,  out  of  precious 
stones.  These  cabinets  were  made  at  the  imperial  establishment  of  Peter- 
hoff,  and  the  finest  was  valued  at  27,418  roubles. 

In  the  English  section  the  displays  made  by  Trollope  &  Sons,  Holland 
&  Sons,  Gillow  &  Co.,  Wright  &  Mansfield,  were  particularly  noticeable 
for  their  elegance  and  excellence.  The  last  mentioned  firm  received  the 
gold  medal  for  their  display,  which  included  fine  specimens  of  inlaid 
maple,  ornamented  with  porcelain  tablets. 

In  the  Prussian  display  in  this  class  the  most  notable  feature  was  an 
alcove  filled  with  carved  walnut  furniture  in  the  Renaissance  style.  The 
Wurtemberg  section  was  characterized  by  the  beauty  of  the  samples  of 
inlaid  floors  sent  by  Wirth  &  Sons,  Stuttgart.  Other  fine  exhibitions  of 
parquetry  were  noted  from  Bembe  and  from  Knussman,  of  Mayence, 
Hesse. 

The  exhibition  from  the  United  States  did  not  in  any  degree  represent 
the  actual  condition  of  the  manufacture  of  either  common  or  fine  furni¬ 
ture.  A  few  folding  steamer,  or  camp  chairs,  and  rocking-chairs  froili 
Massachusetts,  with  an  inlaid  table  from  Wisconsin,  (honorable  mention,) 
and  an  ornamented  door  from  San  Francisco,  composed  the  exhibition. 
The  door  from  California  was  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  laurel  wood  of 
that  State,  and  of  excellent  workmanship — superior,  decidedly,  to  any¬ 
thing  of  the  kind  in  the  Exhibition. 

Denmark  has  an  interesting  and  curious  exhibition,  contributed  by  a 
society  for  the  encouragement  of  art  workmen.  There  was  a  cabinet  on 
legs  of  ebony,  lightly  carved  in  parts  and  inlaid  with  red  and  green  tor¬ 
toise  shell.  The  green  color,  like  the  red,  is  given  by  painting  the  ground 
on  which  the  shell  is  laid.  This  is  applied  in  large  medallions,  each  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  line  of  brass.  Several  other  objects  were  exhibited,  all  of 
them  conveying  a  high  idea  of  the  solid  good  taste  of  the  country  that 
sent  them. 

Italy  made  a  great  show  of  artistic  cabinet  work.  The  trade  appears 
to  be  reviving  in  the  land  which  gave  it  birth.  The  Italian  models  of 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  are  still  regarded  as  the  most 
perfect  in  existence.  They  show  what  is  not  always  remembered  in  the 
present  day — the  proper  way  of  treating  ivory  in  combination  with  ebony. 
Not  only  must  the  ebony  be  almost  covered  with  delicate  traceries  of 
ivory,  but  in  the  parts  where  the  ivory  forms  masses  its  whiteness  must 
be  corrected  by  engravings  filled  in  with  black.  In  this  way  all  violent 
contrast  is  avoided,  and  the  decorator,  with  only  two  elements  to  work 
upon,  obtains  a  third  means  of  effect  from  the  power  of  modifying  to 
any  extent  the  tone  of  the  ivory.  For  instance,  where  a  plate  of  ivory 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  61 

intended  to  be  engraved  with  a  subject  is  inserted  on  a  flat  surface  of 
ebony,  a  close  hatching  gives  a  border  which  forms  an  easy  transition 
from  the  black  to  the  white,  and,  as  we  have  said,  the  pure  white  is  only 
used  in  very  fine  or  closely  interlaced  lines  in  direct  contact  with  the 
ebony.  This  work  was  frequent  in  France  about  the  year  1550. 

The  following  general  observations  upon  the  manufacture  of  furniture 
in  France  are  extracted  from  the  official  catalogue : 

“All  the  principal  furniture  makers  who  have  given  real  importance 
to  their  trade  have  experienced  considerable  advantage  by  adding  to  it 
the  sale  of  everything  connected  with  decoration  and  ornament,  and  with 
very  few  exceptions  their  establishments  undertake  upholstery  as  well. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  best  upholsterers  manufacture,  or  commission  the 
manufacturers  to  make  for  them  in  their  name,  all  kinds  of  elegant  fur¬ 
niture  and  cabinet  work.  It  is  the  same  in  the  case  of  beds  and  bedding, 
now  made  by  manufacturers  of  furniture  as  well  as  by  upholsterers. 

“A  few  years  ago  the  manufacture  of  elegant  furniture  in  France  was 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  Paris ;  but  of  late  some  important  firms 
have  arisen  at  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Nantes,  and  in  several  other  towns,  such 
as  Troyes  and  St.  Quentin.  These,  however,  are  not  numerous,  and  the 
Paris  trade  has  much  extended  since  the  last  universal  exhibition,  and 
become  more  important  than  ever,  on  account  of  the  increasing  demands 
caused  by  the  greater  comfort  and  elegance  of  the  new  habitations.  The 
reports  on  the  international  exhibition  of  1862  showed,  in  relation  to  all 
the  trades  connected  with  furniture  and  decoration,  the  valuable  assist¬ 
ance  obtained  by  great  establishments  from  artists  of  approved  merit, 
and  the  great  improvement  thus  produced,  both  as  regards  good  taste 
and  practical  fitness.  The  manufacturers  have  understood  the  advantage 
to  be  derived  from  art,  together  with  that  technical  ability  that  French 
industry  possesses  in  so  high  a  degree,  and  have  boldly  entered  into  the 
new  path,  which  has  already  in  some  cases  led  to  the  most  brilliant  suc¬ 
cesses.  The  most  important  improvements  to  be  noted  during  the  last 
twelve  years  are  these :  Considerable  increase  of  production ;  the  intro¬ 
duction,  in  the  case  of  ordinary  articles,  of  the  use  of  cutting  machines 
and  mechanical  processes,  often  producing  the  cheapest  possible  results ; 
and  the  employment,  in  all  the  trades  connected  with  furniture  and  deco¬ 
ration,  of  distinguished  artists,  whose  co-operation  has  introduced  art 
and  good  taste  into  the  manufacture. 

Class  15,  being  intimately  allied  with  the  preceding,  was  included  in  it 
by  the  jury.  Both  were  fused  in  one. 

CLASS  16.— FLINT  AND  OTHER  GLASS ;  STAINED  GLASS. 

The  articles  included  in  this  class  were  divided  into  eight  sections,  and 
involved  eight  separate  processes  of  manufacture:  1.  Crystal  glass,  with 
basis  of  lead,  for  table  services,  lustres,  candelabra,  ornamental  and  fancy 
crystal  glass,  cut  and  plain,  white  and  colored,  threaded,  gilt  and  painted. 
2.  Fine  and  common  table  glass;  articles  for  restaurants  and  cafes; 


62 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


mineral  water  bottles  or  syphons  ;  retorts  and  other  chemical  apparatus. 

3.  Glass  for  mirrors  and  windows  5  moulded  glasses  for  light-houses  and 
paving  ;  rough  glass,  channelled  and  plain,  for  glazing  conservatories. 

4.  Window  glass,  plain  and  colored ;  cylinders,  globes  and  shades  of  vari¬ 
ous  shapes ;  glass  tiles.  5.  Bottles  for  wine  and  mineral  waters  ;  bell 
glasses  for  gardeners,  &c.  6.  Flint  and  crown  glass  for  optical  purposes. 
7.  Enamel  in  block  and  in  tubes,  for  jewellers,  enamellers,  &c.  8.  Stained 
glass. 

The  finest  exhibitions  of  plates  and  mirror  glass  in  the  Exposition  were 
from  the  establishment  of  St.  Gobain  &  Chauny.  Enormous  plates  stand¬ 
ing  in  the  outer  circle  of  the  building  on  each  side  of  the  main  entrance 
were  unobserved  by  many,  for  their  great  perfection  of  surface  and  trans¬ 
parency  permitted  objects  beyond  to  be  seen  as  if  nothing  were  inter¬ 
posed.  These  plates  were  nearly  18  feet  high  and  12  feet  broad ;  another 
plate  measured  5.94  metres  in  height  by  3.65  or  21.68  square  metres 
of  surface.  Among  the  silvered  plates  there  were  two  of  18  square  metres 
and  20  square  metres  respectively.  These  firms  made  exhibitions  not 
only  in  the  French  but  in  the  Prussian  and  Baden  sections.  The  pro. 
ducts  comprised  mirror  plates,  glass  for  flooring,  roofing,  light  houses,  and 
for  telescope  reflectors. 

The  saloons  in  the  French  section  devoted  to  flint  glass  in  its  divers 
forms,  for  table  services,  decanters,  pitchers,  chandeliers,  &c.,  &c.,  were 
exceedingly  brilliant.  In  one  of  the  saloons,  the  most  striking  of  the 
large  objects  were  the  grand  candelabra  at  each  end,  rising  some  20  feet 
above  the  floor,  with  an  enormous  chandelier  between  them.  These 
splendid  objects  were  displayed  by  the  Joint  Stock  Company  of  St. 
Louis,  Moselle.  The  long  ranges  of  tables  and  supports  around  these 
chandeliers  were  covered  with  other  splendid  productions  of  the  works, 
such  as  urns,  vases,  and  table  services  of  various  patterns. 

The  next  saloon  contained  another  magnificent  display  around  a  colossal 
fountain,  made  entirely  of  flint  glass  and  rising  some  25  feet  above  the 
floor,  with  the  lower  basin  in  massive  crystal  10  feet  or  more  in  diameter. 
Around  this  remarkable  object  were  displayed  the  most  exquisite  pro¬ 
ductions  in  the  art  of  painting,  enamelling,  and  engraving  upon  glass. 

There  was  also  a  fine  exhibition  of  flint  glass  in  the  English  section, 
from  London  and  Birmingham,  particularly  of  finely  engraved  glass  for 
the  table  from  the  firms  of  Millar  &  Co.,  Edinburg,  and  of  Dobron  & 
Green,  London.  These  specimens  of  engraving  were  recognized  by  the 
French  as  even  superior  to  their  own. 

There  was  an  exhibition  of  moulded  flint  glass  in  the  American  depart¬ 
ment,  which,  although  not  attractive  in  point  of  quality  or  color,  was 
remarkable  as  demonstrating  the  success  with  which  large  vessels  can 
be  moulded  in  a  single  piece  without  showing  any  trace  of  the  mould. 

In  the  process  of  manufacturing  glass,  the  most  important  change  that 
has  taken  place  of  late  years  is  the  employment  (tor  melting  the  mate¬ 
rials  of  which  glass  is  composed)  of  Mr.  Siemen’s  regenerative  gas-furnace 
instead  of  the  ordinary  furnace  heated  by  coal. 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  63 


From  a  report  presented  by  Mr.  H.  Chance  to  the  British  Association 
in  1805,  it  appears  that  the  weekly  produce  of  plate  glass  in  Great  Bri¬ 
tain  is  about  100,000  feet.  There  were  seven  manufacturers  of  crown  and 
sheet  glass,  three  of  whom  made  75  per  cent,  of  the  whole  quantity  pro¬ 
duced.  The  number  of  workmen  engaged  in  these  works  was  stated  to 
be  2, 500, and  the  quantity  of  glass  produced  17,000  tons.  The  annual 
produce  of  Hint  glass  in  the  Tyne  and  Wear  district  only,  was  estimated  at 
£10,000,000.  Birmingham  produces  about  £5,000,000,  and  Stourbridge 
£3,500,000  annually.  The  make  of  glass  bottles  in  the  Tyne  and  Wear 
district  in  the  year  1862  is  stated  by  Mr.  Swinburne  to  have  been  about 
4,230,000  dozen. 


GLASS  MANUFACTURE  IN  FRANCE. 

The  introduction  to  this  class  by  the  French  committee  of  admission 
gives  the  following  datas  upon  the  glass  manufacture  of  France: 

“The  products  of  this  class  are  chiefly  manufactured  in  the  departments 
of  the  Rord,  the  Aisne  and  the  Seine,  the  Meurthe  and  the  Moselle, 
the  Rhone,  the  Loire  and  the  Allier.  The  raw  materials  of  the  glass 
manufacture  principally  comprise  silica,  which,  in  the  shape  of  sand, 
forms  one-half  the  bulk  of  flint  glass  and  three-fifths  of  other  kinds  of 
glass;  oxide  of  lead,  which  forms  one-third  part  of  the  composition  of 
crystal  glass;  carbonate  of  lime,  which  represents  one-fifth  of  the  com¬ 
position  of  common  glass ;  and  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  soda,  which  also 
form  a  fifth  of  the  composition.  With  the  exception  of  the  lead,  these 
materials  are  all  of  home  produce;  the  lead  is  derived  from  Belgium, 
England,  and  Spain. 

The  fusion  is  performed  in  crucibles,  heated  by  coal  or  wood ;  but  the 
substitution  of  the  former  for  the  latter  fuel  is  becoming  universal.  The 
glass  manufacture  depends  principally  on  the  skill  of  the  workmen; 
machinery  plays  but  a  secondary  part.  It  is  only  in  the  case  of  plate 
glass  that  machinery  is  indispensable.  Glass  making  is  carried  on  in 
houses  provided  with  furnaces,  glass-cutting,  dressing  and  polishing  shops. 
The  workmen  generally  work  by  the  piece,  and  there  are  no  middlemen 
employed;  the  glass  houses  employ  few  women,  but  the  number  of  chil¬ 
dren  employed  about  the  furnaces  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  men. 
Paris  is  the  chief  market  for  flint,  table  and  plate  glass,  as  well  for  home 
consumption  as  for  exportation.  Window  glass  is  sold  to  wholesale 
dealers,  who  retail  it  to  the  glaziers.  The  bottle  makers  sell  to  the  wine 
producers,  bottlers  of  mineral  waters  and  wholesale  dealers.  The  annual 
production  of  flint  glass  has  risen  since  1862  from  9,000,000  to  about 
11,000,000  or  12,000,000  francs.  Ordinary  table  glass  is  extensively  manu¬ 
factured  in  France,  and  the  importance  of  this  trade  is  at  least  equal  to 
that  of  flint  glass.  The  production  of  plate  glass  is  estimated  at  350,000 
to  400,000  square  metres  per  annum,  and  the  trade  at  12,000,000  francs 
or  13,000,000  francs.  The  quantity  of  window  glass  produced  may  be 
set  down  as  5,000,000  to  6,000,000  square  metres,  of  the  value  of  12,000,000 


64 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


to  15,000,000  francs.  Tlie  number  of  bottles  is  estimated  at  100,000,000 
to  115,000,000,  of  tlie  value  of  18,000,000  to  20,000,000  francs.  Tlie  glass 
trade  is  increasing  in  all  parts  of  the  empire ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
glass  stainers  here  will  speedily  rival  the  skill  of  the  old  masters.  Finally, 
the  value  of  the  whole  industry  reaches  about  75,000,000  francs,  one- 
third  of  which  represents  the  salaries  of  35,000  men,  women  and  chil¬ 
dren.  Among  the  improvements  introduced  into  the  glass  trade  since 
the  last  Exhibition  must  be  mentioned  a  new  method  of  fusing  glass,  by 
means  of  a  combination  of  combustible  gases,  derived  from  coal,  wood 
or  peat,  with  the  aid  of  special  apparatus.  This  transformation,  which 
promises  important  results,  is  the  most  remarkable  fact  in  the  glass 
trade.” 

The  art  of  glass  painting,  says  Mr.  Gambier  Parry  in  his  admirable 
resume  of  the  specimens  exhibited  at  the  Exposition,  published  by  order 
of  the  board  of  the  council,  can  rarely  receive  justice  in  a  general  exhi¬ 
bition.  Its  diminished  light  is  injurious  to  most  other  objects.  It  is  as 
exclusive  in  an  exhibition  as  a  beech  tree  in  a  forest,  under  which  noth¬ 
ing  else  will  grow.  Manufacturers,  conscious  of  this  fact,  were  careful 
not  to  undergo  an  ordeal  which  exposed  them  to  danger.  The  well-known 
names  of  Bertini  in  Italy,  Capronnier  in  Belgium,  Aismiiller  in  Ger¬ 
many,  Gerente  at  Paris,  and  Clayton  and  Bell  in  England,  did  not  appear 
in  the  catalogue.  The  art  therefore  was  facilely  represented.  But  there 
were,  notwithstanding,  many  interesting  specimens  of  excellent  work. 
!No  comparison  could  be  made  between  the  respective  merits  of  the  vari¬ 
ous  countries  which  exhibited,  inasmuch  as  the  specimens  wrere  scattered, 
and  while  on  one  side  of  the  building  the  light  was  good,  on  the  other  it 
was  necessarily  bad. 

A  few  general  remarks  on  the  subject  of  painted  glass  will  suffice  for 
tlie  purposes  of  this  article,  and  we  shall  borrow  their  substance  from  the 
report  already  referred  to. 

In  France  the  system  now  generally  prevails  of  giving  a  semi-opaque 
solidity  to  the  glass,  by  the  use  of  various  enamels.  If  the  light  be 
strong  outside,  this  dimness  gives  clearness  to  the  design  and  makes  the 
subject  more  important  than  the  material,  which  theoretically  is  correct, 
but  which  practically,  in  the  case  of  stained  glass,  is  open  to  objection. 
In  the  earlier  styles  of  the  13th  and  early  14th  centuries  the  “  dim  religi¬ 
ous  light,”  of  the  cathedral  or  church  was  produced  only  by  the  quality 
of  the  glass.  The  taste  of  the  present  day  is  for  pictorial  effect  only, 
and  to  produce  this  opacity  is  more  or  less  necessary;  at  all  events  it  facili¬ 
tates  the  operations  of  the  mere  designer.  A  lustrous  reflective  glass  is 
always  preferable  for  the  mellowness  which  much  semi-opaque  enamel 
would  mar.  The  genuine  gothic  feeling  and  drawing,  both  in  figures 
and  ornaments,  are  much  better  represented  by  the  English  painters  on 
glass  than  by  their  continental  competitors,  but  their  knowledge  of  draw¬ 
ing  is  infinitely  less,  and  is  sometimes  awkward  to  absurdity.  There  is  no 
more  fatal  mistake  than  that  any  one  can  drawr  well  enough  for  a  gothic 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  65 

window.  The  continental  artists  are  educated  to  tlieir  profession $  else¬ 
where  it  is  considered  an  easy  thing  to  construct  a  window  on  the  old  plan. 
The  wretched  result  of  consigning  this  art  to  inferior  hands  and  minds 
is  to  discard  so  many  styles  and  modes  of  expression,  and  to  bring  all 
work  to  one  level  of  tameness  and  insipidity. 

The  principal  exhibitions,  in  this  department  were  from  France,  Belgium, 
Prussia,  and  England.  France  bore  off  the  palm.  The  glass  pictures  of 
Marechal  were  art  gems.  Produced  by  the  combination  of  opaque  and 
transparent  enamels,  they  seemed  to  exhaust  the  resources  of  the  art. 

CLASS  17.— PORCELAIN,  EARTHENWARE,  AND  OTHER  FANCY 

POTTERY. 

“The  productions  exhibited  in  class  17  and  designated  by  the  title  of 
ceramic,  were  for  domestic  use  or  decoration.  They  may  be  divided  into 
four  sub-classes :  Terra  cotta,  earthenware,  faience,  and  porcelain.  1. 
Terra  cotta  includes  all  plastic  objects,  which,  by  the  application  of  fire, 
are  rendered  fit  for  decoration.  2.  Earthenware  is  hard  unalterable 
pottery,  employed  to  satisfy  the  artistic  taste  of  the  day  and  for  the 
manufacture  of  chemical  products.  3.  Fine  and  common  faience  are 
both  used  equally  for  domestic  purposes  and  for  decoration.  Tin-glazed 
faience  supplies  the  decorative  arts  with  indispensable  elements.  The 
ground  lost  in  the  case  of  common  faience  has  been  gained  by  the  finer 
sorts,  which  now  answer  perfectly  the  demands  of  the  public,  both  as 
regards  perfection  of  form  and  decorative  appearance.  4.  Hard  porce¬ 
lain,  characterized  by  its  whiteness,  is  the  pottery  “ par  excellence”  for 
the  service  of  the  table  and  for  domestic  use.  It  is,  also,  advantageously 
applied  in  many  cases  in  indoor  decoration.  Fine  porcelain,  on  account 
of  the  brilliant  colors  which  it  is  capable  of  receiving,  is  exclusively 
reserved  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  is  not  adapted  for  domestic  use  on 
account  of  its  fragility.  Terra  cotta  is  made  almost  everywhere.  Earthen¬ 
ware  is  made  in  Paris,  at  Beauvais,  and  in  some  parts  of  Normandy. 
Fine  faience  is  made  chiefly  at  Creil,  Montereau,  Sarreguemines,  Clioisy 
le  Roi,  Gien,  and  Bordeaux.  Artistic  faience  has  its  centre  in  Paris 
and  its  environs. 

Steam  power  tends  to  replace  hand  labor  to  a  certain  extent  in  the 
making  of  faience.  The  introduction  of  the  methods  employed  in  England 
have  transformed  this  branch  of  the  manufacture.  As  regards  porcelain, 
the  softening  caused  by  the  high  temperature  required  for  the  baking 
deforms  pieces  made  in  any  other  way  than  by  hand ;  and  to  the  present 
time  no  mechanical  assistance  has  been  found  available.  However,  there 
is  good  reason  to  hope  that  in  the  shaping  and  preparation  of  the  mate¬ 
rial  mechanical  art  may  eventually  lend  its  aid.  The  workmen  are  almost 
always  paid  by  the  piece.  In  consequence  of  the  tenderness  of  the  pro¬ 
duction,  especially  before  baking,  the  men  can  only  work  in  factories. 
As  regards  the  decorative  portions  of  the  work,  even  when  the  artistic 
element  predominates,  the  workman  is  compelled  to  manipulate  the  pot- 
5  u  E 


66 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tery.  No  less  than  1,362  men  and  458  women  are  employed  in  Paris  in 
the  decoration  of  china  alone.  The  greater  portion  of  the  potteries  have 
agencies  or  depots  at  Paris  or  send  their  wares  to  the  wholesale  dealers 
there  for  sale.  The  latter  often  take  the  decorative  portion  into  their 
own  hands  and  equalize  the  productions  of  the  various  provinces  by 
making  one  supply  the  deficiency  of  another.  Paris  is,  therefore,  the 
grand  centre  of  the  porcelain  and  faience  trade.  Limoges,  which  comes 
next,  sends  its  ware  to  all  parts  of  the  empire  by  the  aid  of  travellers 
and  agents.  Artistic  ware,  however,  finds  an  almost  exclusive  market  in 
Paris.  The  treaty  of  commerce  has  made  little  change  in  the  importa¬ 
tions.  The  home  production  has  greatly  augmented ;  the  annual  value 
of  fine  faience  is  estimated  at  10,000,000  francs,  and  that  of  porcelain  at 
20,000,000  francs. 

The  improvements  realized  during  the  last  12  years  are  as  follows : 
1.  The  increasing  use  of  terra  cotta  in  the  decoration  of  public  and  pri¬ 
vate  edifices.  2.  The  almost  complete  renewing  of  the  plant  of  the 
faience  potteries,  so  that  good  organization,  from  being  an  exception,  has 
become  the  rule.  3.  The  substitution  of  coal  for  wood  in  the  baking  of 
porcelain  and  the  consequent  reduction  in  the  cost  of  the  process.  4. 
The  improvement  introduced  in  the  art  of  decoration  through  the  chromo- 
litliograpbic  process.”  Extract  from  the  translation  of  the  report  of 
Messrs.  Salvetat  and  Dommartin,  members  of  the  committee  of  admission  of 
class  17. 

The  word  “faience”  is  of  recent  origin,  and  its  employment  indicates 
an  elegant  extension  of  the  business  which  was  formerly  carried  on  under 
the  vulgar  name  of  pottery.  A  fine  pot  is  no  longer  a  piece  of  delf,  but 
a  specimen  of  faience.  No  business  has  grown  more  rapidly  and  satis¬ 
factorily  than  that  represented  in  class  17.  Beyond  all  doubts,  pottery 
is  the  most  ancient  of  arts.  Drinking  cups,  hardened  in  the  sun  of  the 
tropics,  were,  perhaps,  the  first  utensils  fashioned  by  man.  From  this 
first  step,  long  since  forgotten  in  the  series  of  uncounted  ages,  the  art 
of  the  potter  has  maintained  its  ground  as  the  most  important  in  the 
series  of  human  economy. 

Pottery  is  the  most  fragile  and  at  the  same  time,  from  its  very  nature, 
the  most  durable  of  the  works  of  man.  In  the  term  are  included  all 
kinds  of  earthenware  from  the  rude  jar  and  brick  of  the  Sakkara  pyramid 
to  the  porcelain  of  China,  and  the  u pate  tendre ”  of  Sevres.  It  is,  how¬ 
ever,  in  the  modern  application  of  earthenware  that  the  present  age 
excels.  This  divides  itself  into  two  important  groups.  The  first  com¬ 
prises  all  pottery  composed  of  a  non- vitrified  body,  such  as  terra  cotta 
and  fine  and  coarse  earthenware.  This  is  the  lower  order.  To  the  second 
belongs  all  pottery  composed  of  a  vitrified  body,  such  as  stoneware  and 
porcelain.  This  is  the  higher  order.  Each  of  these  groups  is  capable 
of  being  subdivided  into  a  very  great  number  of  different  kinds.  Pro¬ 
ceeding,  then,  from  the  simple  to  the  more  complex,  we  find,  first,  terra 
cotta,  which  is  intended  to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  stone  in  architectural 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FO^  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  67 

decoration.  When  an  ornament  has  to  be  repeated  many  times,  terra 
cotta  has  the  advantage  of  cheapness  over  stone,  and,  if  weH  prepared, 
possesses  greater  durability.  Stone  that  can  be  easily  worked  by  the 
chisel  and  at  the  same  time  resist,  for  centuries,  the  changes  of  climate, 
is  rare  and  difficult  to  obtain.  The  resistance  of  terra  cotta,  on  the  con¬ 
trary,  is  well  known.  A  glance  at  that  of  the  ancients  is  sufficient  to 
prove  that  after  several  thousand  years  it  remains  unchanged.  In  Greece 
the  use  of  terra  cotta  was  general.  The  Romans  employed  it  in  great 
profusion,  and  it  descended  naturally  to  the  Italians.  The  employment 
of  terra  cotta  in  England  has  revealed  a  remarkable  fact.  u  It  does  not,” 
says  Mr.  Arnona,  u  blacken  in  the  atmosphere  as  readily  as  stone  and 
can  be  much  more  easily  cleaned.”  It  is  in  Italy,  France,  Prussia,  and 
Belgium  that  it  is  most  generally  used.  The  best  example  in  the  Exposi¬ 
tion  was  the  fragment  of  a  facade  exhibited  in  the  garden  near  the 
Italian  section  by  Mr.  Boni,  of  the  national  manufactory  at  Milan.  This 
specimen,  very  elaborate,  in  which  the  artist  endeavored  to  show  all  the 
resources  that  could  be  made  available  in  this  material  for  external  decora¬ 
tion,  was  in  the  form  of  a  gateway,  the  framework  of  which  was  orna¬ 
mented  and  decorated  with  figures  and  the  panels  elaborated  in  the  style 
of  the  Renaissance.  It  was  regarded  as  the  finest  piece  in  the  collection, 
although  the  Prussian  and  English  work  in  terra  cotta  was  very  admirable. 
For  practical  purposes  the  latter  specimens  were,  perhaps,  the  best.  We 
noticed,  particularly,  magnificent  specimens  of  glazed  drain  pipes,  rang¬ 
ing  from  ten  to  thirty  inches  in  diameter  and  sounding  to  the  touch  like 
a  tube  of  metal.  They  were  made  of  coarse  stoneware,  a  material  harder 
than  common  earthenware  and  glazed.  TherS  are  three  kinds  of  glazes 
commonly  used,  the  bases  of  which  are  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt) 
and  salts  of  lead  and  tin ;  the  last  for  majolica  and  other  light  ware  in 
various  proportions  and  with  various  adjuncts.  Salt  only  is  used  in 
glazing  the  ordinary  drain-pipes. 

This  hard  brown  stoneware  is  also  used  in  forming  the  vessels  used  in 
many  of  the  arts.  Among  other  things  were  a  large  distilling  retort 
with  a  well  constructed  worm  ,  a  barrel  the  size  of  a  half-hogshead,  and 
some  gigantic  jars,  besides  retorts  and  filters  of  all  shapes  and  sizes. 
Machinery  is  now  largely  used  in  the  preparation  of  this  description  of 
pottery.  It  kneads  the  clay  and  moulds  it  into  shape,  and  it  is,  thanks 
to  the  facilities  thus  obtained,  that  the  economic  application  of  hard 
earthenware  has  received  such  extension. 

Bricks  and  terra  cotta  are  the  same  form  of  pottery,  differing  only  in 
treatment.  Numerous  specimens  of  the  hollow  or  perforated  bricks  were 
exhibited.  These,  although  invented  twenty  years  ago,  have  only  recently 
come  into  general  use.  They  have  many  advantages  over  the  solid  brick  ; 
not  the  least  of  which  is  their  lightness.  They  hold  the  mortar  with 
great  tenacity,  and,  when  properly  used,  make  drier,  warmer,  and 
healthier  houses. 

In  a  higher  order  of  faience  the  specimens  were  innumerable,  and  here 


68 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


it  may  be  proper  to  give  the  latest  definition  of  the  word  faience.  Any 
clay,  which  after  having  passed  through  the  fire,  preserves  a  certain 
amount  of  porosity,  and  which  is  then  covered  with  a  glaze,  takes  the 
name  of  faience.  When  composed  of  a  common  body  and  covered  with 
transparent  and  colored  glazes,  it  is  a  faience  of  the  same  description  as 
that  of  Palisse.  If  it  is  made  of  common  clay,  but  coated  with  an  opaque 
enamel,  it  is  the  Italian,  the  delft,  or  the  old  French  faience,  according 
to  the  degree  of  opacity  in  the  enamel.  Again,  if  clays  of  different 
colors  are  worked  some  upon  the  other,  or  some  into  the  other,  it  becomes 
similar  to  the  old  ware  of  Perugia  or  that  of  Yoiron,  known  as  Henry  II 
ware.  If  the  clay  contains  sands  and  is  covered  with  a  transparent  and 
uncolored  glaze,  it  is  the  style  known  as  the  Persian  ware  ;  then,  again, 
if  the  clay  or  the  body  is  of  a  fine  description,  white  and  covered  with 
a  transparent  uncolored  glaze,  it  is  the  cream-colored  ware  or  the  ordi¬ 
nary  earthenware.  Those  processes  are  often  combined  together,  some¬ 
times  on  the  same  piece. 

Pottery  that  is  not  porous  is  of  a  vitreous  texture — that  is  to  say,  porce¬ 
lain  biscuit  and  porcelain  itself.  There  is  no  natural  clay  or  mixture 
of  clays  which,  being  submitted  to  the  action  of  fire,  does  not  lose  its 
porous  nature,  and  acquire  a  degree  of  vitrification,  which  for  the  same 
clay  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  heat  applied.  All  clays  have  in  them  a 
natural  flux.  In  the  inferior  sort  this  is  lime  and  the  metallic  oxides — 
oxide  of  iron,  chiefly;  in  the  superior  sort,  which  is  the  clay  arising  from 
the  decomposition  of  feldspar,  and  granite,  it  is  a  very  small  amount  of 
potash  or  soda.  The  vitrification  known  can  be  arrested  by  mechanical 
means.  In  this  process,  requiring  great  experience  and  skill,  the  English 
houses  excel. 

Porcelain  itself  is  the  perfection  of  the  potter’s  art.  There  are  two 
kinds :  hard — the  true  porcelain — the  eldest,  which  is  that  of  the  Chinese 
and  the  Japanese,  of  very  simple  composition;  and  soft  porcelain,  an 
invention  of  the  last  century,  in  which  transparency — the  characteristic 
of  porcelain — is  obtained  by  artificial  means. 

The  principal  centres  where  hard  porcelain  is  manufactured  are  China, 
Japan,  Germany,  and  France.  The  manufacture  of  soft  porcelain  is 
even  more  limited,  for  it  is  the  most  difficult  to  produce  of  all  pottery. 
For  many  years  it  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  imperial  factory 
at  Sevres.  I11 1804,  however,  the  manufacture  of  soft  paste  ceased  there. 
Investigations  into  the  nature  of  hard  porcelain  had  never  been  discon¬ 
tinued.  The  secret  of  the  manufacture  was  known  at  the  royal  manu¬ 
factory  of  Saxony,  but  every  precaution  was  taken  against  its  being 
divulged.  The  royal  manufactory  of  France,  founded  at  Yincennes  in 
1745,  and  removed  to  Sevres  in  1753,  had  always  pursued  its  researches, 
and  the  first  success  dates  in  1768.  From  1753  to  1768,  therefore — a 
period  of  15  years — soft  porcelain  was  exclusively  produced  at  Sevres. 
Starting  from  1762,  the  two  were  produced  together,  with  a  gentle  pref¬ 
erence  to  one  -or  the  other,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  directors  for  the 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  69 

time  being.  The  French  Revolution  and  the  emigration  of  the  nobility, 
which  followed,  struck  a  severe  blow  at  a  manufacture  which  was  con¬ 
ducted  only  for  the  most  delicate  tastes.  It  ceased  to  be  appreciated, 
and  by  degrees  attention  was  diverted  from  a  complicated  and  costly 
manufacture  to  one  comparatively  easy,  capable  of  producing  larger 
prices,  and  which  offered  to  the  artist  painter  the  advantage  of  being 
able  to  estimate,  during  the  execution  of  his  work,  the  real  value  of  the 
tints  he  employed.  Hard  porcelain  thus  became  the  national  pottery — 
a  source  of  wealth  to  many  departments,  and  an  important  article  of 
exportation.  Since  1847,  however,  the  old  pate  tendre  has  been  again 
produced  at  Sevres. 

Specimens  of  every  kind  of  porcelain  were  exhibited  in  the  Sevres 
court.  The  display  in  every  respect  was  superb,  and  worthy  of  a  gov¬ 
ernment  which,  without  regard  to  cost,  has  established  a  school  of  pot¬ 
tery  entirely  without  any  equal. 

There  were  two  exhibitors  in  this  class  from  the  United  States. 

CLASS  18.— CARPETS,  TAPESTRY,  AND  FURNITURE  STUFFS. 

The  productions  included  in  this  class  were:  1.  Silk  and  satin  damask ; 
2.  Reps  and  table-covers;  3.  Velvet,  in  goat’s  hair,  wool,  and  cotton; 

4.  Woollen,  damask,  poplin,  Algerian  stuffs,  and  horsehair  fabrics; 

5.  Chintz,  cretonne,  textile  fabric,  and  printed  cloth;  6.  Carpets  and 
tapestry;  7.  Embroidered  and  figured  muslin;  8.  Tick  for  furniture, 
blinds,  and  bedding. 

In  this  class  there  were  about  60  exhibitors  in  the  French  section;  in 
the  Prussian,  28;  Great  Britain,  39;  United  States,  2;  but  in  the  section 
of  Turkey  there  were  no  less  than  260,  nearly  aH,  however,  of  carpets ; 
Algeria  also  contributed  a  great  number  of  carpets  and  mats,  but  gen¬ 
erally  of  smaU  size. 

The  display  was  also  exceedingly  good  in  the  Persian  and  Russian  sec¬ 
tions.  The  coarser  description  of  Persian  carpets  were  hung  side  by  side 
with  the  ribbed  rug  woven  in  Koordish  tents,  and  there  were  beautiful 
specimens  of  both.  In  color,  precision  of  outline,  and  beauty  of  texture, 
some  of  the  Persian  specimens  seemed  more  like  shawls  than  carpets. 
Such  work  is  generally  intended  for  the  mosques ;  men  never  tread  on 
them  but  barefooted. 

European  carpets  are  sufficiently  weU  known.  Among  the  French, 
those  of  the  savonnerie ,  as  a  short-pile  carpet,  are  still  unequalled,  and 
in  the  furniture  department  were  some  very  creditable  imitations  of  this 
manufacture,  which  has  been  abandoned.  Of  long-piled  carpets  there 
was  a  large  display,  but  none  to  equal  those  of  the  imperial  factory  of 
the  Gobelins.  In  the  French  moquettes  (velvet  pile)  there  were  many 
beautiful  imitations  of  Smyrna  and  other  ornamental  carpets. 

Carpets  are  comparatively  of  modern  introduction  in  private  houses 
in  France;  they  were  reserved  for  the  mansions  of  the  wealthy,  small 


70 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


rugs  or  mats  laid  before  the  seats  being  the  only  provision  made  to  pre¬ 
serve  the  feet  from  the  cold  of  the  waxed  oak  or  brick  floors.  Carpets 
are  now  in  very  general  use,  but  they  are  much  more  expensive  than  in 
England. 

In  the  English  section  there  was  a  fair  show  of  Brussels  and  velvet 
piles,  chiefly  from  Kidderminster. 

There  was  a  very  remarkable  carpet  in  the  Austrian  section.  It  was 
designed  for  gas-light,  being  intended  for  the  saloon  of  the  Emperor’s 
box  at  the  new  opera-house.  The  peculiarity  of  coloring  was  not  seen 
to  advantage  under  the  softer  influence  of  daylight.  The  pile  was  rather 
long,  like  that  of  Smyrna  carpets,  but  the  texture  was  close,  and  parts 
of  the  design  were  exceedingly  delicate. 

PRODUCTION  IN  PRANCE. 

“In France  the  principal  centres  of  production  are:  For  group  1,  Lyons 
and  Tours  5  2,  Paris  and  Himes;  3,  Amiens ;  4,  Boubaix,  Courcoing, 
Mulhouse,  and  Paris ;  5,  Mulhouse,  Rouen,  Claye,  (Seine  and  Marne,)  and 
Paris ;  6,  Aubusson,  Amiens,  Abbeville,  Beauvais,  Mines,  and  Courcoing ; 
7,  Tarare  and  St.  Quentin ;  8,  Lille  and  Flers.  The  imperial  manufac¬ 
tories  of  Gobelins  and  Beauvais  produce  the  beautiful  tapestry  which  is 
only  used  for  the  imperial  palaces.  That  which  is  sold  in  the  trade  is 
made  at  Aubusson. 

The  raw  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics  for  upholstery 
are  very  numerous.  The  organzines  of  France  and  Piedmont,  the  wefts 
of  China  and  Japan,  are  used  in  the  manufactures  of  the  silk  fabrics. 
The  price  of  these  materials  has  much  increased  during  the  last  few 
years ;  it  is  now  at  120  francs  to  130  francs  for  the  warp,  and  110  francs 
to  120  francs  for  the  weft.  The  French  silk  is  the  dearest  and  the  most 
esteemed.  The  manufacture  of  reps  and  table-cloths  is  composed  of 
French  wool,  valued  at  10  to  15  francs  the  kilogram,  and  floss  silk, 
worth  40  to  GO  francs,  which  is  chiefly  derived  from  Switzerland.  Utrecht 
velvet  is  made  of  goat’s  hair,  spun  in  England,  and  sold  at  from  9  to  30 
francs  the  kilogram,  according  to  its  purity.  Horse  hair  fabrics  are  woven 
of  materials  of  French  origin ;  that  which  comes  from  Buenos  Ayres  is 
much  more  expensive,  costing  from  16  to  30  francs.  Woollen  damasks 
are  woven  with  wool  coming  from  the  north  of  France;  the  weft  is  worth 
from  7  to  8  francs  the  kilogram,  the  warp  from  9  to  10  francs.  For  the 
mixed  silk  fabrics  they  use  warp  at  a  price  of  50  to  60  francs  the  kilo¬ 
gram.  The  Algerian  fabrics  are  composed  of  cotton  warps  and  woollen 
wefts,  worth  5  to  6  francs  the  kilogram.  The  price  of  cotton  fabrics, 
such  as  calico  and '  cretonne,  used  for  making  prints  and  chintzes,  is 
from  50  centimes  to  150  centimes  per  metre.  These  fabrics  are  woven 
in  Alsace  and  Rouen.  The  cloth  used  in  upholstery  is  manufactured  at 
Mouy;  the  widest,  used  for  table-covers,  is  worth,  in  its  rough  state,  3 
francs  the  metre,  and  that  used  for  covering  furniture  about  8  francs  the 
metre.  The  printing  of  the  calico,  cretonne,  and  textile  fabric  is  per 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS  71 


formed  principally  at  Mulhouse,  Rouen,  and  Claye;  the  cloth  is  printed 
in  Paris.  The  carpet  manufacture  employs  English  and  French  wool ; 
the  minimum  price  for  the  ordinary  qualities  is  8  francs  the  kilogram. 
Tapestry  is  made  of  unmixed  English  wool,  which  costs,  without  dye¬ 
ing,  from  12  to  15  francs  the  kilogram.  The  embroidered  cotton  fabrics 
come  from  Tarare  and  its  neighborhood,  the  figured  muslins  from  St. 
Quentin.  The  flax  yarn  for  tick  is  spun  at  Lille.  The  figured  fabrics 
used  in  upholstery  are  woven  in  the  Jacquard  machine ;  the  plain  fabrics 
are  partly  woven  in  power  looms;  the  embroidery  and  tapestry  is  pro¬ 
duced  by  hand,  but  they  are  beginning  now  to  manufacture  carpets  by 
machinery;  the  printing  is  accomplished  by  cylinders  or  plates. 

The  cost  of  manufacture  amounts  to  10  or  15  per  cent,  of  the  value  of 
the  common  article,  to  20  or  25  per  cent,  in  that  of  the  better  fabrics, 
and  to  30  or  40  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  most  expensive  articles.  The 
average  amount  of  general  expenses  is  10  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the 
production,  without  counting  the  cost  of  the  designs  and  the  inventions, 
which  is  often  very  considerable.  Plain  fabrics,  at  least  those  which  are 
worked  by  hand,  are  manufactured  in  the  homes  of  the  workmen,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  principal  manufacturing  centres ;  for  instance, 
Utrecht  velvets  are  woven  in  the  environs  of  Amiens,  by  workmen  who 
also  cultivate  the  ground.  Figured  and  fancy  fabrics  are  usually  manu¬ 
factured  in  large  workshops.  In  the  upholstery  trade  only  about  30  per 
cent,  of  the  hands  employed  are  women. 

Paris  is  the  principal  market  for  all  kinds  of  fabrics  for  upholstery  ; 
those  manufacturers  who  have  no  depots  in  Paris  have  always  an  agent 
of  some  kind.  Many  manufacturers  only  work  for  one  or  two  Parisian 
wholesale  houses,  and  refuse  all  other  business;  and  this  association 
between  the  manufacturer  and  the  Parisian  salesman  results  from  the 
absolute  necessity  of  dividing,  and  thereby  diminishing,  the  risks  of 
manufacture  (often  considerable)  in  the  production  of  those  fancy  articles, 
of  which  the  consumption  is  relatively  small  and  variable.  The  manu¬ 
facturers  of  hand-made  tapestry  only  work  to  order,  for  a  new  pattern 
has  to  be  made  for  almost  every  buyer.  Those  who  make  carpets  by 
machinery  prepare  their  designs  beforehand  of  the  different  sizes  accepted 
in  the  trade,  so  as  to  always  have  a  large  assortment  on  hand.  The 
manufacture  of  fabrics  for  upholstering  is  one  of  those  for  which  France 
is  most  justly  celebrated;  the  tapestry  of  the  imperial  manufactories  of 
Gobelins  and  Beauvais  is  without  a  rival.  The  production  of  these 
fabrics  is  estimated  at  about  60,000,000.  The  exportation  of  carpets 
and  tapestry  is  now  very  large.  French  woollen  manufactures  bear  com¬ 
parison  with  those  of  the  best  foreign  markets,  and  their  silk  fabrics  are 
unrivalled. 

The  committee  of  admission  points  out,  among  the  principal  improve¬ 
ments  introduced  since  1855:  u  firstly,  the  great  extension  of  steam 
machinery ;  secondly,  the  introduction  of  a  machine  with  eight  and  ten 


72 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


rollers,  printing  fabrics  with  that  exquisite  perfection  of  coloring  which 
formerly  coulcl  only  be  produced  by  hand.” — From  the  introduction  to 
class  18  in  the  official  catalogue. 

CLASS  19.— PAPER-HANGINGS. 

The  products  exhibited  in  class  19  comprise:  1.  Paper-hanging ;  2. 
Painted  or  printed  blinds. 

Paper-hangings  are  principally  made  in  Paris,  and  particularly  in  the 
faubourg  St.  Antoine,  where  are  collected  about  130  large  factories,  in 
which  are  employed  4,500  workmen,  and  whose  produce  per  annum 
amounts  to  about  18,000,000  francs  in  value.  There  are  also  some  works 
ah  Bixheim,  Lyons,  Metz,  Caen,  Toulouse,  Epinal,  and  Mans.  The  raw 
materials  employed  in  the  production  of  paper-hangings,  that  is  to  say, 
the  papers,  the  colors,  the  gelatine,  &c.,  are  now  all  of  French  origin. 
The  designs  for  the  decorations  are  always  produced  by  French  artists ; 
the  cuttings  of  the  blocks  and  rollers  have  the  same  origin ;  and  the 
machinery  is  constructed  in  our  workshops.  The  materials,  in  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  which  foreigners  for  a  long  time  held  the  monopoly — ultra- 
marine  and  German  gold,  for  example — are  now  all  made  in  the  French 
manufactories.  The  introduction  of  machinery  into  the  French  paper- 
hanging  trade  does  not  date  more  than  30  years  back.  Limited  first  to 
the  production  of  striped  papers  of  a  single  color,  machine  working  was 
rapidly  improved  as  to  enable  it  to  produce  designs  in  many  colors.  In 
the  year  1851,  the  number  of  machines  employed  by  the  paper-hanging 
manufacturers  of  France  scarcely  amounted  to  20 ;  they  number  more 
than  100  at  the  present  moment.  Each  machine  produces,  on  an  aver¬ 
age,  25  times  as  much  as  a  hand  printer;  still,  the  introduction  of 
mechanical  means  has  not  had  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  number  of 
workmen  in  the  same  proportion.  The  number  of  slabs  for  hand  printing 
has  only  fallen  from  900  to  700  since  1851.  It  is  to  the  increase  in  the 
trade  itself  that  this  result  is  to  be  attributed.  If  the  statistics  of  the 
last  15  years  be  compared,  we  find  that  the  amount  of  trade  in  1865  was 
about  20,000,000  francs,  or  double  that  of  1850.  The  workmen  nearly  all 
work  by  the  piece,  and  in  shops  where  rarely  less  than  10  or  more  than 
100  persons  are  employed,  one-third  of  these  consist  of  boys  of  less  than 
16  years  of  age;  there  are  few  women  employed  in  the  trade.  There  is 
no  special  market  for  paper-hanging,  the  trade  being  always  carried  on 
by  means  of  commercial  travellers  and  samples.  The  exportation  of 
French  paper-hangings,  after  having  increased  rapidly  until  the  year  1860, 
was  suddenly  arrested  at  the  time  of  the  treaty  of  commerce ;  but  it  has 
risen  again  to  the  amount  of  the  best  years.  In  1855  it  was  4,074,916 
francs;  in  1857  it  had  risen  to  5,948,331  francs;  and  finally,  having  fallen 
to  3,407,675  francs  in  1861,  it  rose  again  to  5,085,000  francs,  or  nearly  to 
the  level  of  1857 ;  but  the  average  price  of  paper-hanging  fell  in  the  same 
period  from  two  francs  sixty  centimes  to  two  francs  twenty  centimes  the 
kilogram.  From  1863  to  the  present  day  the  imports  have  remained 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  73 

steadily  at  about  450,000;  they  are  almost  exclusively  from  England. 
The  committee  of  admission  may  point  out,  among  the  improvements 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  trade:  1.  The  development  of  machine 
printing,  and  the  daily  improvements  of  the  process.  At  first  restricted 
to  papers  with  two  or  three  colors,  it  is  now  applied  to  the  production  of 
papers  and  borders  with  from  15  to  20  colors.  2.  The  recent  introduc¬ 
tion  and  immediate  adoption  of  machines  for  strengthening  or  deepening 
colors.  3.  The  invention  of  some  special  kinds  of  paper-hangings,  such 
as  stamped,  velvet,  and  gilt  imitation  of  leather,  of  silk  damask,  &c. ; 
the  application  of  some  new  colors,  such  as  the  anilines  and  Guignet- 
green,  in  place  of  arsenical  green,  &c. 

PAINTED  OR  PRINTED  BLINDS. 

The  use  of  painted  or  printed  blinds  is  much  less  general  in  France 
than  in  some  other  countries,  Sweden  and  Germany  for  instance.  They 
are  often  produced  by  artists  working  on  their  own  account,  and  seldom 
attain  the  position  of  manufacturer.  Nor  is  their  production  confined  to 
any  particular  district  or  locality;  they  are  produced  in  small  workshops 
in  nearly  all  great  towns.  There  are  about  30  of  these  in  Paris,  employ¬ 
ing  from  100  to  150  artists  and  workmen,  and  doing  business  to  the 
extent  of  about  700,000  francs  annually.  One-fifth  of  the  production  is 
for  exportation.  The  blinds  made  in  France  are  for  the  most  part 
painted  by  hand;  block-printing  is  sometimes  used,  but  in  general  only 
when  the  design  employed  is  regular  and  geometrical.  There  has  been 
no  progress  in  the  trade  worth  mentioning  during  the  last  12  years;  the 
processes  remain  the  same,  but  the  quantity  produced  is  notably  increased. 
In  place  of  the  unsightly  blinds,  overcharged  with  pretentious  designs, 
and  loaded  with  a  mass  of  heavy  opaque  colors,  we  now  see  elegant  com¬ 
positions,  produced  in  fine  transparent  colors,  and  worthy  to  take  part  in 
house  decoration. 

Paper-hangings  had  their  origin  in  the  desire  to  produce  a  material  for 
the  decoration  of  walls  which  should  be  less  expensive  than  tapestry.  At 
their  first  invention  they  were  so  expensive  that  they  were  literally  hung 
on  the  walls,  not  pasted  on  them.  They  were  carefully  treasured,  and 
were  moved  from  house  to  house  like  other  goods  of  the  proprietor.  They 
were  first  made  at  Eouen,  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  earliest  specimens  resemble  the  flock-paper  of  the  present  day.  They 
were  imitations  of  tapestry,  made  by  painting  a  pattern  in  adhesive  oils 
and  powdering  it  over  with  the  colored  wool  obtained  from  the  dressing 
of  cloths.  The  next  step  seems  to  have  been  in  marbled  papers,  in  many 
of  which  gold  and  silver  were  introduced.  It  was  not  till  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the  use  of  chintzes  suggested  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  printing  to  this  manufacture.  Of  course,  like  the  original  chintz- 
printing,  as  it  is  still  practiced  in  India  and  Persia,  the  design  was  pro¬ 
duced  by  a  number  of  engraved  blocks,  each  charged  with  one  color. 
Mechanism  has  long  since  abolished  this  tedious  process.  The  paper,  no 


74 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


longer  in  small  sheets,  hut  in  an  endless  roll,  passes  under  a  succession 
of  engraved  cylinders  so  accurately  combined  that,  when  it  issues  from 
the  press  on  the  other  side,  it  is  completely  and  accurately  colored. 
France,  England,  and  Germany  contend  for  the  superiority  in  this  branch 
of  manufacture,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  either  nation  maintains  the 
superiority,  although  each  has  its  own  peculiar  character  to  maintain. 
The  French  common  papers  surpass  those  of  any  other  country  in 
elegance,  and,  perhaps,  also  in  cheapness.  There  were  some  papers  with 
a  white  pattern  on  a  gray  ground,  which  could  be  bought  at  the  rate  of 
eight  yards  and  a  half  for  three  cents  5  brown,  blue,  and  white  upon  grey, 
a  combination  of  three  colors,  cost  four  cents.  These  were  for  modest 
purposes,  but  the  papers  in  imitation  of  Cordovan  leather,  gorgeously 
colored  and  gilt,  were  costly  objects  of  luxury.  Several  of  the  French 
flock  papers  were  excellent  imitations  of  velvet,  cloth,  and  reps. 

Many  of  the  English  hand-made  papers  were  admirable  in  execution 
and  exceedingly  rich,  although  generally  inferior  in  design.  Mr.  Owen 
Jones,  the  famous  mediaeval  decorator,  exhibited  a  curious  design  in  the 
way  of  paper-hanging.  It  looked  like  the  border  of  one  of  his  favorite 
mediaeval  manuscripts  surrounding  a  page  of  the  blue  sky,  powdered  with 
a  microscopic  gold  pattern. 

The  German  display  was  not  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  one. 

CLASS  20.— CUTLERY. 

Cutlery,  properly  so  called,  exhibited  in  this  class  may  be  divided  into 
several  descriptions :  1.  Table  cutlery,  which  includes  knives  and  forks, 
with  blades  of  the  precious  metals,  commonly  known  by  the  appellation 
of  small  table  plate ;  2.  Pocket  cutlery,  including  spring  knives  of  all 
sorts,  certain  huntsmen’s  knives  and  penknives  5  3.  Cutlery  with  fixed 
blades,  such  as  hunting  knives,  poignards,  and  cutting  tools  of  various 
kinds  for  business  purposes ;  4.  Scissors  and  shears  of  all  kinds,  includ¬ 
ing  gardener’s  shears,  &c.  ;  5.  Razors  of  every  kind. 

The  familiar  articles  in  this  class  were  represented  by  GO  French  and 
94  foreign  exhibitors.  Of  late  years  the  French  have  made  vast  progress 
in  the  difficult  art  of  manufacturing  cutlery.  England  has  enjoyed  for 
years  the  reputation  of  excelling  in  this  industry,  and  it  is  recorded  that 
at  the  World’s  Fair  in  London,  1851,  there  was  but  a  single  exhibitor  of 
cutlery  from  France.  Of  late  years  a  vast  stride  has  been  taken  in  this 
business,  not  only  by  France,  but  by  the  German  States  and  Belgium. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  cheap  cutlery  which  is  called  English  has  never 
crossed  the  channel,  but  is  native  and  of  continental  production. 

The  English  cutlery  exhibition  was  a  fine  one.  Sheffield  was  still  able 
to  maintain  her  own.  The  forms  of  table  cutlery  have  gained  in  light¬ 
ness  and  elegance ;  the  razors  are  as  keen  as  ever,  and  the  scissors  were 
very  pretty,  without  having  yet  attained  to  the  quaint  ornithological 
forms  of  the  French.  Among  the  curiosities  was  a  knife  containing  28 
blades,  from  Solingen,  and  any  quantity  of  travelling  knives  from  all 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  75 


parts  of  tlie  world.  In  the  six  exhibitions  of  England  were  to  be  found 
clasp-knives,  in  the  handles  of  which  means  had  been  found  to  place  a 
spoon,  a  fork,  a  corkscrew,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  saw,  a  file  for  the  nails, 
a  gimlet,  a  bodkin,  a  cutting  punch,  and  four  or  five  other  objects,  the 
use  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  devise.  It  must  be  dreadful  to  own  such  a 
knife. 

FRENCH  CUTLERY. 

The  following,  from  the  translation  of  the  official  catalogue,  gives  some 
interesting  facts  regarding  the  manufacture  in  France : 

u  There  are  four  principal  centres  of  cutlery  manufacture  in  France :  1. 
The  Puits  de  Dome,  represented  by  the  town  of  Thiers,  which  is  by  far 
the  most  important  as  regards  the  amount  of  business.  The  number  of 
pieces  of  cutlery  produced  annually  in  the  factories  of  the  Puits  de 
Dome  amount  to  48,000,000.  This  enormous  production  consists  exclu¬ 
sively  of  cheap  articles.  2.  The  Haute  Marne,  represented  by  the  town 
of  NTogent,  produces  cutlery  of  all  qualities.  It  is  from  ISTogent  especi¬ 
ally  that  the  Paris  cutlers  obtain  the  blades  for  their  table  knives.  The 
trade  is  considerable.  3.  Paris,  whose  manufacture  of  articles  of  cutlery 
is  far  more  interesting  as  regards  the  quality  than  the  quantity  of  its 
productions  $  fine  articles  of  all  kinds  are  made  at  Paris,  but  principally 
table  knives  and  razors.  Lastly,  Chatellerault,  in  the  department  of 
Vienna,  which  produces  principally  table  knives  and  ordinary  razors. 
The  raw  materials  used  in  the  cutlery  trade  are  numerous ;  as  iron,  steel, 
gold  and  silver,  employed  for  the  blades  and  the  ornaments  5  ivory, 
mother-of-pearl,  ebony,  bone,  and  many  sorts  of  hard  wood  and  horn, 
are  used  for  the  handles.  English  cast  steel  forms  about  one-half  of  the 
material  for  the  manufacture  of  Parisian  cutlery,  and  the  cast  steel  of  St. 
Etienne  supplies  the  remainder.  Por  ordinary  cutlery,  the  cast  steel  of 
St.  Etienne,  the  ordinary  steel  of  Eives,  (Isere),  and  the  iron  of  Berry, 
are  all  employed.  The  principle  of  the  division  of  labor  is  generally 
carried  out  in  the  cutlery  trade  in  a  very  complete  manner.  Still  manual 
labor  predominates  in  this  branch  of  industry,  as  the  workmen  only 
make  one  sort  of  article,  and  that  always  the  same.  He  buys  his  raw 
material  and  finishes  the  article  himself.  There  are,  however,  some 
important  manufactories,  where  a  certain  number  of  mechanical  tools 
are  employed,  such  as  stamping  and  cutting  presses.  In  the  centres  of 
the  great  cutlery  districts  the  workmen  work  at  home,  with  apprentices, 
living  in  the  surrounding  villages.  In  Paris,  however,  and  in  a  limited 
number  of  large  establishments,  the  men  work  at  the  shops.  There  are 
but  few  women  employed  in  the  cutlery  trade.  The  great  centre  of  sale 
is  in  Paris;  the  manufacturers  of  Thiers,  Nogent,  and  Chatellerault  have 
depots  in  Paris  and  many  other  towns.  Middlemen,  who  travel  through 
the  provinces  to  supply  the  retail  houses,  obtain  their  goods  at  these 
depots.  The  depots  also  supply  the  merchants  for  the  export  trade  and 
the  Paris  cutlers.  The  value  of  the  French  cutlery  trade  amounts  to 


76 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


about  20,000,000  francs;  and  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  productions  of 
this  trade  is  for  home  consumption.  Thiers  and  its  environs  produced 
about  12,000,000  francs’  worth  of  cutlery;  the  department  of  the  Haute 
Marne  about  4,000,000  francs’  worth;  Paris,  2,000,000,  and  Chatellerault 
about  1,000,000  francs’  worth.  A  certain  description  of  knives,  called 
“Eustaclie,”  which  formerly  were  in  very  great  demand  on  account  of 
their  low  price,  are  made  at  St.  Etienne  and  at  Nontron,  in  the  Dordogne. 
The  exports  amount  to  about  one-quarter  of  the  whole  production. 
These  knives  are  sold  at  present  at  from  35  cents  to  85  cents  (3 to  8Jd.) 
per  dozen.  A  certain  amount  of  progress  has  been  made  in  the  cutlery 
trade  since  the  year  1855 ;  there  has  been  a  constant  improvement  in  the 
machine  tools  which  have  been  applied  to  the  production  of  very  many 
kinds  of  articles;  and  in  spite  of  the  very  decided  increase  in  the  price 
of  most  of  the  raw  materials  employed,  and  also  of  the  advance  of 
wages,  the  amount  of  the  production  has  undergone  little  change. 

CLASS  21.— GOLD  AND  SILVER  PLATE. 

This  class  comprises:  1.  Artistic  goldsmiths’  work;  2.  The  major  part 
of  small  table  plate  in  gold,  silver,  and  in  alloyed  metals,  silvered  or  gilt 
by  electro-chemical  process;  3.  Bronze  ornaments  for  the  tables  and  des¬ 
sert  services;  4.  Plated  ware;  5.  Gold,  silver  and  church  plate;  6.  Gold, 
silver  and  copper  enameled  ware.  The  goldsmith’s  trade  is  almost 
entirely  concentrated  in  Paris,  but  there  are  some  makers  of  church 
plate  at  Lyons.  Fine  silver  is  worth  on  an  average  220  francs  the  kilo¬ 
gram.  The  law  allows  the  einjdoyment  of  two  different  standards  of 
alloy  for  solid  plate,  but  the  first  of  these  is  almost  exclusively  employed. 
This  is  worth  212  francs  62  centimes,  while  the  second  is  worth  only  180 
francs  the  kilogram.  Silver  and  gold  are  applied  by  the  electro¬ 
chemical  process  upon  articles  made  either  of  brass  or  of  white  metal, 
(maillechort,)  which  is  brass,  with  the  addition  of  nickel.  The  prices  of 
the  metals  which  enter  into  the  manufacture  of  these  alloys  are  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Copper,  200  to  300  francs  the  100  kilograms;  zinc,  75  to  80 
francs;  nickel,  12  francs  to  13  francs.  The  manufacture  of  plated  ware  is 
rapidly  disappearing.  The  operations  which  contribute  to  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  goldsmiths’  work  are  very  numerous.  The  metallic  alloys  are 
melted  in  crucibles;  they  are  afterwards  cast  in  moulds  of  beaten  earth 
and  sand.  When  taken  from  the  mould  the  articles  pass  into  the  hands 
of  the  chaser.  The  chaser’s  work  is,  however,  economically  replaced  in 
the  case  of  stamped  work  by  presses  and  steel  dies.  By  means  of  these 
processes  are  produced  table  ornaments,  certain  objects  of  art,  and  vari¬ 
ous  pieces  of  goldsmith’s  work,  which  are  also  made  by  means  of  the 
latter,  the  hammer  and  stamping.  Mounting  consists  in  uniting  the 
various  parts  of  a  work  together.  This  is  done  by  means  of  soldering, 
and  also  of  screws  and  nuts.  Spoons  and  forks  are  made  by  means  of 
rollers,  on  which  the  forms  of  the  articles  are  engraved.  The  other  pro¬ 
cesses  are  hand  engraving  and  biting  in  with  acid,  enamelling,  engine 


FURNITURE  ANI)  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  77 

turning  and  polishing  with  special  lathes  5  and,  lastly,  finishing,  which 
includes  rouge  polishing  and  burnishing  with  steel,  agate,  and  other 
tools.  Goldsmiths’  work  is  done  almost  exclusively  either  in  large  shops 
or  at  the  houses  of  master  workmen,  employing  a  certain  number  of 
assistants  and  apprentices  5  very  few  work  entirely  alone.  The  propor¬ 
tion  of  men  to  women  employed  in  the  business  is  four  to  one.  The 
number  of  females  engaged  has,  however,  increased  since  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  electro-plated  work,  the  polishing  of  which  is  entirely  performed 
by  them.  The  average  rate  of  wages  in  Paris  is  5  francs  a  day  for  men 
and  2  francs  (40  cents)  for  women.  The  manufacturers  generally  sell 
their  productions  either  to  retail  dealers  or  to  merchants  and  agents  for 
exportation.  The  annual  value  of  productions,  including  plated  ware, 
is  43,000,000  francs,  of  which  only  about  4,000,000  francs’  worth  are 
exported. — Translation  of  the  introduction  of  Paul  Christofle ,  member  of 
the  committee  of  admission  of  class  21. 

The  oldest  establishment  in  France,  the  well-known  house  of  Odiot, 
made  a  large  display.  There  was  nothing,  however,  that  claimed  the 
merit  of  novelty,  unless  it  were  the  -three  massive  pieces  of  plate  which 
were  intended  in  some  way  to  celebrate  the  fame  of  the  Oreusot  Iron  W orks. 
These  were  remarkable  for  the  introduction  of  figures  in  the  ordinary  arti¬ 
san’s  costume  of  the  day,  smiths  resting  from  their  toils  with  their  imple¬ 
ments  in  their  hands,  and  cog-wheels,  piston  rods,  and  cranks  filling  up  the 
details  of  the  foreground.  The  idea  was  an  innovation,  and  the  difficul¬ 
ties  to  be  overcome  were  no  doubt  great.  But  in  these  matters  the  effect 
is  all  that  need  be  judged,  and  this  did  not  give  general  satisfaction. 

The  collection  exhibited  by  the  brothers  Fanniere,  besides  its  high 
order  of  artistic  merit,  had  the  extremely  rare  peculiarity  of  being  the 
work  of  the  hands  of  the  exhibitors  themselves.  The  brothers  Fanniere, 
pupils  of  Yechte,  from  being  art  workmen  in  the  employ  of  others,  have 
risen  by  their  talent  and  industry  to  an  independent  commercial  estab¬ 
lishment,  and  in  this  exhibition  carried  off  the  first  gold  medal  awarded 
to  silver  plate.  Their  specialite  is  a  very  high  perfection  of  repousse 
sculpture.  Two  shields,  one  in  iron  and  the  other  in  steel,  were  the  most 
remarkable  of  their  productions.  The  amount  of  relief  was  considered 
greater  than  had  ever  before  been  attained  in  the  material,  and  as  steel 
is  not  a  tractable  metal,  it  was  deserving  of  attention,  not  only  for 
its  great  artistic  merit,  but  as  defining  the  limit  within  which  bold 
embossing,  almost  amounting  to  alto-relievo,  retains  its  genuinely  metallic 
character.  With  silver  it  is  different.  If  it  be  burst  by  forcing  it  into 
a  relief  beyond  its  powers  of  expansion,  it  may  be  patched  up  by  solder¬ 
ing  in  new  jfieces  neatly  enough  to  escape  observation,  unless  the  back 
be  carefully  examined,  and  even  the  back  may  be  so  cleaned  up  by  files 
and  other  implements  as  to  show  no  seam. 

The  largest  collection  was  by  Mr.  Christofle,  whose  inumerable  stores 
all  over  Paris  are  easily  recognized  by  the  invariable  sign  of  windows 
filled  with  table  spoons  tossed  into  confusion  with  a  prodigal  hand.  The 


78 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


house  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  employs  an  enormous  number 
of  workmen,  and  manufactures  everything,  from  the  commonest  articles 
of  plated  ware  to  the  most  expensive  art  productions  for  the  table.  The 
mass  of  material  put  on  show  was  of  a  very  heterogeneous  character. 

A  collection  of  great  artistic  value  and  beauty  was  also  exhibited  by 
Mr.  Le  Pec,  whose  specialty  is  enamelling  on  a  solid  gold  ground — gold 
being  the  only  metal  that  can  withstand  the  firing  necessary  for  the 
superimposed  work  which  Mr.  Le  Pec  employs.  When  a  vase  has  been 
thoroughly  finished  by  this  elaborate  process  it  looks  more  like  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  the  potter  than  the  goldsmith. 

The  German  collection  by  Wagner,  the  court  silversmith  of  Berlin,  was 
well  worthy  of  examination.  He  exhibited  two  important  works — 
„  bucklers — one  given  to  the  Prince  Boyal  on  his  marriage,  the  other  to 
Prancis  the  Second  of  Naples,  in  18G4,  in  memory  of  the  siege  of  Gaeta. 
Both  were  examples  of  the  art  skill  for  which  the  house  is  renowned. 

Bussia  had  a  superb  collection  of  thoroughly  characteristic  silver  ware, 
mixed  with  occasional  imitations  of  Arabic  and  Persian  art.  The  Mus¬ 
covite  style  is  a  combination  of  the  various  contrasts  of  whitened  silver, 
oxydized  silver,  both  obtained  by  the  aid  of  acids,  and  gilding.  The 
designs  are  striking,  and,  in  not  a  few,  inscriptions  in  the  Bussian  alphabet, 
either  pierced  or  engraved,  are  used  with  quaint  effect.  The  hammered 
and  chased  silver  work  was  regarded  as  the  best  in  the  class. 

In  the  English  section  there  were  three  names  that  challenged  attention, 
Hancock,  Hunt  &  Boskell,  and  Elkington,  the  English  Christofle,  but 
Elkington  only  exhibited  silver  ware.  The  collection  was  exceedingly  fine. 
A  silver  swan  exhibited  in  one  of  these  cases  occasioned  a  good  deal  of 
amusement,  and  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  ingenious  pieces  of  mechan¬ 
ism  in  the  building.  It  was  of  life  size,  and  was  gracefully  poised  on  a 
basin  of  artificial  water  represented  by  revolving  spirals  of  crystal.  In 
this  water  a  shoal  of  artificial  fish  were  seen  swimming.  The  swan  moves 
the  feathers  of  its  neck  gracefully,  takes  a  proud  and  dignified  survey  of 
the  situation,  perceives  the  fish,  seizes  one  in  its  bill,  and  then  raises  its 
neck  and  straightens  it  so  that  the  fish  disappears.  Satisfied  with  this 
frugal  but  somewhat  indigestible  repast,  the  automaton  curls  its  neck 
under  its  wings  and  goes  to  sleep.  The  whole  is  effected  by  means  of 
clockwork  machinery,  which  is  said  to  be  old,  the  present  exhibitor  only 
having  refitted  it. 

In  this  class  there  were  but  two  American  exhibitors. .  A  small  col¬ 
lection  of  chased  silver  ware  was  forwarded  by  Messrs.  Tiffany  &  Co.,  of 
New  York,  which  was  good  enough  of  its  kind,  but  inadequate  to  the 
occasion.  Two  pretty  models  of  steamboats  in  precious  metals  were 
much  admired.  They  were  from  the  same  house.  A  collection  of  Con¬ 
necticut  tableware  was  shown  and  used  in  the  American  restaurant. 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  79 


CLASS  22.— BRONZES  AND  OTHER  ARTISTIC  CASTINGS  AND 

REPOUSSE  WORK. 

The  alloy  forming  what  is  called  imitation  bronze  consists  of  tin, 
regulus  of  antimony,  and  lead.  The  productions  of  this  alloy  are  remark¬ 
able  for  sharpness ;  but  it  is  dear  and  almost  always  wanting  in  solidity. 
At  the  present  day  it  may  be  almost  absolutely  declared  that  the  manu¬ 
facturers  have  given  up  the  use  of  this  alloy  in  favor  of  pure  zinc,  and 
particularly  that  prepared  sort  known  as  the  Yieille  Montagne  zinc.  Zinc, 
then,  remains  nearly  the  only  metal  in  use,  and  when  covered  with  a 
coating  of  copper  by  the  electro  process  produces  a  good  imitation  of 
bronze.  This  galvano  plating,  however,  entails  considerable  expense ; 
and  in  order  to  produce  very  cheap  articles  certain  establishments  use  a 
mere  varnish,  either  of  the  color  of  bronze  or  gold.  In  some  shops  steam 
power  is  employed,  but  this  cannot  in  any  case  supersede  manual  labor. 
All  that  it  does  is  to  aid  the  workman  by  saving  him  a  considerable 
amount  of  fatigue,  especially  in  the  turning  shop.  The  apparatus  included 
in  class  22  employ  about  11,000  workmen,  some  of  whom  are  paid  by 
the  day  and  others  by  the  piece ;  the  wages  of  the  former  range  from  four 
francs  fifty  centimes  to  eight  francs  a  day.  There  are,  however,  many 
instances  of  men  earning  much  higher  wages.  Piece  work  is  of  course 
affected  by  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand,  and  is  a  matter  of  special 
arrangement.  About  4,000  men  work  at  home  or  with  the  designers,  the 
others  are  employed  in  large  shops,  the  day’s  work  consisting  of  10  hours. 

The  annual  value  of  the  productions  of  the  trade  reaches  about 
70,000,000  francs,  nearly  £3,000,000  sterling.  In  1863  the  export  amounted 
to  44,000,000  francs,  but  it  fell  to  40,000,000  francs  in  1864,  and  34,000,000 
in  1865.  The  returns  for  1866  are  not  yet  made,  and  we  cannot,  therefore, 
give  exact  figures,  but,  in  all  probability,  there  is  still  a  further  falling  off. 
This  diminution  in  the  exports  is  attributable  to  the  efforts  made  in 
England,  Belgium,  Germany,  and  even  Russia,  to  establish  works  for 
the  production  of  bronze,  zinc,  and  iron  castings.  These  nations  are 
making  great  efforts  to  develop  these  valuable  manufactures  in  order  to 
compete  with  French  producers,  not  only  in  the  markets  of  these  nations 
themselves,  but  also  in  the  general  trade. 

The  importation  of  manufactured  articles  is  valued,  at  the  above- 
named  periods,  at  480,000  francs,  545,000  francs,  and  495,000  francs, 
divided  between  England,  Belgium,  and,  since  1864,  Germany. 

The  improvements  to  be  noted  are  those  which  have  arisen  out  of  ele¬ 
vation  of  taste  and  knowledge  of  art,  which  are  progressing  daily,  rather 
than  to  any  improvements  in  the  tools,  &c.,  which  have  remained 
unchanged  for  a  long  time.  There  remains,  however,  a  great  deal  to  be 
'  done.  The  study  of  drawing  and  modelling  becomes  more  and  more 
indispensable  every  day,  in  order  to  enable  the  workmen  to  maintain  our 
productions  in  the  high  esteem  which  they  have  hitherto  enjoyed.  Like 
that  of  bronze,  the  zinc  and  iron  casting  manufactures  are  greatly 


80 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


improved.  They  produce  in  the  present  day  works  which  formerly 
belonged  exclusively  to  -art,  and  which,  on  account  of  their  cost,  were 
rendered  almost  unavailable  for  the  decoration  of  private  dwellings. 
Finally,  all  these  industries  are  closely  connected,  and  each  of  them,  in 
various  degrees,  has  undergone  a  perfect  revolution  during  the  last  20 
years,  with  the  aid  of  the  fine  arts.  Our  best  artists  have  readily  met 
the  demands  of  the  bronze  manufacturers,  and  the  production  of  a  host 
of  articles  for  various  usages  within  doors  bears  witness  to  the  increas¬ 
ing  alliance  of  art  with  industry. 

The  articles  exhibited  in  this  class  form  six  principal  groups :  1.  Artis¬ 
tic  bronzes  and  ornamental  bronzes,  including  statues,  statuettes,  clocks, 
vases,  tazza,  decorative  candelabra,  &c.  2.  Iron  castings,  comprising 
figures,  vases,  tazzi,  fountains,  candelabras,  railings,  balconies,  crosses, 
and  miscellaneous  articles.  3.  Imitation  bronze,  (composition,)  including 
compositions  for  clock  cases,  tazzi,  vases,  candlesticks,  &c.  4.  Bepousse 
work,  including  figures,  vases,  ornaments,  &c.  5.  Galvanized  cast-iron. 
6.  Zinc  figures  and  ornaments,  statues,  statuettes,  clocks,  vases,  &c. 
The  bronze,  as  well  as  the  imitation  bronze  and  zinc  trade,  is  essentially 
Parisian.  The  art,  taste,  and  fancy  which  preside  over  these  produc¬ 
tions  have  given  them  a  special  character,  which,  to  the  present  moment, 
has  kept  them  above  rivalry.  The  same  may  be  said  of  repousse  work, 
adding,  however,  that  this  industry,  which  is  in  its  youth,  or  rather 
renaissance,  may  be  expected  to  assume  great  development.  The  gal¬ 
vanization  of  metals,  as  regards  France,  is  concentrated  in  Paris,  but  it 
is  practiced  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  The  application  of  cast-iron  to  orna¬ 
mentation  is  comparatively  of  recent  date ;  its  progress  has  been  marked 
at  each  of  the  great  exhibitions  of  1851,  1855,  and  1862 ;  the  low  price 
of  the  raw  material  allowing  of  its  application  to  monumental  works, 
and  therefore  to  contribute  to  the  adornment  of  large  public  places,  and 
edifices  of  all  kinds,  parks,  gardens,  &c.  Iron  foundries  exist  in  almost 
every  part  of  France,  but  there  are  but  few  that  produce  artistic  work. 
For  these,  as  for  bronzes,  the  study  and  the  production  of  the  models 
are  made  in  Paris.  Paris  is  also  the  principal  market  for  the  disposal  of 
these  productions.  The  principal  metals  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  bronze  are :  The  copper  of  Chili,  Bussia,  Hew  Zealand,  Minnesota,  or 
Lake  Superior,  but  the  greatest  portion  is  from  Chili ;  zinc,  from  Silesia 
and  the  Vieille  Montague;  tin,  from  Banca,  Sumatra,  and  Cornwall. 
In  this  branch  of  manufacture  the  metal  represents  two-ninths  of  the 
value  of  the  production,  the  rest  being  divided  between  the  moulder, 
the  founder,  the  chaser,  the  mounter,  the  turner,  &c. 

The  principal  exhibition  of  bronzes  was  from  the  establishments  of 
France.  The  above  general  description  of  the  bronze  trade  and  manu¬ 
facture  is  from  the  translation  of  the  introduction  to  the  class  by  Bar- 
bedienne,  member  of  the  committee  of  admission  of  class  22,  and  one 
of  the  largest  producers  of  artistic  bronzes. 

Although  the  actual  business  of  France  in  the  articles  of  bronzes  does 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  81 

not  seem  to  be  on  the  increase,  her  supremacy  in  the  manufacture  is 
unquestionable.  At  all  periods  bronze  has  been. a  favorite  material  for 
art.  The  small  bronzes  of  antiquity,  occasionally  found  in  Greece  and 
Egypt,  and  of  which  a  vast  collection  has  been  exhumed  from  Hercu¬ 
laneum  and  Pompeii,  prove  that  the  ancients  employed  this  material 
preferentially  for  the  decoration  of  their  houses,  as  well  as  for  celebrating 
the  virtue  and  valor  of  their  heroes.  At  a  later  period  bronze  was  used 
for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  and  it  is  for  the  most  part  the  objects  in  this 
comparatively  valueless  metal  which  have  been  preserved  as  specimens 
of  the  church  art  of  the  past.  The  rapacity  of  enemies,  and  the  impe- 
cuniosity  of  religious  bodies,  have  consumed  almost  all  the  works  in  the 
nobler  metals  which  the  church  had  accumulated.  The  Renaissance  was 
not  slow  to  adopt  this  material,  and  in  Italy  schools  of  bronze  workers 
have  flourished  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  France  the  art  has  passed  through  many  trying  ordeals,  and  sur¬ 
vived  a  variety  of  styles.  The  French  section  of  the  Exhibition  con¬ 
tained  three  large  compartments  exclusively  filled  with  bronzes.  The 
majority  of  these  were  in  zinc  bronzed,  real  bronze  itself  being  vastly 
more  expensive.  Thus  the  Buveuse  of  Moreau,  a  crouching  girl  or 
nymph  drinking  out  of  a  shell,  could  be  produced  in  zinc  for  550  francs, 
while  in  bronze  it  would  cost  2,000.  For  such  purposes,  however,  many 
prefer  cast-iron,  of  which  work  fine  specimens  were  to  be  seen.  Some 
of  the  castings  exhibited  in  the  state  in  which  they  had  left  the  mould 
were  exceedingly  beautiful,  testifying  to  the  great  perfection  to  which 
the  French  have  brought  this  art.  Statues  made  of  this  material  must 
be  painted  or  bronzed,  or  covered  with  copper  by  the  galvano  plastic 
method,  as  much  to  prevent  rusting  as  to  hide  the  unpleasant  color 
of  the  metal,  which,  in  its  natural  state,  is  as  dull  and  ugly  as  any¬ 
thing  can  well  be.  Iron  is  unquestionably  the  metal  of  the  present 
day,  and  if  protected  by  a  proper  coating  of  copper,  it  is  not  only  as 
lasting  as  bronze,  but  much  less  exposed  to  the  cupidity  of  revolution¬ 
ists.  The  metal  is  almost  worthless.  No  Jew,  says  an  amusing  writer 
on  this  subject,  will  buy  it  by  the  ton,  like  him  who  loaded  so  many  cam¬ 
els  with  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes ;  it  would  hardly  pay  the  carriage.  No 
revolution  will  coin  it  into  pence,  unless,  indeed,  posterity  returns  to  the 
manners  of  Sparta,  which  is  by  no  means  the  direction  in  which  the 
world  seems  moving. 

There  were,  of  course,  many  fine  specimens  of  real  bronze.  The  reduc¬ 
tions  of  famous  statuary,  by  Barbedienne,  in  this  sub  stalled,  deserved  the 
most  unlimited  praise.  He  is  regarded  as  the  best  in  the  speciality  but 
there  are  many  other  names  of  almost  equal  renown. 

The  only  American  exhibitors  in  this  class  were  Messrs.  H.  Tucker  & 
Co.,  of  New  York,  who  brought  a  good  collection  of  iron  ornaments 
bronzed  by  a  nfew  process  of  their  own,  which  is  claimed  to  be  better 
than  the  French  method,  and  practicable  at  one-fourth  its  cost.  The 
objects  here  shown  were  of  general  interest,  and  engaged  the  particular 
6  u  E 


82 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


attention  of  all  who  were  in  the  business.  Cheapness,  durability,  and 
sharpness  of  outline  ai;e  the  characteristics  of  iron  when  wrought  suc¬ 
cessfully.  The  Tucker  company  have  made  considerable  progress  in 
these  directions — apart  from  any  consideration  of  the  special  merit  of 
their  invention  for  bronzing — but  the  models  and  forms  of  their  goods  can 
very  easily  be  improved. 


CLASS  23.— CLOCK  AND  WATCH  WORK. 

The  exhibits  of  this  class  were  divided  into  three  series :  1.  Clocks  for 
public  buildings  and  their  parts,  such  as  winding  apparatus,  escape¬ 
ments,  chimes,  hands,  illuminating  apparatus,  &c.  French  monumental 
clock-work  is  an  entirely  national  and  superior  industry,  taken  alto¬ 
gether,  as  compared  with  that  of  foreign  countries,  and  the  value  of  the 
manufactures,  principally  confined  to  Paris,  may  be  estimated  at  about 
2,000,000  francs  per  annum.  2.  The  ordinary  watch  and  clock  work  of 
commerce,  which  includes  the  making  of  the  rough  parts  of  both,  pen¬ 
dulums  included  $  dials  and  time-pieces  for  apartments,  portable  time¬ 
pieces,  common  silver  watches,  and  watches  of  higher  finish,  whether  in 
silver  or  gold  cases.  3.  Astronomic  regulators,  and  marine  and  pocket 
chronometers.  This  branch  of  trade  only  occupies  a  secondary  rank,  but 
it  holds  the  first  place  for  its  scientific  importance  and  the  beauty  of  its 
products.  4.  The  accessories  of  horology,  including  the  manufacture  of 
main  and  balance  springs,  the  working  of  precious  stones  and  machine 
tools.  5.  Wrooden  clocks,  the  use  of  which  is  so  general  in  villages  and 
country  places.  The  total  value  of  the  productions  of  the  trade  in  France 
is  estimated  at  35,000,000  francs. 

The  centres  of  manufactures  in  France  are,  for  the  finishing  of  clocks, 
Paris ;  for  finishing  of  watches,  Besangon,  Doubs ;  for  the  movements  of 
watches,  Beaucourt,  Haute  Rhin,  the  districts  of  Montbeliard  and  Cluses, 
upper  Savoy $  for  the  wheels  and  parts  of  turret  and  portable  clocks,  St. 
Nicolas,  DAliermont,  Seine  Inferieure,  Beaucourt,  and  Montbeliard $ 
lastly,  Morez,  Jura,  for  large  iron  clocks  and  those  called  de  Comte ,  prin¬ 
cipally  used  in  workshops  and  large  factories.  The  productions  of  the 
last-named  places  form  a  considerable  portion  of  this  national  industry, 
and  it  is  valued  at  more  than  4,000,000  francs.  All  these  factories  feed 
the  French  markets,  and  their  manufactures  are  also  exported  to  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent. 

The  number  of  persons  engaged  in  horology  at  Besangon  is  about 
15,000,  men,  women,  and  children.  It  is  about  one-seventh  of  the  whole 
population  of  the  arrondissement.  There  are  110  watchmaking  shops, 
20  engravers,  and  two  large  establishments  which  refine  and  prepare 
gold  and  silver  for  the  trade.  One  hundred  and  fifty  licensed  manufac¬ 
turers  supply  work  to  a  number  of  isolated  workmen,  or  to  families  of 
three  or  four  persons,  men  and  women,  working  together.  These  work- 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  83 

people  are  divided  into  classes  which  correspond  with  the  various  parts 
of  the  watch.  Thus,  there  are  separate  workmen  for  the  dial,  the  hands, 
the  springs,  the  pendant,  winders,  &c.  The  shops  that  feed  Besangon 
extend  at  present  all  along  the  Swiss  frontier  in  the  arrondissements  of 
Moreau  and  Pontarlier,  in  the  district  of  Montbeliard,  and  the  mountains 
of  the  Doubs.  The  last  two  centres,  represented  by  large  factories,  only 
make  the  rough  pieces  and  detached  parts,  such  as  wheels,  pinions,  bal¬ 
ance  wheels,  cylinders,  &c.  The  produce  of  Besangon  amounts  to 
300,000  gold  and  silver  watches  per  annum,  of  the  value  of  about 
10,000,000  francs.  In  this  amount  labor  is  represented  by  about  two- 
thirds,  and  material  by  the  remainder.  At  the  present  moment  the 
watch  manufacture  of  Besangon  represents  four-fifths  of  the  entire  con¬ 
sumption  of  France.  Its  progress  is  very  rapid,  as  the  following  figures 
will  show:  In  1845,  the  total  production  was  54,192  watches ;  in  1855, 
141,943;  and  in  1865,  296,012.  Within  the  same  period  importation  has 
considerably  fallen  off.  It  diminished  from  200,000  watches  in  1855  to 
45,454  in  1865.  There  exist  many  mutual  aid  societies  in  Besangon,  and 
a  school  of  horology,  towards  which  the  municipal  authorities  have  voted 
a  grant  of  20,000  francs  per  annum.  There  are  turned  out  annually,  in 
addition  to  a  large  number  of  alarms,  musical  boxes,  &c.,  more  than 
200,000  clock  movements  from  Beaucourt,  Badevel,  and  the  district  of 
Montbeliard.  The  town  of  Cluses,  upper  Savoy,  also  possesses  a  school 
for  young  watchmakers.  The  boys  are  employed  for  making  rough 
movements  and  detached  pieces,  especially  pinions,  which  are  sent  to 
Besangon  or  to  Geneva.  The  manufactures  of  St.  Mcolas  dAliermont, 
although  far  from  equalling  that  of  Franche  Comte  in  importance,  still 
furnishes  a  considerable  share  to  the  horological  trade  of  France.  Out 
of  a  population  of  2,500  inhabitants,  about  1,000  are  employed  in  the 
watch  trade.  Chronometers  and  astronomical  regulators  are  produced 
there,  the  prices  of  which  range  between  600  and  1,200  francs,  besides  a 
large  quantity  of  wheels  for  clocks,  alarums,  and  electrical  apparatus. 
The  produce  amounts  annually  to  144,000  pieces,  the  value  of  which  is 
estimated  at  more  than  1,000,000  francs.  As  at  Besangon,  numbers  of 
workmen  live  in  their  own  homes,  and  work,  with  their  families,  around 
the  manufactories.  Women  are  employed  in  preference  to  men  for  pol¬ 
ishing,  pivoting,  and  mounting  the  wheels.  The  weight  of  the  raw 
material  employed  is  50  tons  per  annum,  copper  forming  nearly  the  entire 
bulk.  The  articles  manufactured  at  St.  Mcolas  d’Aliermont  are  sent 
principally  to  Paris  and  London. — Translation  of  the  introduction  to  Class 
23,  by  Tangier e.  ( Official  catalogue.) 

At  the  London  Exhibition  of  1862  there  were,  of  all  nations,  300 
exhibitors  in  this  class,  of  which  54  were  French  and  97  English.  In 
the  Exposition  of  1867,  the  number  had  increased  to  535,  France  being 
represented  by  223  exhibitors,  and  England  by  29. 

The  manufacture  has  made  more  progress  in  France  than  elsewhere, 
but  for  scientific  and  the  higher  purposes  of  horology  the  English  makers 


84 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


still  occupy  tlie  first  rank.  From  the  period  when  timekeepers,  in  the 
form  of  the  quaint  “Nuremberg  egg,”  were  invented,  it  has  been  the 
constant  effort  of  horologists  to  improve  the  construction  of  horological 
instruments;  and  the  efforts  in  this  direction  have  been  so  successful 
that  ships  in  the  middle  of  vast  oceans  are  enabled,  by  means  of  chro¬ 
nometers,  to  ascertain  their  position  with  extraordinary  precision;  and 
parties  in  dense  forests  provided  with  these  instruments  cut  paths 
through  them  with  unerring  accuracy.  To  the  marvellous  precision  of 
chronometers  the  laying  of  submarine  telegraph  cables  is,  in  a  great 
measure,  due,  and  without  their  aid  the  picking  up  of  the  lost  Atlantic 
cable — one  of  the  most  astounding  feats  of  the  century — could  not  have 
been  effected. 

This  perfection  has  been  attained  after  incessant  thought,  experiment, 
and  trial.  The  principal  difficulty  that  had  to  be  contended  with,  and 
which  even  now  has  only  been  relatively  overcome,  was  that  of  compen¬ 
sation.  Metals,  however  carefully  prepared,  expand  and  contract  with 
the  atmosphere,  and  these  variations  naturally  interfered  with  rate  of 
speed.  The  errors  were  of  vast  importance  to  the  navigator,  and  admon¬ 
ished  him  that  he  should  be  very  careful  that  his  chronometers  were 
adjusted  for  high  and  low  temperatures  in  the  ice-chambers  and  gas-stoves 
of  their  makers.  Bad  oil  was  another  cause  of  imperfect  working,  but 
to  correct  the  temperature  error  was  the  chief  aim  of  the  makers  of  these 
sensitive  and  valuable  pieces  of  mechanism.  Yast  progress  has  been 
made  in  this  direction.  The  faults  of  the  chronometer  have  been  brought 
down  to  a  matter  of  statistics,  like  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  so 
that  every  deviation  is  regular  and  anticipated.  The  Arnold-Earnshaw 
compensation  balance,  composed  of  brass  and  steel  laminae,  corrects 
every  temperature  error  to  a  daily  rate  of  four  seconds,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  pretty  nearly  uniform  in  all  temperatures  between  30°  and 
90°.  Mr.  Charles  Frodsham  exhibited  some  curious  compensation  bal¬ 
ances,  involving  various  new  constructions;  also  a  micrometric  balance 
affording  a  simple  means  of  adjusting  chronometers  without  removing 
the  balance  or  disturbing  the  mean  time. 

English  chronometers  are,  in  general,  constructed  to  go  two  days,  or 
54  hours,  and  4o  be  wound  up  daily.  A  considerable  number,  however, 
are  constructed  to  go  eight  days,  and  are  to  be  wound  up  every  seventh 
day.  The  same  gentleman  exhibited  an  astronomical  regulator  combin¬ 
ing  every  accumulated  improvement,  including  new  brass  tubular  mer¬ 
cury  compensation  pendulum  and  connecting  galvanic  apparatus  for 
recording  the  time  of  observations.  This  clock  was  especially  interest¬ 
ing  to  Americans,  inasmuch  as  it  was  made  for  Cambridge  University, 
Massachusetts.  It  was  regarded  by  experts  as  the  most  perfect  instru¬ 
ment  of  its  kind  in  the  Exposition.  It  is  a  model  of  the  celebrated  clock 
made  by  Mr.  Frodsham  for  the  Melbourne  Observatory.  The  results  of 
the  performance  of  this  clock  during  three  years  were  submitted  to  the 
jury  and  pronounced  to  be  the  most  remarkable  for  accuracy  on  record. 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOP.  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  85 


Mr.  Frodsham  attributed  its  wonderful  precision  not  only  to  mechanical 
excellence,  but  also  to  the  discovery  that  few  pendulum-rods  are  ever  so 
perfectly  homogeneous  as  to  lengthen  directly  by  heat  and  shorten 
directly  by  cold.  On  the  contrary,  experiments  show  that  they  often 
expand  into  a  bow  form.  In  submitting  six  rods  to  a  temperature  of 
G00°  only  one  of  the  rods  remained  perfectly  straight,  and  the  others 
bowed  and  warped  into  such  shapes  as  to  be  entirely  useless  until  they 
were  re  annealed  5  and  what  was  even  more  surprising  was  the  fact  that 
the  flat  rods  not  only  warped  more  than  the  round  ones,  but  also  warped 
edgeways.  The  pendulum  rods  used  in  the  clock  for  the  United  States 
were  submitted  to  this  test  of  600°. 

The  French  collection  was  admirable  not  only  in  fashionable  and  other 
kinds  of  watches,  but  also  in  instruments  of  precision  for  astronomical 
and  marine  purposes.  Gaurdin  exhibited  a  turret  clock  built  for  the  new 
cathedral  at  Buffalo,  United  States,  and  containing  chimes  of  43  bells? 
with  machinery  by  which  the  airs  may  be  varied.  The  bells  are  sweet 
enough,  but  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  airs  will  be  varied,  for  they 
are  of  a  singularly  trashy  character,  and  entirely  unsuited  to  the  pur¬ 
poses  for  which  they  are  intended. 

A  few  electrical  clocks  were  exhibited  in  the  French  department,  and 
also  some  specimens  of  clocks  made  by  machinery  at  Dieppe.  But  in 
the  latter  art  the  French  have  not  yet  approached  the  precision  of  Amer¬ 
ican  manufacturers. 

Very  ingeniously  constructed,  small,  portable  alarm  clocks  were 
exhibited  by  Phillipe.  They  strike  an  alarm  and  light  a  candle  at  any 
desired  hour. 

Among  the  revolutions  attempted  to  be  effected  by  the  French 
makers  is  the  ten  hours’  movement.  They  wish  to  introduce  the  deci¬ 
mal  system  of  time  in  watches,  dividing  the  day  into  ten  hours  and  the 
minutes  into  100  seconds. 

The  watch  manufacture  of  Switzerland  was  represented  by  163  exhib¬ 
itors,  67  of  whom  were  from  the  Bernese  Jura.  Watches  were  there  to 
be  seen  ranging  in  price  from  eight  francs  to  1,250  francs.  Among  the 
cheap  watches  were  some  curious  specimens  constructed  for  exportation 
to  China.  A  school  for  teaching  watchmaking,  founded  in  Geneva  in 
1824,  turned  out  some  extremely  fine  work.  Pupils  are  admitted  at  the 
age  of  14,  and  may  remain  in  the  establishment  for  four  years  and  a 
half,  during  which  time  they  are  taught  all  liorological  processes.  The 
terms  are,  for  natives  of  Switzerland,  five  francs  a  month,  and  for  those 
of  other  countries,  20  francs.  Natives  of  Switzerland  also  enjoy  the 
advantage  of  being  provided  gratuitously  with  all  necessary  watchmak¬ 
ing  tools.  During  the  winter  months  the  pupils  have  the  privilege  of 
attending  free  courses  of  lectures,  given  in  the  evening,  on  geometry, 
mechanics,  and  linear  drawing.  There  are  also  four  other  schools  in 
Switzerland  with  professors  at  their  heads. 

Watches  that  are  wound  up  with  the  pendant,  or,  as  they  are  popu- 


86 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


larly  called,  the  keyless  watch,  were  very  general.  The  fashion  is  con¬ 
venient  and  advantageous,  inasmuch  as  the  watch  need  never  be  opened, 
and  is  therefore  kept  free  from  dust  and  moisture.  The  invention,  how¬ 
ever,  is  by  no  means  so  novel  as  is  generally  supposed.  It  was  first 
introduced,  says  Mr.  Weld,  by  John  Arnold,  in  1823,  for  the  conveni¬ 
ence  of  a  naval  officer  who  had  lost  his  right  arm. 

There  were  two  exhibitors  in  the  American  department.  The  work¬ 
manship  of  Fournier’s  turret  clock  was  regarded  as  extremely  good.  It 
was,  in  every  respect,  a  carefully  constructed  instrument.  The  contri¬ 
butions  of  the  New  Haven  Clock  Company  were  remarkable  mainly  for 
the  processes  by  which  they  were  made. 


CLASS  24.— APPARATUS  AND  PROCESS  FOR  HEATING  AND 

LIGHTING. 

In  this  very  extensive  class  were  included  the  following  subjects :  Fire¬ 
places,  chimneys,  stoves,  furnaces,  calorifiers,  accessory  objects ;  appara¬ 
tus  for  heating  by  gas,  by  hot  water,  by  hot  air ;  apparatus  for  ventilating 
and  for  drying  stoves ;  enameRed  lamps,  blowpipes,  portable  forges  ;  lamps 
for  oil — mineral,  vegetable,  or  animal ;  other  accessories  of  lighting; 
apparatus  for  lighting  by  gas;  photo-electrical  lamps;  apparatus  for 
lighting  by  magnetism. 

There  were  fourteen  exhibitors  in  the  American  department.  The 
processes  employed  did  not  vary  materially  from  the  most  advanced  prin¬ 
ciples  of  Europe,  and  both  in  warming  and  lighting  it  may  be  claimed 
that  the  United  States  are  ahead  of  other  nations.  European  makers 
address  themselves  mainly  to  the  utilization  of  fuel,  and  where  they 
attempt  warming  a  building  they  contrive  to  throw  a  small  stream  of 
heat  into  many  apartments  without  interfering  with  the  boiling  of  the 
pot  in  the  kitchen. 

The  uses  of  gas  are  as  yet  imperfectly  understood  in  Europe,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  there  is  still  a  wide- spread  prejudice  against  its  use.  Most 
of  the  contrivances  were  for  regulating  the  supply,  and  measuring  it  with 
extreme  accuracy. 

An  ingenious  contrivance  was  shown  in  the  English  cottage.  It  was 
for  lighting  grate  fires  without  the  troublesome  use  of  wood,  paper,  and 
other  combustibles.  Two  small  tubes  containing  burners  similar  to  those 
used  in  gas  stoves  are  placed  besides  the  chimney  jambs.  They  are  on 
moveable  joints,  and  can  be  turned  to  any  bar.  The  grate  is  filled  with 
coal  and  these  tubes  are  lighted.  They  blow  a  blue  flame  into  the  grate, 
and  rapidly  ignite  the  coal. 

In  the  French  department  was  exhibited  a  plan  for  heating  the  new 
Grand  Opera. 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  87 


CLASS  25. — PERFUMERY. 

This  class  comprehends,  under  the  head  of  perfumery,  all  the  numer^ 
ous  articles  of  the  toilet.  A  great  number  of  perfumery  establishments 
exist  in  Paris,  and  there  are  also  very  important  ones  in  Nantes,  and 
nearly  all  over  the  south  of  France,  particularly  at  Grasse,  Marseilles, 
and  Nice.  The  raw  materials  employed  are  oils  and  greases,  impregnated 
with  perfumes  of  flowers ;  distilled  waters,  with  and  without  alcohol ; 
cinnamon,  cloves,  &c. ;  odoriferous  chemical  essences,  in  their  natural 
state  and  prepared,  are  also  used.  Algeria  and  south  of  France  supply 
the  flowers  for  perfumery  at  a  price  relatively  low.  Those  who  produce 
special  articles,  such  as  soap,  the  preparation  of  which  involves  compli¬ 
cated  operations,  employ  in  their  workshops  machines  of  all  sorts,  the 
use  of  which  is  becoming  general  everywhere.  One  of  the  Paris  exhib¬ 
itors  who  produces  the  raw  material  is  a  soap  and  x>erfume  maker,  and 
retails  his  own  manufactures.  A  large  proportion  of  the  work  people 
are  women ;  they  are  employed  both  in  the  preparation  and  the  making 
up  of  the  perfumes.  Children  could  also  be  emxfloyed,  if  required.  The 
ordinary  journeyman  perfumers  take  very  little  time  to  learn  the  trade. 
They  are  divided  into  producers  of  raw  materials,  the  purifiers  of  fatty 
substances,  and  the  perfumers,  who  select  the  x>erfumes,  incorporate  them 
in  certain  substances,  and  sell  them  made  up  in  forms  more  or  less  ele¬ 
gant,  according  to  their  qualities.  The  products  of  x>erfumeries,  which 
attain  a  large  total,  are  delivered  for  home  consumption  and  to  agents 
for  exportation.  The  exports  reach  the  sum  of  15,000,000  francs,  while 
the  imports  do  not  exceed  1,000,000  francs,  including  a  certain  quantity 
of  raw  materials.  The  exports  from  France  are  made  to  all  parts  of  the 
world;  the  excellent  preparation  of  the  ingredients,  the  care  with  which i 
they  are  made  up  for  sale,  and  their  incontestible  quality,  cause  them  to 
be  in  great  demand,  and  daily  increase  their  value  and  importance.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  the  numerous  counterfeit  imitations  from  abroad 
tend,  every  now  and  then,  to  interfere  with  the  impulse  acquired  by  this 
branch  of  industry.  We  must  signalize,  however,  the  considerable  and 
interesting  x>rogress  which  has  been  made  in  perfumery  during  the  last 
few  years.  The  methods  of  working  have  been  inrproved,  as  much  in 
regard  to  the  processes  as  in  an  economical  point  of  view.  The  plant 
and  utensils  employed  in  the  production  of  toilet  soap  have  undergone  a 
complete  transformation.  The  use  of  certain  machines  has  become  gen¬ 
eral  in  the  greater  number  of  workshops.  Finally,  in  spite  of  the  duties 
which  weigh  upon  some  of  the  raw  materials,  we  can  safely  assert  that 
the  trade  of  perfumery  has  not  attained  its  greatest  development,  and 
that  the  formation  of  the  syndicate  will  open  up  a  new  outlet,  which  will 
tend  to  maintain  it  in  the  high  rank  it  now  occux>ies  among  the  great 
French  industries. — ( From  the  Official  Catalogue.) 

Perfumery,  in  the  present  sense  of  the  word,  owes  its  origin  to  the 
Egyptians.  The  process  of  embalming  involved  the  use  of  scented  sub- 


88 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


stances  of  all  kinds,  and  for  toilet  purposes  aromatic  preparations  were 
used  in  great  profusion.  Tlie  unguents  used  by  tlie  priests  were  com¬ 
pounded  with  such  skill  that  a  specimen  in  the  museum  of  Alnwick  castle 
was  found,  a  few  years  ago,  to  have  retained  its  scent  after  the  lapse  of 
3,000  or  4,000  years.  The  Jews,  after  the  Israelite  captivity  in  Egypt, 
possessed  themselves  of  all  the  secrets  of  the  Egyptians,  and  improved 
upon  them.  They  became  the  greatest  experts  of  the  ancient  world  in 
preparing  odors  of  all  kinds.  All  the  Asiatic  nations  exhibited  an  intense 
love  of  perfumes.  The  Greeks  were  addicted  to  fine  scents,  and  the 
wise  Solon  enacted  sumptuary  laws  on  the  subject.  The  Romans  brought 
many  Greek  customs  from  parts  of  southern  Italy  which  had  been  set¬ 
tled  by  the  Hellenes,  and  among  others  that  of  perfuming  the  body. 
Julius  Csesar  issued  a  mandate  like  Solon  against  the  importation  of 
these  dangerous  articles,  but  without  success.  Caligula  the  Gross  con¬ 
stantly  bathed  in  perfumed  waters,  and  in  Hero’s  golden  palace  the 
drinking  tables  were  made  with  concealed  silver  pipes,  which  cast  on  the 
guests  a  spray  of  essences.  The  unctuarium  of  a  Roman  bath  contained 
innumerable  preparations  for  the  hair,  the  beard,  and  body.  The  boudoir 
of  a  Roman  beauty  was  a  complicated  laboratory,  where  nature’s  idea  of 
beauty  was  corrected  according  to  the  latest  code  of  fashion,  even  to  the 
particular  of  changing  the  obstinate  color  of  the  fair  one’s  hair,  which 
then,  as  now,  was  considered  beautiful  if  auburn,  light  brown,  or  golden. 
The  dye  used  consisted  of  a  soap  from  Germany  made  of  goat’s  fat  and 
ashes,  no  doubt  containing  some  very  powerful  alkali. 

Arabia  discovered  the  secret  of  extracting  perfumes  from  flowers  by 
the  process  of  distillation,  and  the  first  flower  to  surrender  its  sweets 
was  the  rose.  Hence  the  earliest  commercial  perfume  was,  and  still  is, 
known  by  the  name  of  “rose  water.”  This  must  not  be  confused  with 
u  otto  of  rose,”  which  is  an  Indian  preparation  of  singular  potency  and 
great  price.  The  story  of  its  discovery  is  related  by  Mr.  Rimmel  and 
other  writers  on  this  very  interesting  topic.  A  fair  princess,  while  walk¬ 
ing  in  her  garden,  through  which  meandered  a  gentle  stream  of  rose 
water,  observed  certain  oily  particles  floating  on  the  surface,  and  this 
turned  out  to  be  the  veritable  “  otto.”  In  the  present  day  the  essence  is, 
of  course,  procured  by  means  of  distillation. 

Musk,  although  known  to  many  nations  of  antiquity,  seems  to  have 
been  the  special  favorite  of  the  Chinese,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  northern  provinces  of  China  are  the  u  habitat”  of  the  musk 
deer,  a  little  animal  about  the  size  of  a  greyhound,  from  whence  the  per¬ 
fume  is  obtained.  When  once  musk  has  been  used,  its  obliteration  from 
the  sense  of  smell  is  almost  impossible,  as  an  instance  of  which  it  is  stated 
by  Dr.  Piesse  that  the  walls  of  Malmaison,  inhabited  more  than  forty 
years  ago  by  the  Empress  Josephine,  though  since  then  repeatedly  rubbed 
and  painted,  and  even  washed  with  aquafortis,  still  retain  the  odor  of 
this  imperishable  scent,  of  which,  it  is  needless  to  add,  the  empress  was 
inordinately  fond. 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  89 


Soap,  it  may  here  he  added,  whether  perfumed  or  otherwise,  was  known 
to  many  savage  nations  long  before  it  was  discovered  by  Europeans. 

These  historical  particulars,  and  the  precise  statistics  of  the  French 
department,  will  suffice  for  a  rapid  glance  at  a  class  which  cannot  be 
made  interesting  by  description,  save  by  him  who  can  paint  the  lily  and 
perfume  the  rose.  The  French  display  was  fine,  not  only  in  the  manner 
in  which  these  delicacies  were  “put  up”  for  the  market,  but  especially 
fine  in  the  exhibit  of  essences  and  materials  employed  by  perfumers  of 
all  countries  in  the  fabrication  of  their  goods.  There  were  sixty-two 
exhibitors. 

After  France,  England,  except  in  the  article  of  eau-de-Cologne,  in 
which  Prussia,  of  course,  bore  off  the  palm,  ranked  next.  She  had  fif¬ 
teen  exhibitors.  There  were  two  contributions  from  America. 

The  contribution  from  Egypt  was  made  by  his  Highness  the  Yiceroy, 
and  consisted  of  “  galena”  in  powder,  called  u  lohle,”  used  for  darkening 
the  eyebrows  and  eyelids  ;  henna  powder,  “  lansonia  alba,”  used  for  the 
toilet  of  Arab  women  ;  soap  made  at  Cairo,  small  caskets ;  scented  wood, 
used  for  perfuming  rooms;  “ dilka”  (cosmetic)  and  ostrich  grease,  used 
by  the  women  of  Nubia  and  the  Soudan ;  wooden  bottles,  covered  with 
embroidered  tissues,  containing  bladders  of  crocodile  musk  and  various 
perfumes  used  in  the  “  Sennar ;”  wooden  bottle  and  pencil  used  for  the 
coloring  of  the  eyebrows  and  eyelids ;  ivory  horns  used  for  perfumery  by 
the  nomade  Arab  tribes ;  wigs  worn  by  the  negroes  of  Mams-Mams  on 
fete  days. 

His  Highness  the  Bey  of  Tunis  sent :  Metikaux,  essences  of  roses,  cas¬ 
sia,  behar,  cloves,  amarante,  double  jasmine,  aloes,  ambergris,  sfax,  jas¬ 
mine,  and  mixed  perfumes ;  ambergris  pastilles,  zebed  pomade,  chenouda, 
and  oil  of  jasmine;  “ sousse”  soaps,  with  and  without  scent;  orange 
flower,  “nesri,”  jasmine,  rose,  and  other  waters. 

CLASS  26. — MOROCCO  WORK,  FANCY  ARTICLES,  AND  BASKET 

WORK. 

The  articles  exhibited  in  class  26  represented  several  trades  which  are 
closely  connected ;  we  may  say  in  a  general  way  that  they  belong  to 
that  kind  known  under  the  name  of  “  articles  de  Paris.”  There  are  three 
principal  series :  1.  Articles  in  Morocco  leather,  and  other  small  fancy 
articles ;  2.  Articles  in  fancy  wood ;  3.  Basket  work. 

MOROCCO  WORK  AND  OTHER  SMALL  FANCY  ARTICLES. 

The  smaH  fancy  articles  included,  under  this  head  are  pocket-books, 
dressing  and  traveUing-cases,  purses,  cigar-cases,  &c.  The  manufacture 
of  articles  in  morocco  leather  is  chiefly  confined  to  Paris,  and  particularly 
to  the  third  arrondissement.  For  these  manufactures  a  great  variety  of 
materials  are  used,  of  which  the  principals  are  sheep,  goat,  boar,  and 
other  skins,  speciaUy  prepared;  paper,  silk,  velvet;  rosewood,  mahogany, 
oak,  and  other  woods  derived  from  Algeria;  bone,  horn,  ivory,  tortoise- 


90 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


shell,  gold,  silver,  and  veneers  are  also  employed,  besides  iron,  steel, 
copper,  white  metal,  and  sometimes  aluminium  is  used. 

A  great  number  of  instruments  and  tools  are  used  to  work  the  different 
materials ;  turning-lathes,  presses,  stamping  and  drawing  machines,  dies 
to  cut  out  stuffs,  frames,  &c. ;  paring,  piercing,  and  hinge-making 
machines ;  sewing  and  stitching  machines;  polishing  and  nail-making 
and  tempering  machines.  The  last-named  description  are  moved  by 
steam,  the  former  by  hand.  The  great  variety  of  articles  in  morocco 
makes  it  difficult  to  reckon  the  value  of  the  materials  used;  we  can  say, 
however,  that  it  is  of  no  great  importance,  when  the  articles  are  plain, 
and  require  no  ornamentation  in  gold  or  silver.  Most  of  the  manufac¬ 
turers  have  no  working  establishments,  and  do  not  employ  any  men  in 
their  workshops ;  they  resort  to  cabinet-makers,  jewellers,  and  others,  who 
work  by  the  piece.  One-third  of  those  employed  are  women ;  they  almost 
all  work  for  employers.  The  salaries  vary  in  Paris  from  five  francs  to 
six  francs  for  men,  and  from  two  francs  fifty  centimes  to  three  francs  for 
women.  The  articles  are  delivered  direct  to  the  retail  venders,  and  to  the 
agents  for  exportation.  Two-thirds  or  so  are  sold  in  France;  the  remain¬ 
ing  third  is  exported,  principally  to  America,  England,  Germany,  Spain, 
Bussia,  and  several  other  countries.  The  production  of  articles  in 
morocco,  including  small  fancy  articles,  dressing  and  other  cases,  repre¬ 
sents  more  than  12,000,000  francs.  The  manufacture  of  these  articles 
has  been  much  improved  since  1855,  and  is  constantly  on  the  increase ; 
and,  at  the  present  time,  the  articles  are  remarkable  for  great  finish,  good 
taste,,  and  variety  of  shape. 

ARTICLES  IN  FANCY  WOOD,  BASKET-WORK,  ETC. 

These  include  small  articles  in  ivory,  tortoise-shell,  mother-of-pearl, 
shell,  horn,  bone,  cocoa,  hardwood,  &c.,  such  as  ivory  statuettes,  billiard 
balls,  combs,  snuff-boxes,  brush  mountings,  fans,  screens,  chessmen, 
dominoes,  draughts,  tric-trac  counters,  parasol  and  umbrella  handles, 
and  quantities  of  other  articles  in  general  use.  The  small  lacquer-boxes 
belong  to  the  same  class.  Their  manufacture  is  carried  on  chiefly  in 
Paris,  Dieppe,  St.  Cloud,  (Jura,)  Beauvais,  and  in  the  cantons  of  Meru 
and  hToailles  (Oise,)  Beaumont,  (Seine  and  Oise,)  in  the  arrondissement 
of  Eureux,  (Eure,)  and  in  the  departments  of  the  Aisne,  Marne,  and 
Loire,  Moselle,  and  Yosges.  The  articles  exhibited  in  class  26  belong 
almost  exclusively  to  the  Paris  trade.  The  materials  employed  are  of 
great  variety,  both  as  to  price  and  origin.  The  following  are  the  most 
generally  used:  gold,  silver,  tortoise-shell,  mother-of-pearl,  ivory,  horn, 
cocoa-nut  wood,  pasteboard,  waxed  leather,  &c. ;  for  the  manufacture  ot 
pipes,  meerschaum,  brier-root,  common  and  yellow  amber,  horn,  ivory, 
bone,  all  the  white  woods,  colonial  woods,  cherry,  ebony,  &c. ;  for  combs, 
tortoise-shell,  ivory,  common  horn,  Irish  horn,  and  buffalo  horn,  wood, 
hardened  India-rubber,  and,  in  some  cases,  metals. 

The  mode  of  manufacture  of  these  articles  is  extremely  varied;  it 


FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  FOR  USE  OF  DWELLINGS.  91 

changes  with  the  articles  produced.  The  work  is  usually  done  by  hand ; 
nevertheless,  the  comb-makers  have  used  machinery  to  cut  out  the  plates 
of  horn  and  tortoise-shell.  The  daily  wages  are  five  or  six  francs  for 
men,  and  two  francs  fifty  centimes  or  three  francs  for  women.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  workmen  work  by  the  piece,  and  about  two-thirds  of  the 
workwomen  are  employed  in  workshops.  The  trade  includes  many 
specialties.  The  principal  men  employed  are  sculptors,  engravers, 
painters,  lacquerers,  horn-flatteners,  workers  in  bronze,  pasteboard 
cutters,  decorators,  filers,  inlayers,  moulders,  polishers,  turners,  &c. ;  for 
women,  pasteboard  shapers,  polishers,  and  piercers,  ( reperceuses.)  Most 
of  the  tradesmen  employ  workmen  at  home,  and  have  no  workshops ;  a 
certain  number  of  workmen  work  on  their  own  account,  and  sell  their 
articles  to  the  special  houses  in  Paris,  or  the  provinces,  and  to  commis¬ 
sion  merchants,  for  exportation.  The  amount  of  production  of  these 
small  fancy  articles  represents  as  much  as  50,000,000  francs.  Paris  alone, 
whose  products  are  almost  exclusively  shown  in  class  26,  makes  11,000,000 
francs. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  products  are  sent  to  America,  England, 
Bussia,  Spain,  and  Germany.  During  the  last  10  years,  the  manufacture 
of  fancy  articles  has  become  very  important ;  brush-making  particularly 
has  made  great  progress.  We  may  note,  in  the  first  place,  an  important 
decrease  in  the  price  of  almost  all  the  products,  and  we  can  add  that  the 
Paris  workmen  are  particularly  skilful  in  the  manufacture  of  fancy  boxes. 

BASKET-MAKING. 

Basket-making  has  but  a  small  space  in  class  26-  however,  a  few  fancy 
articles,  which  are  only  manufactured  in  Paris,  may  be  seen  there.  These 
are  baskets  and  flower-stands  in  osier,  painted,  varnished,  bronzed,  gilt, 
and  remarkable  by  the  variety  of  their  ornaments.  Few  common  baskets 
are  made  in  Paris.  It  has  become  a  most  active  branch  of  industry  in 
several  departments,  and  chiefly  in  the  Aisne,  at  Brigny-en-Yierache, 
near  Yervins. — {Extracted  from  the  translation  of  the  Official  Catalogue.) 

The  articles  embraced  in  this  class  were  so  numerous  that  it  would  be 
easier  to  describe  one-half  of  the  fancy  stores  of  Paris,  and  two-thirds  of 
those  of  Yienna,  than  to  give  an  idea  of  their  infinite  variety  and  extent. 
Nevertheless,  they  were  divided  into  three  families,  called,  in  French, 
maroquinerie ,  tabletterie ,  et  vannerie .  Each  of  these  families  was  numerous 
enough,  and  distant  offsprings  were  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  build¬ 
ing.  Maroquinerie  proper  relates  to  large  objects,  such  as  travelling  bags, 
&c.;  la  petite  maroquinerie ,  to  small  articles,  as  purses,  &c.  They  are,  as 
the  name  implies,  made  from  morocco  leather,  or  imitations  thereof. 
Tabletterie  comprises  all  articles  turned  in  ivory  and  wood;  vannerie , 
everything  that  is  wrought  by  the  basket- worker. 

The  French  had  93  exhibitors  in  class  26,  and  for  ingenuity,  elegance, 
and  beauty  combined,  were  incontestably  ahead  of  any  other  nation. 
The  English  excelled  in  leather  articles,  where  substantiality  (as  in  dress- 


92 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ing-cases)  was  the  desideratum.  The  Austrians  were  formidable  rivals 
to  both  nations. 

A  small  amount  of  usefulness  and  a  large  proportion  of  style  are  the 
characteristics  of  all  the  well-known  objects  of  class  26.  Most  of  the 
novelties  were  consequently  dependent  on  the  latter  quality,  no  new 
material  having  been  lately  introduced  into  the  manufacture  of  these 
charming  objects. 

Mr.  Latry  (France)  exhibited  several  articles  in  hard  wood,  which 
were  not  exactly  what  they  pretended  to  be.  They  were,  in  reality, 
composed  of  fine  wood- dust,  mixed  with  the  blood  of  animals.  This 
curious  process  is  new  and  a  trade  secret.  The  intensely  black  appear¬ 
ance  given  to  the  articles  is  ascribed  to  the  carbonization  of  blood, 
caused  by  the  action  of  heat — boiling  or  baking. 

Another  exhibitor  displayed  a  slab  of  ivory  of  unusual  proportions  and 
vastly  larger  than  could  be  obtained  from  the  diameter  of  the  elephant’s 
tusk.  It  was  obtained  by  sawing  spirally,  in  concentring  rings,  a  longi¬ 
tudinal  portion  of  the  solid  ivory  and  then  opening  the  coils  into  one 
sheet  by  means  of  steam  or  some  other  softening  process.  The  specimen 
was  1 J  foot  long  by  1  foot  broad. 

The  exhibition  of  England  in  leather  articles  was  extremely  good. 
Austria  shone  best  in  the  smaller  ware,  in  articles  made  of  stag-horn, 
and  in  the  specialty  of  meerschaum  pipes.  Meerschaum,  though  popu¬ 
larly  supposed  to  be  made  from  the  froth  of  the  sea,  is,  in  reality,  a  fine 
clay,  found  principally  on  the  coasts  of  the  North  sea,  and  is  composed 
of  hydrate  of  magnesia  combined  with  silex.  It  is  easily  and  cheaply 
imitated. 

There  were  six  American  exhibitors  in  this  class.  The  beautiful  skele¬ 
ton  leaves  of  Mrs.  Hanxhurst,  the  meerschaum  pipes  of  Kaldenberg  & 
Sons,  and  the  wax  flowers  of  Mrs.  Bloodgood,  were  excellent  specimens 
of  conscientious  and  thoughtful  skill. 


GROUP  IT, 


CLOTHING— INCLUDING  FABRICS  AND  OTHER 
OBJECTS  WORN  ON  THE  PERSON. 

Class  27.  Cotton  Yarns,  Threads,  and  Tissues.— Class  28.  Flaxen  and  Hempen 
Yarns,  Threads,  and  Tissues. — Class  29.  Combed  Wool  and  Worsted  Yarns 
and  Fabrics. — Class  30.  Carded  Wool  and  Woollen  Yarns  and  Fabrics.— 
Class  31.  Silk  and  Silk  Manufactures.— Class  32.  Shawls. — Class33.  Lace,  Net, 
Embroidery,  and  Trimmings. — Class  34.  Hosiery,  Under-Clothing,  and  Minor 
Articles.— Class  35.  Clothing  for  both  Sexes.— Class  36.  Jewelry  and  Orna¬ 
ments. — Class  37.  Portable  Arms. — Class  38.  Travelling  and  Camp  Equipage. — 
Class  39.  Toys. 

The  articles  included  in  this  group  are  of  vital  importance  to  nations, 
constituting,  indeed,  the  most  active  source  of  industry  and  wealth. 
There  is  hardly  a  country  in  the  world  that  is  not,  in  our  days,  affected 
by  the  interests  radiating  from  the  cotton  trade $  yet  it  is  hardly  more 
than  a  hundred  years  that  cotton  goods  were  regarded  as  a  luxury.  It 
was  known  long  before  having  been  introduced  into  Europe  as  a  produce 
of  India,  in  the  time  of  the  Romans,  but  the  earliest  traces  of  the  em¬ 
ployment  of  the  raw  material  do  not  go  beyond  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  manufacture  at  that  time  was  almost  exclusively  French,  the  cotton 
being  obtained  from  the  Levant.  In  1770  the  consumption  of  raw  cot- 
top  in  France  was  only  1,600  tons  a  year.  In  England  it  had  reached 
2,500  tons ,  though  the  manufacture  had  been  introduced  later,  it  had 
already  made  more  rapid  progress.  In  that  year  America  sent  to 
Europe  her  first  venture  in  raw  cotton.  It  was  a  ton!  Before  the 
rebellion,  in  1859,  that  is,  in  90  years,  the  export  from  America  had 
reached  the  incredible  quantity  of  600,000  tons. 

Since  that  time  cotton  has  been  cultivated  in  almost  every  quarter  of 
the  globe,  and  with  more  success  than  could  have  been  anticipated. 
Owing  to  this  circumstance  the  production  of  cotton  goods  was  barely 
interrupted  by  the  war. 

The  English  manufacture  in  1865  was  of  a  value  of  more  than 
£80,000,000  sterling,  of  which  £52,000,000  were  exported.  The  quantity 
of  cotton  consumed  by  all  the  other  countries  of  Europe  and  by  the 
United  States,  collectively,  was  about  one-fifth  more  than  that  required 
for  Great  Britain  alone,  where  nearly  a  million  of  persons  are  employed 
in  this  branch  of  industry. 

It  was  natural,  under  these  circumstances,  to  have  anticipated  a  large 
display  in  the  British  section ;  but  those  who  had  this  idea  were  doomed 
to  disappointment.  There  were  but  30  exhibitors,  against  210  in  France. 
Even  these  30  made  but  an  indifferent  effort  at  display.  u  The  exhibi¬ 
tion  of  British  cotton  goods,”  says  Mr.  Murray,  in  his  official  report,  “was 
chiefly  remarkable,  as  to  its  contents,  for  the  absence  of  many  important 


94 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


and  essential  departments  ;  and  as  to  its  arrangements,  for  the  absence 
of  the  practical  common  sense  one  is  accustomed  to  expect  in  connection 
with  that  large  and  active  manufacture.  The  goods  were,  for  the  most 
part,  in  glass  cases,  where  they  could  neither  be  seen  to  advantage  nor 
tested  by  the  touch.  The  display  was  mute  and  useless  to  the  practical 
visitor,  and  quite  unattractive  to  the  general  public.  Among  the  absen¬ 
tees  were  nearly  all  the  leading  houses  of  the  trade.” 

The  Scotch  manufacturers  entirely  abstained  from  making  a  display, 
and  thus  several  lighter  branches  of  the  trade  were  entirely  unrepre¬ 
sented.  There  were  no  plain  or  printed  muslins,  no  Jacquard  muslin 
curtains,  no  muslin  linings,  no  ginghams,  no  handkerchiefs.  Even  from 
Manchester,  whence  the  principal  exhibitors  came,  most  of  the  leading 
branches  failed  to  appear.  Yarns,  with  a  single  exception,  were  con¬ 
spicuously  absent.  Calico,  of  which  England  exports  £23,000,000  worth 
a  year,  was  represented  only  in  one  branch.  Eine  shirtings,  another 
immense  branch,  and  that  of  prints,  of  which  she  spreads  far  over 
£16,000,000  over  the  world,  declined  to  appear  with  remarkable  una¬ 
nimity.  Excepting  the  articles  of  sewing  thread,  which  was  well  repre¬ 
sented,  and  of  which  the  exports  are  £750,000,  and  the  calicos  just  men¬ 
tioned,  the  Manchester  exhibition  consisted  of  a  few  minor  branches,  in 
most  cases  imperfectly  represented,  which,  as  exports,  do  not  sum  up, 
altogether,  a  million  a  year.  This  remarkable  absence  is  ascribed  to  the 
operations  of  a  tariff,  which  maintains  a  protection  of  10  to  20  per  cent, 
against  British  goods. 

The  French  display  of  all  kinds  of  cotton  goods  contrasted  with  that 
of  England,  greatly  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  latter,  not  only  in  com¬ 
pleteness  and  arrangement,  but  in  the  particular  that  everything  was 
left  open,  to  be  touched  and  examined  by  all  comers. 

The  Swiss  collection  was  well  arranged  and  attractive,  especially  in 
the  particular  of  Turkey  red.  A  conjunction  of  favorable  circumstances, 
plenty  of  pure  water,  cheap  labor,  and  steady,  determined  industry,  have 
given  the  Swiss  the  lead  of  the  world  in  this  branch.  Cheap,  but  well 
printed  and  effective  calicos,  were  also  exhibited  by  several  firms,  com¬ 
peting  successfully  with  the  best  goods  of  the  same  class  in  the  French 
department. 

Germany  has  many  exhibitors.  The  most  remarkable  of  the  cotton 
goods  were  those  intended  for  men’s  clothing,  imitating  woollen  cloths, 
of  which  Armitage  showed  various  specimens  intended  for  the  American 
market.  Some  excellent  specimens  of  velvet  and  velveteen  were  also 
sent  by  the  Power  Loom  Company  of  Linden. 

Belgium  occupied  a  very  important  position,  and  held  her  own  against 
all  competition  with  true  gallantry.  The  quiltings  and  piques  were  the 
most  successful  articles  in  the  display.  The  calicos  were  both  good  and 
cheap,  and  cloths  for  men’s  clothing  similar  to  those  exhibited  in  the 
German  court  were  plentiful. 

There  were  four  American  exhibitors  in  this  class. 


CLOTHING.  95 

Mr.  Murray,  to  whose  report  we  have  already  made  reference,  con¬ 
cludes  his  survey  with  these  frank  words : 

u  Few  practical  and  reflective  observers  will  glance,  even  as  hurriedly 
as  we  have  done,  round  these  competitive  displays  of  industrial  ability 
in  cotton  manufacture,  without  feeling,  however  long  and  largely  Eng¬ 
land  may  retain  the  leadership,  anything  like  an  extensive  empire  or 
undisputed  sway  in  the  cotton  trade  is  no  longer  possible.  The  superior 
education  of  continental  workmen  in  certain  branches,  or  the  better 
position  of  foreign  merchants  in  regard  to  certain  articles,  already 
reduce  us  (England)  to  a  secondary  position  in  some  respects.  If,  in  all 
countries,  as  excellent  a  system  of  public  education  and  as  independent 
a  spirit  prevailed  as  in  Switzerland,  our  position  would  soon  be  menaced 
in  many  more  directions.  These  exhibitions  of  the  rapidly  developing 
powers  of  so  many  rival  centres  of  production  must  quicken  our  efforts, 
by  education,  by  political  development,  by  co-operative  interests,  by 
every  means  in  our  power,  to  bring  every  latent  energy  of  our  popula¬ 
tion  to  bear  in  maintaining  our  position.  While  we  are  hovering  round 
the  question  of  national  education,  and  hesitating  over  the  petty  inter¬ 
ests  of  parties  in  regard  to  it,  the  industrial  sceptre  is  imperceptibly 
slipping  away  from  us ;  and,  with  practical  obtuseness,  we  shall  refuse 
to  see  it  till  the  fact  is  accomplished  and  it  is  too  late  to  mend.” 


CLASS  27.— COTTON  YARNS,  THREADS,  AND  TISSUES  ;  AND 
CLASS  28— FLAXEN  AND  HEMPEN  YARNS,  THREADS,  AND 
TISSUES. 

The  following  statistics  relating  to  classes  27  and  28  are  extracted 
from  the  official  catalogue : 

The  districts  in  France  where  these  yarns  and  fabrics  are  manufactured 
may  be  divided  into  four  groups :  1.  The  Haut  Rhin  and  Yosges,  whose 
centre  is  the  town  of  Mulhouse,  produces  all  these  articles,  but  particu¬ 
larly  the  more  common  sorts,  such  as  calico,  cambric,  muslin,  jaconet  and 
prints.  2.  Normandy,  which  comprehends  the  departments  of  the  Seine 
Inferieure,  Calvados,  and  Orne,  and  in  the  towns  of  Rouen,  Flers,  Conde- 
sur-Noireau,  Evreux,  &c.,  are  maufactured  cotton  cloths,  handkerchiefs, 
jeans,  prints,  checks,  and  other  articles,  in  which  the  price  of  the  cotton 
employed  bears  a  large  proportion  to  the  cost  of  the  manufacturer.  3. 
In  the  group  formed  by  the  departments  of  the  Nord,  Aisne,  and  Somme, 
containing  the  towns  of  Lille,  Roubaix,  St.  Quentin,  and  Amiens,  are 
principally  to  be  found  manufactures  of  cotton  yarn  for  net  and  lace  of 
thin  fabrics,  figured  muslin,  curtains,  and  cotton  velvet.  4.  Tarare  pro¬ 
duces  tarletan,  muslin,  and  embroidered  muslin  curtains  $  Roanne,  col¬ 
ored  fabrics,  and  checks.  The  cotton  employed  by  the  French  manufac¬ 
tories  for  the  last  forty  years  has  been  almost  completely  derived  from 
the  United  States  of  America,  which  produced  yearly  from  700,000,000  to 


96 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


1,000,000,000  kilograms.  This  market  lias  been  entirely  closed  for  the 
last  four  years.  India,  China,  Egypt,  the  Brazils,  and  the  coasts  of  the 
Mediterranean  have  developed  their  production  during  this  time,  and 
have  alone  furnished  cotton  to  the  whole  world.  The  price  of  middling 
New  Orleans  cotton,  which,  before  the  war,  was  1  franc  80  centimes  the 
kilogram,  rose  in  1864  to  7  francs,  and  is  now  worth  3  francs  40  cen¬ 
times.  Good  Indian  cotton  costs,  generally,  about  a  franc  less  per  kilo¬ 
gram. 

Machinery  has  everywhere  replaced  manual  labor  in  the  cotton  spin¬ 
ning  trade,  which  employs  more  than  6,250}000  spindles.  The  weaving 
is  also,  in  a  great  measure,  done  by  machinery,  especially  that  of  the 
more  usual  articles  of  consumption.  In  the  departments  of  the  ITaut 
Bhin  and  the  Vosges,  where  50,000  looms  are  employed,  about  9,000  only 
are  worked  by  hand.  Hand  weaving  is  still  maintained  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  those  fabrics  which,  subject  to  the  changes  of  fashion,  demand 
great  variety  of  style  and  pattern,  such  as  the  thin  tissues  of  St.  Quentin 
and  Tarare,  piques  for  waistcoats,  and  the  other  miscellaneous  articles  of 
the  department  of  the  Seine  Inferieure.  Machinery,  by  reducing  the 
prices  of  the  productions,  and  thereby  enlarging  the  demand,  employs  a 
greater  number  of  workmen  than  did  the  hand-looms.  About  80,000 
power-looms  and  200,000  hand-looms  are  worked  in  France.  In  those 
departments  where  machinery  is  principally  used  the  workmen  work 
together  in  large  manufactories ;  where,  on  the  contrary,  hand  labor  pre¬ 
dominates,  the  weavers  usually  work  at  home.  About  600,000  hands 
are  employed  in  the  cotton  trade  and  are  mostly  paid  by  the  piece.  Out 
of  this  number  about  200,000  work  in  their  own  dwellings. 

The  produce  of  the  cotton  trade  is  sold  in  the  central  towns  of  the 
different  manufacturing  districts.  Mulliouse  is  the  market  of  the  eastern 
department,  while  Bouen  is  that  of  the  western.  There  are  also  smaller 
markets :  Flers  for  jeans,  Amiens  for  velvets,  St.  Quentin  for  piques 
and  figured  muslins,  and  Tarare  for  tarletans  and  embroidered  muslins. 
Most  of  the  manufacturers  have  a  depot  at  Paris,  sometimes  dealing 
directly  with  the  public  and  at  others  through  the  medium  of  a  large 
wholesale  house.  This  makes  Paris  one  of  the  principal  markets  of  the 
cotton  trade. 

The  importation  of  cotton  from  different  sources  during  the  year  1866 
amounted  to  120,000  tons,  of  the  estimated  value  of  420,000,000  francs. 
The  yarns  and  woven  fabrics  produced  amounted  to  105,000  tons,  of  the 
value  of  800,000,000  francs,  the  cost  of  manufacturing  which  may  be  set 
down  at  320,000,000  francs.  The  export  was  21,000  tons. 

The  committee  of  admission  of  this  class  make  the  following  reports 
upon  the  progress  of  the  cotton  trade  in  France  during  the  last  12  years  : 

“1.  All  the  machinery  employed  in  the  preparation  and  spinning  of  cot¬ 
ton  has  been  much  improved.  For  the  old  spinning  machinery  have  been 
substituted  self-acting  machines  which  make  thread  of  all  sizes  from  No. 
1  to  No.  200,  the  first  measuring  1,000  metres  and  the  second  200,000 
metres  to  the  pound. 


CLOTHING 


97 


u2.  The  almost  universal  use  of  power-looms  in  the  manufacture  of 
heavy  fabrics,  the  invention  of  the  fast-working  looms,  throwing  the 
shuttle  no  less  than  240  times  a  minute,  and  making  from  the  coarsest 
to  the  finest  fabrics ;  the  bringing  into  general  use  of  sizing  machines. 

u3.  Numerous  improvements  in  the  details  of  cotton  printing  5  the 
employment  of  new  colors ;  the  introduction  of  new  machines  which, 
receiving  between  their  rollers  a  white  material,  deliver  it  up  printed  in 
ten  or  twelve  colors.  During  the  last  12  years  the  French  manufacturers 
have  renewed  their  machinery,  and  well-organized  mills,  which  were  the 
exception  in  1855,  have  now  become  the  ride.  The  treaties  of  commerce 
which  have  led  to  a  wholesome  rivalry  with  foreign  countries  have 
accelerated  this  improvement.  The  employment  of  Indian  cotton  has 
necessitated  a  change  in  the  machinery,  and  permits  the  use  of  part  of 
the  raw  produce  which  was  formally  rejected,  leaving  but  small  amount 
of  waste. 

FLAXEN  AND  HEMPEN  YARNS,  THREADS  AND  TISSUES. 

u  The  linen  trade  comprises  the  preparation,  spinning,  and  weaving  of 
various  textde  materials,  such  as  flax,  hemp,  jute,  China  grass,  &c.  We 
have  only  to  treat  here  of  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  these  fibres  from 
which  are  made  cambric,  lawn,  coarse  and  fine  linen  of  all  kinds,  damasks, 

•  diapers,  and  various  tissues  of  thread  mixed  with  cotton  and  silk. 

u  The  principal  seats  of  the  French  linen  trade  are :  Lille,  Dunkirk, 
Boulogne-sur-iner,  Amiens,  Abbeville,  Yalenciennes,  Cambray,  Ckollet, 
and  Lisieux.  Hempen  fabrics  are  made  especially  in  the  departments  of 
Sarthe  and  Finistere.  Lisieux  and  Noirmoutier  are  famous  for  white  sheet¬ 
ings.  Flax,  hemp,  jute,  and  China  grass  are  grown  in  various  countries. 
The  flax  used  in  France  comes  principally  from  the  north  of  France, 
Belgium,  Picardy,  and  Normandy.  The  flax  grown  in  the  department 
of  the  Nord  and  in  the  environs  of  Bernay  (Eure)  is  of  superior  quality, 
but  not  equal  to  that  produced  near  Courtray  in  Belgium.  Bussia  also 
supplies  us  with  pretty  good  flax,  but  which  can  only  be  employed  for 
the  lower  numbers  of  yarns. 

u  Flax  is  very  variable  in  price,  but  we  may  take  1  franc  7 0  centimes  the 
kilogram  as  about  the  average  price  of  No.  30  of  good  current  quality. 
Flax  is  cheaper  than  hemp ;  the  best  kinds  come  from  Picardy  and  Cham¬ 
pagne.  The  average  price  of  heckled  hemp  is  about  90  to  120  francs. 
Jute  comes  from  the  East  Indies  in  large  quantities ;  its  price  for  some 
time  has  been  about  45  francs  the  100  kilograms.  China  grass,  the 
name  of  which  indicates  its  origin,  is  a  textile  fibre  which  is  likely  in 
future  to  become  of  considerable  importance  in  our  trade.  The  methods 
of  preparation  and  working  are  very  nearly  the  same  for  all  kinds  of 
textile  matters.  The  plant  is  first  submitted  to  the  operation  of  rotting, 
which  is  generally  performed  by  allowing  it  to  soak  in  water  or  to  expose 
it  on  the  ground  until  the  gummy  matter  which  it  contains  is  dissolved. 
Next  comes  the  operation  of  beating,  the  object  of  which  is  to  separate 
7  U  E 


98 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


the  fibres  from  the  rest  of  the  plant.  These  two  operations  belong  to 
agriculture.  The  spinners  of  flax  and  hemp  purchase  their  materials  of 
salesmen  who  travel  about  the  country  and  act  as  middlemen  between 
the  farmers  and  the  spinners.  These  materials  are  ready  to  be  submitted 
to  the  operations  of  the  spinning  mills,  from  which  manual  labor  may  be 
said  to  have  been  banished  entirely,  except  in  the  case  of  yarns  of  excep¬ 
tional  fineness  used  for  the  production  of  cambric. 

“The  number  of  spindles  has  increased  from  90,000  in  1842  to  600,000 
in  1865.  Power-looms  are  being  substituted  more  every  day  for  hand- 
looms,  as  allowing  of  a  more  rapid  and  economical  production.  Of  the 
whole  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  flax  and  hemp  mills  two-thirds 
are  women ;  but  in  power-loom  weaving  the  proportion  is  only  about  one- 
lialf.  In  each  case  the  female  work-people  gain  2  francs  to  2  francs  50 
centimes  per  day,  and  the  men  2  francs  50  centimes  to  4  francs.  The 
organization  of  the  linen  trade  is  now  very  powerful  in  France.  Some 
large  manufacturers  sell  their  goods  directly  to  retail  dealers  or  agents. 
The  business  increases  daily  in  extent,  and  the  importation,  especially  of 
table  and  toilet  linen,  has  become  insignificant.  The  prices  of  the  various 
kinds  of  fabrics  are  extremely  various ;  very  low  for  certain  qualities  and 
certain  widths,  and  very  high  for  the  finer  sorts  and  widest  kinds.  Linen 
cloth,  for  instance,  varies  from  80  centimetres  to  3  metres  in  width,  and  in 
price  from  7 5  centimes  to  15  francs.  The  manufacture  of  linen  or  hempen . 
cloth  and  jute  tissues  has  increased  largely  during  the  past  few  years,  as 
the  following  figures  show :  The  imports  of  flax  and  tow,  which  were 
only  19,200  tons  in  1862,  had  risen  to  48,000  tons  in  1865.  The  importa¬ 
tion  of  raw  jute  rose  from  6,300  tons  in  1862  to  10,650  tons  in  1865.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  exportation  of  heckled  flax  and  tow  fell  off  from 
7,037  tons  in  1862  to  6,068  tons  in  1865,  while  the  exports  of  yarns  rose 
from  497  tons  in  1862  to  2,374  tons  in  1865.  The  exportation  of  plain 
linens  rose  from  2,054  tons  in  1862  to^3,254  tons  in  1865.  It  must  be 
added  that  these  results  were  principally  due  to  the  cotton  crisis ;  but 
they  owe  something  also  to  the  improvements  made  in  the  machinery 
employed  in  its  manufacture.  Some  very  happy  modifications  have  been 
introduced  of  late  years  into  the  machines  employed  in  combing  flax  and 
preparing  tow.  In  weaving,  as  we  have  already  said,  self-acting  power- 
looms  are  replacing  those  worked  by  hand,  and  thus  the  quantity  pro¬ 
duced  has  been  increased  while  the  cost  of  labor  has  been  diminished. 
Some  very  important  establishments  for  spinning  and  weaving  have  been 
set  on  foot.  It  is  right  to  add,  in  justice  to  the  linen  trade,  that  most  of 
the  great  works  are  constructed  and  arranged  in  the  most  favorable  con¬ 
ditions  with  regard  to  the  welfare  of  the  work-people  employed  in  them.” 

CLASSES  29-30.— COMBED  AND  CARDED  WOOL  AND  WORSTED 
YARNS  AND  FABRICS. 

These  two  classes,  embracing  the  most  extensive  and  ancient  form  of 
industry  known  to  the  world,  were  represented  competitively  by  all  the 


CLOTHING. 


Si) 


manufacturing  countries  of  Europe  and  by  seven  exhibitors  from  the 
United^  States.  The  range  of  articles  being  very  large  the  display  was 
naturally  of  great  importance,  particularly  to  experts.  As  a  matter  of 
interest  to  the  eye  it  was  unattractive,  and  there  was  little  in  either  class 
that  could  engage  other  than  a  technical  pen.  Coats  and  pantaloons  in 
the  concrete  have  no  innate  charm,  and  wool  and  worsted,  although  com¬ 
fortable  to  wear,  are  unsuggestive  in  a  literary  point  of  view.  It  will 
be  readily  understood  that  this  manufacture  does  not  admit  of  much 
scope  for  artistic  design.  It  depends  on  a  successful  blending  of  colors 
and  an  ascertainable  degree  of  perfection  in  texture  and  finish.  The 
French  excel  in  fine  and  fancy  articles ;  the  English  in  plain  tissues ;  and 
the  German  and  Belgian  makers  in  imitations,  having  cheapness  for  their 
main  end.  During  the  past  ten  years  shoddy  has  come  greatly  into  use, 
and  it  is  said  that  as  much  as  60  per  cent,  can  be  employed  advantageously 
in  cheap  materials.  Shoddy  is  the  woolly  part  of  old  garments  cleaned 
and  prepared  by  processes  that  are  daily  being  improved.  By  utilizing 
material  that  was  formerly  cast  away  as  waste,  great  progress  has,  of 
late  years,  been  made  in  the  production  of  cheap  cloths. 

We  give  below  the  following  details  of  the  trade  in  France : 

“ Class  29  includes :  1.  Combed  wool;  2.  Woollen  yarns  combed  and 
carded ;  3.  Tissues  of  pure  combed  wool ;  4.  Flannels  and  fancy  stuffs  of 
.  carded  and  slightly  fettled  wool ;  5.  Tissues  of  wool  mixed  with  other 
materials. 

“  The  principal  centres  of  production  for  these  articles  are :  Bheims, 
Boubaix,  St.  Quentin,  Amiens,  Mulhouse,  St.  Marie-aux-Mines,  Rouen, 
Fourmies,  and  Le  Cateau,  in  the  Nord;  Guise,  in  the  Aisne;  and,  lastly, 
Paris. 

“In  1855,  French  wool  held  a  more  important  place  in  the  supply  of 
our  manufactories  than  it  does  at  present.  At  that  period,  but  little  was 
known  of  Australian  wool,  of  which  23,000  tons  was  imported  in  1865. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  imports  from  Belgium,  Spain,  Germany,  Turkey, 
Algeria,  La  Plata,  and  other  countries  have  not  diminished  in  impor¬ 
tance;  they  amounted,  during  the  same  year  to  nearly  50,000  tons.  It 
is  Australia,  however,  which  has  principally  met  the  increased  demands 
of  our  trade.  These  various  wools  are  now  combed  and  woven  by  admira¬ 
bly  constructed  machinery;  the  weaving  of  woollens  by  power-looms, 
which  was  scarcely  tried  in  1855,  has  acquired  of  late  years,  and  particu¬ 
larly  since  1862,  a  rapid  development,  and  is  increasing  daily.  Still, 
hand  weaving  has  not  diminished  in  importance;  but  it  has  remained 
nearly  stationary;  and  the  increase  in  production  is  due  to  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  mechanical  means. 

“The  situation  of  the  work-people  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
woollen  fabrics  is  improved.  Those  engaged  in  combing  and  spinning 
works  have  not  suffered  from  want  of  work,  and  their  wages  are  gen¬ 
erally  high.  The  same  has  been  the  case  with  the  power-loom  weavers; 
but  in  spite  of  the  importance  which  power-loom  weaving  has  already 


100 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


assumed,  tlie  number  of  power-loom  weavers  is  still  very  inferior  to  that 
of  the  weavers  who  work  by  hand  at  their  own  houses;  and,  in  the 
1  Aisne,’  the  proportion  of  the  former  to  the  latter  does  not  exceed  five 
per  cent.  The  proportion  of  women  employed  in  combing  and  spinning, 
as  well  as  in  the  weaving  of  woollen  fabrics,  whether  working  in  factories, 
or  at  home,  varies  greatly  according  to  local  conditions;  it  may  be  safely 
estimated  that  it  amounts  to  one-half  in  some  places,  and  two-thirds  in 
others.  Nearly  all  the  woollens,  whether  pure  or  mixed,  manufactured 
for  consumption  in  France,  are  adopted  by  other  nations;  the  prices  have 
been  much  reduced  since  1855,  in  spite  of  the  maintenance  or  the  increase 
in  price  of  the  raw  materials.  The  growth  of  the  manufacture  has  been 
very  favorable  to  the  maintenance  of  the  quotations  with  respect  to  these 
matters ;  but  the  same  development  has  often,  on  the  contrary,  produced 
a  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  manufactured  articles  by  the  supera¬ 
bundant  supply.  Thus,  the  manufacturer  has  been  compelled  to  look  for 
his  profit  in  the  continual  improvement  of  his  methods  and  industrial 
processes.  To  this  frequent  over  supply,  and  consequent  increase  of  the 
stocks,  must  also  be  attributed  the  incessant  efforts  of  the  manufacturer 
to  place  himself  in  direct  communication  with  the  retailer  and  the 
exporter,  and  thus  avoid  the  middleman. 

“The  home  and  export  trade,  and  the  means  of  production  have  grown 
rapidly.  In  1855,  the  imports  of  raw  wool  only  amounted  to  68,000,000 
francs;  while,  in  1865,  they  reached  217,000,000  francs.  The  exports  of 
woollen  of  all  kinds  have  followed  the  same  rapid  course,  having  risen 
from  165,000,000  francs  in  1855  to  396,000,000  francs  in  1865,  in  which 
amounts  yarns  and  stuffs  of  combed  wool  represented  279,000,000  francs. 
Eemarkable  improvements  have,  moreover,  contributed  since  1855  to 
the  development  of  the  production  and  exportation.  New  methods  of 
combing  and  spinning ;  ingenious  means  of  facilitating  the  work  of  the 
operative  or  the  machinery;  the  application  of  the  products  of  aniline 
as  coloring  matters;  and  lastly,  the  introduction  into  France  of  new 
methods  of  dressing,  have  enabled  the  manufacturers  of  combed  wool  to 
make  successive  reductions  in  the  price  of  their  fabrics,  while  losing 
none  of  their  superiority. — From  the  translation  of  the  Introduction  to  the 
Class  by  Gustave  Larsonnier. 

CARDED  WOOL  AND  FABRICS. 

“  The  products  exhibited  in  class  30  form  four  principal  series : 

“1.  Black  and  colored  broadcloths,  livery  cloths,  billiard  and  coach 
cloths,  black  satin  cloths,  eider-down  cloths,  and  castors. 

“2.  Fancy  paletot  and  ladies’  cloths. 

“3.  Fancy  trouserings. 

“  4.  Articles  for  jackets  and  fancy  suits.  These  productions  are  manu¬ 
factured  in  five  great  groups  in  France : 

“1.  The  group  of  Normandy,  the  centre  of  which  is  the  town  of  Elbeuf, 
and  which  includes  the  departments  of  the  Seine  Inferieure,  Eure,  and 


CLOTHING. 


10L 


Calvados.  The  towns  of  Elbeuf  and  Louviers  produce  nearly  all  the 
descriptions  of  goods  cited  above.  Vire,  Lisieux,  and  Romarantin  pro¬ 
duce  cheap  fabrics  especially,  such  as  pilot  cloths,  fancy  trouserings,  and 
velvet  cloths  for  ladies7  mantles. 

“2.  The  Ardennes  group,  the  centre  of  which  is  Sedan,  and  where  are 
manufactured  principally  the  black  tissues,  such  as  satin  cloths,  cash¬ 
meres,  eider-downs,  fancy  paletot  cloths,  and  ladies7  velvet  cloths. 

“  3.  The  Isere  group,  of  which  the  centre  is  Vienna,  and  which  produces 
mostly  low-priced  goods  for  trousers,  paletots,  and  complete  suits,  as  well 
as  ladies7  cloths. 

“4.  The  Haut  Rhin  and  Moselle  group,  the  centre  of  which  is  the  town 
of  Bischwiller,  and  which  produces  satin  cloths,  paletots  and  black  fancy 
cloths;  the  coarse  stuffs  for  country  wear  are  principally  made  at  Nancy. 

“  5.  The  southern  group,  comprising  the  towns  of  Carcassone,  Mazamet, 
Saint  Pons,  and  Bedarieux,  which  produce  generally  all  the  kinds  of 
cheap  goods  mentioned  above.  The  town  of  Ohateauroux,  which  sup¬ 
plies  the  cloth  for  the  army,  may  be  added  to  this  group. 

“The  wool  employed  by  the  French  manufacturers  is  indigenous  or 
imported  from  Germany,  Australia,  Russia,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Spain. 
The  price  of  washed  undried  wool  varies  from  5  francs  to  12  francs. 
Mechanism  has  been  almost  everywhere  substituted  for  hand  labor;  hand- 
loom  weaving  is  only  now  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  in 
which  the  designs  following  the  caprices  of  fashions  demand  great  variety. 
Of  these  articles  are  the  stuffs  for  trousers,  paletots,  jackets,  and  ladies7 
clothing.  Mechanical  labor,  by  reducing  the  price  of  the  goods,  induces 
large  consumption,  and,  consequently,  the  employment  of  more  work¬ 
men.  It  may  be  estimated  that  the  labor  and  the  general  expenses,  tak¬ 
ing  the  average  of  winter  and  summer  clothing,  adds  one-tliird  to  the 
cost  of  the  raw  material.  Where  steam  power  predominates,  the  opera¬ 
tives  work  in  the  factories;  where,  on  the  contrary,  hand  labor  is  still 
employed,  the  majority  work  at  home;  in  both  cases  they  are  generally 
paid  by  the  piece.  About  two-thirds  of  the  whole  of  the  work-people 
are  engaged  in  factories;  the  proportion  of  women  employed  is  about 
two-fifths.  The  manufactured  goods  are  sold  in  the  various  centres  of 
the  trade.  Elbeuf  is  the  great  market  of  the  western  department,  and 
after  it  comes  Sedan,  Louviers,  Vienna,  Lisieux,  Vire,  and  Bischwiller. 
Generally  the  large  manufacturers  sell  their  products  directly  to  large 
houses  of  business  in  Paris  and  the  departments ;  the  latter  send  their 
travellers  through  France  and  other  countries  to  dispose  of  the  goods. 

“The  great  mass  of  the  wool  used  in  the  making  of  cloth  comes  from 
abroad.  French  wool  is  principally  employed  for  common  fabrics.  The 
export,  in  1865,  amounted  to  5,500  tons,  of  an  approximative  value  of 
71,000,000  francs.  The  annual  production  of  France  is  about  250,000,000 
francs. 

“  The  committee  of  admission  of  class  30  notice,  among  the  improve¬ 
ments  which  have  taken  place  in  the  trade,  during  the  last  12  years — 


102 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“1.  The  washing  of  wool  by  machinery. 

“2.  The  improvements  in  the  machines  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 
wool,  such  as  heating,  teaseling  machines,  &c.,  which  allow  of  the  use  of 
wool  from  all  sources ;  the  new  system  of  cards  and  of  looms. 

a3.  The  almost  universal  employment  of  power-looms  for  weaving 
broadcloths,  satins,  paletot  and  fancy  cloths.  Power-looms  with  several 
shuttles  are  yet  but  little  used  for  weaving  fancy  cloths. 

“4.  In  scouring  and  fulling,  the  conjunction  of  steam-engines  with 
hydraulic  motors,  to  prevent  the  works  being  brought  to  a  stand- still 
during  very  dry  seasons. 

“5.  In  dressing,  the  employment  of  machines  in  place  of  hand-beaters 
and  mechanical  tenter  frames.” — From  the  Introduction  by  Vanguelin  to 
Class  30. 

In  the  United  States  section  the  principal  exhibitors  were  the  Web¬ 
ster  Woollen  Mills  of  Massachusetts,  which  sent  broadcloths,  doeskins, 
castors,  and  muskowa;  the  National  Association  of  Wool  Growers,  John 
L.  Hayes,  secretary ;  and  the  Mission  Woollen  Mills,  San  Francisco,  Cali¬ 
fornia.  This  establishment  made  a  very  fine  exhibit  of  cloths,  cassi- 
meres,  and  flannels,  and  particularly  of  blankets.  The  following  des¬ 
criptive  notice  of  the  Mission  Woollen  Mills  in  California  is  extracted 
from  the  Commercial  Beview  of  the  Pacific  States  for  18G6 : 

THE  MISSION  WOOLLEN  MILLS. — CALIFORNIA. 

“  The  Mission  Woollen  Mills  are  located  at  the  head  of  Mission  creek, 
in  the  southwestern  portion  of  San  Francisco.  With  the  exception  of  a 
very  large  two-story  stone  warehouse,  used  for  the  storage  of  wool,  all 
the  mill  buildings  are  of  wood.  The  grounds  used  comprise  some  10 
acres,  a  portion  of  which,  probably  three  acres,  is  covered  with  the  dif¬ 
ferent  buildings.  The  mills  were  first  put  in  operation  in  the  autumn  of 
18G0,  starting  with  a  capacity  equal  to  the  employment  of  40  men. v  The 
works  have  been  increased  until,  at  the  present  time,  running  night  and 
day,  they  employ  400  operatives,  300  of  them  being  Chinese.  In  18G5, 
these  mills  consumed  1,200,000  pounds  of  wool,  which  was  manufactured 
into  32,000  pairs  blankets,  nearly  500,000  yards  of  flannels,  and  over 
100,000  yards  of  cloths,  cassimeres,  tweeds,  and  cloakings.  Since  then 
the  machinery  has  been  increased,  and  the  estimated  consumption  of 
wool  for  18GG  is  set  down  at  1,900,000  pounds.  The  business  sagacity  of 
the  proprietors  of  these  mills  has  made  them  keenly  alive  to  improve¬ 
ments  in  machinery,  with  which  they  have  supplied  their  works  as  soon 
as  known.  The  present  working  power  of  the  mills  consist  of  two  engines, 
each  of  150  horse-power,  which  drive  11  sets  of  cards,  4,000  spindles,  and 
50  broad-power  looms,  which  will  be  soon  largely  increased.  To  give 
some  idea  of  the  extent  of  their  manufacture,  we  may  say  that,  during 
the  month  of  August,  there  were  completed  from  the  raw  wool  to  the 
finished  cloths  15,270  yards  cassimeres,  tweeds,  and  cloakings,  35,475 
yards  flannels,  and  G,270  pairs  blankets.  The  Mission  Woollen  Mills 


CLOTHING. 


103 


were  the  first  on  the  Pacific  coast  to  manufacture  varieties  of  woollen 
goods,  besides  blankets.  Their  blankets  (in  common  with  the  Pioneer 
Woollen  Mills)  have  made  a  reputation  for  California  manufacturers  the 
world  over,  wherever  known,  they  exceeding  in  fineness  of  wool  and  finish 
the  best  blankets  made  in  Europe.  One  feature  in  the  working  of  these 
mills  in  San  Francisco  is  the  employment  of  Chinese  operatives,  who, 
being  intelligent  and  industrious,  at  low  wages,  enable  successful  com¬ 
petition  to  be  had  against  white  labor  in  the  manufactories  of  the  eastern 
States  and  Europe.  Without  this  cheap  labor,  mill-owners  state  that 
they  would  be  unable  to  manufacture  with  profit.  Yery  large  quantities 
of  goods  are  shipped  to  Montana  Territory,  where  they  are  preferred  to 
the  manufactures  of  eastern  mills,  which  pay  less  freightage  by  way  of 
the  Missouri  river.” 

CLASS  31.— SILK  AND  SILK  MANUFACTURES. 

“The  material  exhibited  in  class  31  may  be  divided  into  three  prin¬ 
cipal  sections :  silk  and  yarns,  silk  tissues,  and  ribbons.  The  first  section 
includes  silkworms’  eggs,  new  and  dried  cocoons;  raw  silks;  thrown, 
unbleached,  and  dyed  silks,  designated  by  the  names  of  weft,  organzine, 
grenadine,  &c.,  for  the  manufactures  of  tissues;  twisted  silks  for  sewing, 
embroidering,  hosiery,  trimming,  guipure,  and  lace,  and  waste  and  floss 
silk;  and  these  last  products  carded,  combed,  and  spun  into  single, 
double,  twisted,  unbleached,  and  dyed  yarns.  The  silk  tissues  include 
velvets ;  plain  and  figured  stuffs  for  dresses  and  furniture ;  bolting  tissues ; 
tissues  for  men’s  and  women’s  hats;  sarcenet  and  lutestring  for  linings; 
plain  and  printed  foulards  for  dresses  and  handkerchiefs ;  shawls,  neck¬ 
erchiefs,  and  cravats ;  crapes  and  tulles.  The  ribbons  comprise  plain  and 
figured  ribbons;  galloon,  binding,  and  trimming  for  dresses  and  bonnets. 

“The  principal  centres  of  production  are:-  for  the  spinning  and  throw¬ 
ing  of  fine  silk  the  departments  of  Ardeche,  Drome,  Gard,  Herault,  and 
Yaucluse;  then  come  those  of  Isere,  Yar,  the  Lower  Alps,  Rhone,  Douches 
du  Rhone,  and  Tarnet  Garonne.  The  strong  silks  that  are  imported  raw 
from  abroad,  and  especially  from  Persia,  China,  and  Japan,  are  manu¬ 
factured  in  the  departments  du  Rhone,  Gard,  Loire,  and  Indre  et  Loire ; 
and  above  all  in  the  departments  of  Oiseet  Ere,  from  whence  the  Paris 
manufacturers  mostly  supply  themselves.  The  principal  spinning  mills 
for  waste  silk  are  in  England,  Switzerland,  and  France.  For  stuffs, 
Lyons  and  its  environs;  then  Tours,  where  the  furniture  stuffs  are  prin¬ 
cipally  manufactured.  For  ribbons,  binding,  and  galloon  St.  Etienne  and 
St.  Chamond.  There  are  also  a  few  manufactories  in  Moselle  and  Haut 
Rhin.  The  cocoons  used  in  the  French  spinning  mills  were  almost 
entirely  supplied  by  the  silkworms  of  the  fine  breed  of  France;  but,  since 
the  year  1863,  an  almost  universal  epidemic  has  successively  attacked  the 
silkworms  in  every  part  of  the  world.  To  remedy  these  disasters  eggs 
have  been  imported  from  those  countries  in  Europe  where  the  disease  had 
not  penetrated,  and  afterwards  from  the  east,  to  which  is  due,  in  a  great 


104 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


measure,  the  improved  result  of  the  last  few  yields.  Before  the  invasion 
of  the  disease,  from  the  year  1846  to  1852,  the  average  yield  in  France 
was  generally  valued  at  24,000  tons  of  cocoons,  producing  2,000  tons  of 
silk,  and  representing  a  sum  of  about  120,000,000  francs.  After  the 
appearance  of  the  disease  the  amount  fell  to  one-half,  to  one-third,  to 
one-quarter;  and  in  1865  they  had  become  reduced  to  one-fifth  of  the 
ordinary  yields.  The  average  price  has  risen  from  four  to  six  francs, 
and  has  even  surpassed  the  latter  sum.  The  effect  of  this  is,  of  course, 
to  raise  the  price  of  the  silks,  which  are  employed  according  to  their 
qualities.  Thus  the  silks  of  France  and  Italy,  and  of  the  Broussa  and 
Syrian  spinning  mills,  are  used  to  make  the  best  tissues,  plain  and  figured. 
The  silks  of  Japan,  China,  Bengal,  and  Persia  are  employed,  according 
to  their  sizes  and  worth,  in  the  manufacture  of  plain  and  figured  tissues 
of  current  qualities,  in  making  foulards,  and  sewing  and  embroidering 
silks. 

u  Machinery  is  everywhere  rapidly  replacing  manual  labor  in  the  spinr 
ning  and  working  of  silks;  machines  are  substituted  for  hand- work, 
even  for  twisting  and  sewing  silk,  which  was  formerly  done  only  by  hand. 
The  silk  goods,  properly  so  called,  are  always  woven  by  hands.  In  the 
manufacture  of  foulards,  and  of  nearly  all  the  stuffs  which  can  be  woven 
with  raw  silk,  the  power  loom  has  replaced  the  hand  loom  for  weaving 
as  well  as  for  the  warping  and  other  processes.  A  great  many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  use  machinery  in  the  manufacture  of  the  stuffs  which 
are  woven  with  prepared  silk,  and  they  have  been  successful  for  the  light 
satins,  which  are  dressed,  and  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  black  silks  of 
light  quality.  At  St.  Etienne  manual  labor  has  been  continued  in  the 
ribbon  trade,  while  the  power  loom  has  been  adopted  for  the  galloons  and 
bindings.  One  or  two  manufacturers  in  Haut  Bhin  are  using  machinery 
for  plain  ribbon-making  with  some  success. 

“The  cocoons  are  spun  and  the  silk  prepared  in  the  south  of  France 
by  women  and  girls,  who  work  by  the  day  in  workshops  belonging  to  a 
principal,  under  the  superintendence  of  foremen.  The  system  is  the  same 
for  the  winding  off  by  machinery,  but  when  the  winding  is  done  by 
hand,  the  people  work  at  home  and  by  the  piece.  The  twisting  is  gen¬ 
erally  done  by  men.  For  the  silks,  the  organization  of  the  workshops 
varies  according  as  the  weaving  is  done  in  the  towns  or  in  the  country, 
in  private  workshops  or  in  manufactories.  At  Lyons,  for  example,  the 
material  prepared  for  weaving  is  delivered  by  a  manufacturer  to  the 
master  of  a  workshop  who  possesses  a  certain  number  of  looms.  This 
latter  furnishes  the  premises,  the  looms,  and  all  the  tools  necessary  to 
the  manufacture ;  then,  for  the  hire  of  the  workshop  and  the  looms,  he 
retains  from  the  weavers  the  half  of  the  price  of  manufacture  paid  by 
the  manufacturer.  In  the  country  the  manufacturer  treats  directly  with 
the  weavers ;  lie  furnishes  all  the  implements  to  the  workmen  who  work 
at  home,  and  pays  them  55  per  cent,  on  the  price  given  at  Lyons. 
The  salaries  for  the  work  done  in  manufactories  are  from  45  to  50  per 


CLOTHING. 


105 


cent,  lower  tlian  those  of  Lyons,  the  premises  being  supplied  by  the 
manufacturer.  The  workmen  are  always  paid  by  the  piece.  The  fresh 
cocoons,  silks,  and  waste  are  sold  at  the  various  centres  of  production. 

“  Marseilles  is  the  great  market  for  dyed  cocoons  as  well  as  for  the 
silks  and  waste  imported  from  abroad $  Lyons,  for  the  fine  silks  of  the 
south  of  France  and  Italy $  Paris,  for  the  foreign  strong  silks,  unbleached 
and  dyed ;  Paris  and  Lyons,  for  the  spun  waste.  As  regards  the  manu¬ 
factured  products,  it  is  Lyons,  St.  Etienne,  and  Paris  which  supply 
England,  America,  Germany,  Belgium,  Russia,  Turkey,  Spain,  all  those 
countries,  in  a  word,  which  employ  silk  tissues.  The  importation  of  all 
the  productions  from  silkworms’  cocoons,  raw  and  thrown  silks,  floss 
silk,  in  hanks,  and  spun,  &c.,  is  estimated  for  the  year  1865  at  297,000,000 
francs,  and  the  exportation  of  the  same  articles  at  126,000,000  francs. 
The  importation  of  silk  tissues  and  floss  silk,  ribbons  included,  of  all 
productions  for  the  year  1865,  were  upwards  of  10,000,000  francs.  The 
exportation  of  the  same  articles  amounted  to  400,000,000  francs. 

aTlie  committee  of  admission  for  class  31  point  out  among  the 
improvements  realized  in  the  silk  industry  since  the  year  1855 : — 1.  As 
regards  silks  and  waste,  considerable  improvements  in  the  spinning  and 
twisting  machines :  2.  As  regards  tissues,  a  more  intelligent  use  of  the 
very  varied  materials  which  the  rarity  of  our  beautiful  silks  of  France 
and  Italy  have  forced  us  to  have  recourse  to : — 3.  The  new  process  of 
dyeing  by  the  application  of  colors  with  aniline  and  fuchshine  bases ;  new 
processes  for  printing  on  warps  and  foulards ;  and,  finally,  the  improved 
systems  of  figuring  silks.”  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Admission. 

The  beautiful  fabrics  exposed  in  this  class  exhibited,  perhaps,  to  the 
best  advantage  the  skill  and.  taste  employed  in  French  manufactures, 
relatively,  too,  in  the  manufactures  of  other  countries,  for  there  were 
silks  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  But  France  unquestionably  maintained 
her  rank  as  the  foremost  among  the  producers  of  these  attractive 
articles.  The  exhibition  was  unusually  large  and  interesting.  It  com¬ 
menced  with  the  cocoon  and  ended  with  the  finest  triumphs  of  the  loom. 
Specimens  were  also  shown  of  vegetable  silk  produced  from  a  bulb  which 
is  common  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Wild  silk  is  abundant  in  India 
and  China.  It  is  produced  by  an  insect  like  a  caterpillar,  which  forms 
the  cocoon  in  a  shrub,  yet  it  does  not  die  there,  but  escapes  and  becomes 
a  butterfly.  Though,  in  many  respects,  totally  different  from  the  silk¬ 
worm,  the  silk  is  much  prized  on  account  of  its  strength. 

The  principal  exhibitors  of  raw  silks  were  France,  Algiers,  Italy,  Aus¬ 
tria,  Spain,  Portugal,  Russia,  Turkey,  India,  and  Victoria.  The  spinning 
of  silk  is  becoming  more  and  more  a  manufacturing  industry,  and  every¬ 
where  large  spinning  mills  are  being  erected,  worked  by  steam  power. 
Some  of  the  best  specimens  in  the  French  department  were  from  Ardeche; 
in  the  Italian,  from  Milan.  Austria,  too,  had  a  good  exhibition.  The 
Russian  silk  is  produced  in  the  Caucasus. 

The  fertile  imagination  of  French  designers,  stimulated  by  the  means 


106 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


placed  at  tlieir  disposal  in  tlie  new  colors  obtained  from  aniline  and  other 
chemical  products,  has  given  a  fresh  impulse  to  the  silk  trade,  and  led 
to  very  beautiful  results.  In  appropriateness  of  design,  happy  contrast 
of  color,  and  excellence  of  fabrication,  the  French  silks  were  admittedly 
the  best  on  exhibition. 

Switzerland  had  a  good  display  of  light  and  low-priced  silks.  They 
were  of  the  simple  kinds  that  find  a  market  everywhere.  An  excellent 
feature  in  Swiss  silks  is  the  extreme  beauty  of  color,  and  the  fact  that 
the  lightest  and  most  delicate  tints  are  altogether  unaffected  by  the 
touch  of  the  hand  or  the  impurities  of  the  atmosphere. 

Italy  had  a  large  exhibition,  including  the  famous  Genoa  velvet,  and 
much  fine  silk  brocade  and  tapestry. 

Austria  displayed  tapestry  silks  of  great  beauty.  Spain  sent  some 
fine  specimens  from  Valencia  and  Barcelona.  Tunis  exhibited  good  tis¬ 
sues  of  silk  and  silver.  India  had  some  rich  samples  of  silk  tissues  and 
silk  with  gold  and  silver.  Bussia  had  some  excellent  silks,  from  Moscow ; 
and  Prussia  and  the  Zollverein  made  a  fine  display  of  silk  velvets  and 
ribbons.  The  British  display  was  good  in  certain  heavy  specialties, 
such  as  moire  antiques,  &c.,  but  in  other  respects  it  was  meagre.  A 
novelty  was  exhibited  in  this  section.  It  consisted  of  a  material  for  cur¬ 
tains,  composed  of  silk  and  fine  threads  of  glass,  woven  in  the  usual 
way,  and  producing  a  very  charming  effect;  it  is  called  tissues  de  verre. 
In  general  respects  there  was  a  marked  inferiority  in  British  silks,  and 
a  notable  falling  off  since  the  exhibition  of  18G2. 

There  were  two  exhibitors  in  this  class  from  the  United  States. 

CLASS  32.— SHAWLS. 

u  Class  32  comprises  figured  shawls  of  all  kinds — that  is  to  say,  Cash- 
mere  shawls,  woollen  shawls;  shawls  of  wool,  cotton,  and  spun  silk, 
mixed,  and  silk  shawls.  The  shaAvl  manufacture  exists  in  but  three  dis¬ 
tricts  of  France — Paris,  which  makes,  or  causes  to  be  made  elsewhere, 
rich,  middling,  or  cheap  shawls ;  Lyons,  which  produces  chiefly  shawls 
of  moderate  and  low  price;  and  Mines,  which  manufactures  cheap  shawls 
only.  The  greater  part  of  the  shawls  sold  in  Paris  are  produced  in  Pic¬ 
ardy,  chiefly  at  Fresnoy-le-Grand,  at  Boliain,  and  in  the  environs  of  the 
latter  place.  The  Parisian  makers  have  always  maintained  a  bona  fide 
superiority  in  the  manufacture  of  rich  shawls,  by  means  of  their  taste 
and  inventive  spirit;  and  we  may  say  that  all  the  happy  innovations 
which  have  perfected  the  invention  of  Jacquard  are  due  to  Paris.  The 
designers  of  Paris  enjoy  a  well-earned  reputation.  Foreign  countries 
which  manufacture  shawls,  such  as  England  and  Austria,  obtain  their 
patterns  and  even  have  them  placed  on  cards  in  Paris,  especially  for 
shawls  of  a  certain  price. 

“The  materials  which  enter  into  the  manufacture  of  shawls  are:  The 
Cashmere  hair,  which  comes  by  way  of  Bussia,  and  is  principally  obtained 
in  Thibet  from  a  peculiar  variety  of  goat;  wool  of  various  countries,  but 


CLOTHING. 


107 


particularly  of  Germany ;  raw  silk,  or  tlie  organzine  of  the  south  of 
France;  spun  silk,  and  even  cotton.  The  price  of  the  yarns  made  with 
these  various  materials,  and  used  in  the  shawl  manufacture,  varies  from 
10  to  70  francs  the  kilogram.  The  weaving  of  shawls  is  performed 
by  the  Jacquard  loom,  which  has  been  greatly  improved  since  the  time 
of  its  illustrious  inventor.  The  shawl  manufacturers,  in  the  first  place, 
have  their  designs  produced  either  in  their  own  establishments  or  out  of 
doors.  The  pattern,  once  settled,  is  put  on  the  cards  by  the  designer, 
revised,  and  handed  over  to  the  reader.  This  latter  operation,  which  is 
generally  performed  by  special  workmen,  consists  in  translating,  as  it 
were,  from  the  design-card  to  the  cards  of  the  machine,  each  of  which 
represents  one  of  the  little  squares  of  the  former  and  each  of  the  colors 
which  has  to  be  produced  in  the  loom.  For  the  weaving,  the  workman 
or  the  foreman  receives  the  warp,  dyed  or  prepared,  and  also  the  mate¬ 
rial  for  the  weft.  When  the  shawl  is  woven  it  is  handed  over  to  the 
dresser,  who  cuts  it,  shears  it  by  mechanical  means,  and  finally  washes 
and  dresses  it.  The  rich  shawl  is  the  type  of  all  the  other  classes.  It 
is  generally  woven  on  a  warp  called  cashmere,  but  composed  of  a  thread 
of  Cashmere  twisted  with  a  thread  of  organzine  or  of  raw  silk;  the  weft 
is  of  pure  Cashmere,  of  excellent  quality.  The  manufacturers  of  rich 
shawls  are,  and  must  always  necessarily  be,  the  originators  of  new  types 
as  regards  design  and  colors;  it  is  upon  this  condition  only  that  they 
can  obtain  a  remunerative  price  for  their  productions.  Their  novelties 
are  usually  copied  by  the  producers  of  inferior  shawls,  and,  finally,  by 
the  makers  of  low-priced  articles. 

“The  persons  employed  in  the  shawl  manufacture  consist  of  foremen? 
heads  of  shops,  designers,  composers,  carders,  readers,  warpers,  and 
wefters ;  a  few  women  are  employed  in  the  weaving  shops.  The  greater 
part  of  the  shawl  weavers  work  at  their  own  houses;  they  generally 
employ  workmen,  to  whom  they  give  two-thirds  of  the  price  they  receive 
from  the  manufacturer.  In  Paris  these  master  weavers  are  the  propri¬ 
etors  of  their  looms,  but  in  Picardy  they  generally  possess  only  the  frame¬ 
work  of  the  loom,  and  not  the  Jacquard  machinery  and  accessories.  The 
wages  of  the  weavers  are  not  very  high.  Those  who  possess  their  own 
looms  may  earn,  in  Paris,  from  5  francs  to  5  francs  50  centimes  per  day; 
the  under  weaver  earns  from  3  francs  50  centimes  to  4  francs  per  day; 
the  boys  and  girls  employed  as  assistants  earn  from  1  franc  to  1  franc 
50  centimes  per  day. 

“The  shawl  manufacturer  sells  directly  to  the  retail  dealer,  who  sells 
the  shawls  again  in  the  same  state  in  which  he  receives  them.  The  prices 
of  French  shawls  are  very  various;  they  range  from  as  low  as  12  francs 
to  the  most  elevated  rates;  certain  long  shawls,  for  example,  sell  for 
1,000  francs,  and  square  shawls  from  400  to  500  francs.  The  export  trade 
is  carried  on  through  the  medium  of  commission  agents,  or  directly  with 
the  representatives  of  foreign  houses,  who  come  over  and  buy  in  the 
markets  of  Paris,  Lyons,  and  Himes,  and  sometimes,  also,  by  travellers 


108 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


representing  the  producers  abroad.  The  value  of  the  shawl  trade  in 
France  may  be  estimated  at  20,000,000  francs  per  annum.  Paris  alone 
furnishes  about  15,000,000  francs’  worth,  and  sells  nearly  a  quarter  of 
this  amount  to  foreign  countries,  especially  to  North  America,  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  England.  Very  promising  attempts  have  been  made, 
since  1855,  to  substitute  paper  for  cardboard  in  the  pattern,  which  would 
make  a  notable  reduction  in  the  heavy  expense  of  reading,  in  order  to 
weave  by  steam-power  a  stuff  which  would  rival,  in  relief  and  color,  the** 
shawl  of  India.” — Translation  of  the  report  of  Mr.  Herbert,  jr.,  member  of 
the  committee  of  admission  of  class  32. 

The  shawl  is,  perhaps,  the  most  universal  article  of  dress  in  the  world, 
and,  from  its  extreme  beauty,  is  an  object  of  admiration  in  all  countries. 
It  is  the  perfection  of  eastern  skill,  and  years  were  often  consumed  in 
the  manufacture  of  a  single  cummerbund  or  scarf  for  the  waist.  Shawls 
were  intended  for  the  male  sex,  but  the  fairer  portion  of  creation  quickly 
appropriated  an  article  which  possessed  such  manifest  attractions.  In 
the  east  the  shawl  is  still  a  principal  article  of  dress — on  the  head 
as  a  turban,  and  over  the  head  as  a  hood;  twisted  round  the  neck, 
folded  round  the  shoulder,  or  wrapped  round  the  waist  as  a  girdle ;  at 
times  forming  the  entire  dress,  and  at  other  times  being  but  an  adjunct 
of  luxury,  falling  in  graceful  folds  on  the  person;  in  every  way  it  is  suit¬ 
able,  becoming,  and  popular.  The  shawl  used  for  the  turban  is  of  extreme 
length,  often  as  much  as  60  yards. 

The  finest  shawls  are  still  made,  as  of  yore,  in  the  beautiful  valley  of 
Cashmere,  the  Oriental  Eden,  which  is  shut  out  by  precipitous  mountains 
from  all  surrounding  countries.  The  Cashmerian  is  industrious,  intelli¬ 
gent,  and  lively.  It  is  only  in  Cashmere  that  production  is  organized 
on  principles  nearly  akin  to  the  economical  plan  of  Europe.  The  shawl 
is  the  glory  and  pride  of  the  country,  nearly  the  entire  population  being 
engaged  in  its  production.  The  goats  of  Thibet,  from  which  tremendous 
steeps  separate  it  on  the  north,  supply  the  silky  wool  which  alone  is  used 
in  the  tissue;  none  other  can  surpass — none  has  yet  equalled — it  in  soft¬ 
ness.  The  downy  substance  found  next  the  skin,  and  below  the  thick 
hair,  is  the  part  employed;  it  is  of  exquisite  fineness.  So  jealous  is  the 
Maharajah  of  Cashmere  to  maintain  his  reputation,  that  he  has  recently 
taken  steps  to  prevent  any  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  the  shawls 
manufactured.  The  Indian  display  of  these  articles  was  exceedingly 
fine,  and  of  great  value. 

Next  in  interest  and  importance  were  the  French  imitations  of  the 
Cashmere  shawls — the  most  beautiful  tissue  which  mere  machinery  has 
yet  produced.  The  machinery  itself  is  one  of  the  triumphs  of  human 
ingenuity,  producing  in  a  few  days  what  in  the  valley  of  Cashmere 
would  take  years  to  produce.  The  French  Cashmere  has  none  of  the 
softness  of  the  Indian;  it  has  a  smooth,  firm  texture,  hard  and  cloth¬ 
like  to  the  touch,  without  the  knottiness  of  the  hand- worked  Cashmerian, 
and  the  folds  which  it  makes  are  more  angular;  but  the  designs  are  very 


CLOTHING. 


109 


beautiful  and  the  colors  exceedingly  brilliant  and  varied.  In  the  latter 
respect,  it  may  be  doubted  if  France  has  not  already  surpassed  her 
eastern  rival.  There  was  a  magnificent  display  of  these  shawls. 

Austria  is  also  famous  for  its  imitations  of  Cashmere,  and  made  an 
excellent  display.  There  is  more  regularity  and  clearness  in  the  patterns, 
but  the  colors  are  neither  so  harmonious  nor  so  good.  Prussia  and  Eng¬ 
land  also  exhibited  extensively  in  this  class. 

There  were  three  American  exhibitors. 

CLASS  33.— LACE,  NET,  EMBROIDERY,  AND  TRIMMINGS. 

The  products  comprised  in  this  class  form  four  distinct  groups:  1. 
Lace  made  by  hand,  with  bobbins,  and  with  needles,  including  Alengon 
point,  white  and  black  lace,  guipure,  and  Chantilly,  Mirecourt,  and  Puy 
lace. 

2.  Plain,  figured,  and  embroidered  net  and  its  derivatives,  comprising 
machine-made  silk  and  woollen  lace,  known  by  the  name  of  French  tulle, 
and  net  of  Valenciennes,  India,  Lama,  &c. ;  white  silk  blond $  plain  and 
figured  silk  net,  and  cotton  guipure  for  upholstery. 

3.  Hand  and  machine-made  embroidery  on  various  tissues ;  embroidery 
on  civil  and  military  uniforms  $  church  embroidery,  and  embroidery  in 
silk  and  wool  on  canvas. 

4.  Trimmings  of  all  kinds,  for  upholstery,  religious  and  military  orna¬ 
ments,  men’s  and  ladies’  garments,  carriages  and  liveries,  and  fancy  mis¬ 
cellaneous  articles. 

Almost  every  civilized  country  in  the  world  produces  the  article  called 
lace — the  most  difficult  and  delicate  result  of  skilled  labor.  There  are, 
however,  only  two  or  three  countries  that  have  given  any  original  impulse 
to  the  trade.  The  others  have  simply  followed  in  the  trains  of  events, 
taking  what  had  been  done  as  a  model,  and  imitating  it  to  the  best  advan¬ 
tage.  To  two  nations — France  and  Belgium — belongs  the  credit  of  pros¬ 
ecuting  this  trade  with  vigor.  The  laces  of  Alengon  and  Brussels  are  of 
so  complicated  a  nature  that  each  process  is  assigned  to  a  different  lace 
maker,  who  works  only  at  her  special  department.  Formerly  a  piece  of 
Alengon  lace  would  pass  through  eighteen  hands  before  completion  j  the 
number  is  now  somewhat  diminished.  Valenciennes  lace  is  also  of  most 
elaborate  workmanship ;  the  pattern  and  ground  are  made  together,  with 
the  same  thread  on  the  same  pillow.  One  exhibited  with  the  lace  in 
progress  had  no  fewer  than  1,200  bobbins. 

There  is  a  legend  regarding  the  introduction  of  this  manufacture  into 
Flanders.  A  poverty-stricken  but  pious  young  girl  was  dying  of  love 
for  a  young  man  whose  wealth  precluded  all  hopes  of  marriage.  One 
night,  as  she  sat  weeping  at  her  sad  fate,  a  beautiful  lady  entered  the 
cottage,  and,  without  saying  a  word,  placed  on  her  knee  a  green  cloth 
cushion,  with  its  bobbins  filled  with  the  fine  thread  which  on  autumn 
evenings  float  in  the  air,  and  which  the  people  call  ufils  de  la  VlergeP 
The  lady,  though  of  romantic  bearing,  was  a  practical  manufacturer. 


110 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


She  sat  down  in  silence,  and  with  her  nimble  fingers  taught  the  unhappy 
maiden  how  to  make  all  sorts  of  patterns  and  complicated  stitches.  As 
daylight  approached  the  maiden  had  learned  her  art,  and  the  mysterious 
visitor  disappeared.  The  price  of  her  lace  soon  made  the  poor  girl  rich. 
She  married  the  man  of  her  choice,  and,  surrounded  by  a  large  family, 
lived  happy  and  rich,  for  she  had  kept  the  secret  for  herself.  One  even¬ 
ing  when  the  little  folk  were  playing  round  her  knee,  by  the  fireside,  and 
her  husband  sat  fondly  watching  the  happy  group,  the  lady  suddenly 
made  her  appearance  among  them.  Her  bearing  was  distant ;  she  seemed 
stern  and  sad,  and  this  time  addressed  her  protege  in  a  trembling  voice. 
u  Here,”  she  said,  u  you  enjoy  peace  and  abundance,  while  without  are 
famine  and  trouble.  I  helped  you $  you  have  not  helped  your  neighbors. 
The  angels  weep  for  you  and  turn  away  their  faces.”  So  the  next  day 
the  woman  arose,  and,  going  forth  with  a  green  cushion  and  its  bobbins 
in  her  hands,  went  from  cottage  to  cottage,  offering  to  all  who  would  be 
taught  to  instruct  them  in  the  art  she  had  herself  miraculously  learned. 
So  they  also  became  rich,  and  Belgium  became  famous  for  this  manufac¬ 
ture. 

The  most  recent  improvement  in  the  production  of  lace  is  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  shaded  tints  in  the  flowers  and  patterns,  giving  them  the  relief 
of  a  picture.  This  effect  is  produced  by  varying  the  application  of  the 
two  stitches  used  in  making  the  flowers — the  u  toile,”  which  forms  the 
close  tissue,  and  the  u  grille,”  employed  in  the  more  open  part  of  the  pat¬ 
tern.  The  system  is  successfully  applied  to  the  laces  of  France  and  Bel¬ 
gium,  but  it  is  in  France  that  it  has  been  adopted  with  the  greatest  suc¬ 
cess. 

The  species  of  lace  which  is  peculiarly  French  is  the  u  point  d’Alengon,” 
properly  the  u  point  de  France,”  the  manufacture  of  which  was  intro¬ 
duced  by  Colbert  to  avoid  the  annual  importation  of  lace  from  Italy  and 
Flanders,  which  in  his  day  was  employed  in  the  dress  of  both  sexes.  A 
fine  and  very  early  specimen  of  this  lace  was  exhibited.  It  was  a  piece 
of  a  flounce  about  two  and  a  half  feet  long,  displaying  exquisite  design 
and  workmanship.  It  belonged  in  the  day  of  its  prime  to  the  celebrated 
Madame  de  Pompadour. 

The  exhibition  of  modern  French  lace  was  of  the  highest  order.  Aleu- 
gon  maintained  its  reputation,  and  the  black  pillow  lace  of  Bayeux  was 
unrivalled  in  elegance  and  beauty.  A  dress  of  the  former  material,  con¬ 
sisting  of  two  flounces  and  trimmings,  was  shown,  the  cost  of  which  was 
85,000  francs,  or  $17,000  in  gold.  A  u  point”  or  half-shawl  by  the  same 
maker  was  estimated  at  10,000  francs. 

Belgium,  as  a  lace-producing  country,  is  the  most  formidable  rival  of 
France.  It  was  difficult  to  say  which  nation  shone  to  the  greatest  advan¬ 
tage,  but  perhaps  in  delicate  manipulation  of  design  and  ready  and  grace¬ 
ful  taste  the  French  makers  were  a  little  ahead  of  their  energetic  and 
intelligent  neighbors.  Belgium  had  a  magnificent  display  of  her  manu¬ 
factures,  Brussels  and  Grammont,  to  which  must  still  be  added  Mecklin, 


CLOTHING. 


Ill 


tlie  prettiest  and  lightest  of  its  fabrics,  but  the  fashion  for  which  has  died 
away,  and  there  is  little  made  at  the  present  time.  The  specimens  in 
some  cases  were  of  great  value,  and  all  displayed  the  highest  order  of 
workmanship. 

After  the  productions  of  France  and  Belgium,  there  was  little  to 
admire  in  the  lace  exhibition  of  other  countries.  England  had  some 
good  samples  of  Honiton  lace,  but  the  patterns  were  heavy  and  inartistic, 
and  detracted  materially  from  the  excellence  of  the  workmanship. 

Nottingham  and  Saint  Pierre-les-Paris  are  the  principal  seats  of  the 
bobbin,  net,  and  machine-made  lace  manufactures.  Since  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  the  Jacquard  cards  to  the  making  of  lace,  many  imitations  of 
great  beauty  and  very  low  price  have  been  produced.  The  Calais  manu¬ 
facturers  exhibited  imitations  of  every  kind  of  lace,  cotton,  silk,  and 
mohair;  Valenciennes,  Cluny,  colored  laces,  blondes,  white  and  black, 
silver  and  gold.  The  manufacturers  of  Nottingham  exhibited  many 
admirable  articles  of  the  same  character,  and  Belgium  maintained  her 
pre-eminence,  closely  pressed  by  Lyons,  in  the  well-known  article  of  tulle. 

•  No  particular  nationalities  are  concerned  in  the  production  of  embroi¬ 
deries  and  trimmings,  of  which  the  infinite  variety  almost  exceeded  enu¬ 
meration.  There  were  specimens  from  almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
Germany,  perhaps,  pays  more  attention  to  embroidery.  There  are  gov¬ 
ernment  schools  for  teaching  the  art,  and  the  frugal  peasants  of  the 
mountainous  regions  practice  it  as  a  means  of  livelihood.  Colored  embroi¬ 
dery  comes  mainly  from  the  east.  In  the  matter  of  trimmings  France  is 
the  centre  of  the  trade,  and  sent  a  large  display  to  the  Exposition. 

PRODUCTION  IN  FRANCE. 

The  following  complete  resume  of  the  productions  in  this  Class,  in 
France,  is  from  the  translation  of  the  Introduction  to  the  Class  by  Felix 
Aubry,  President  of  the  Committee  of  Admission. 

LACE. 

“  Lace  is  generally  made  in  the  country ;  it  takes  the  name  of  the 
town  which  is  the  central  market,  and  the  principal  seats  of  its  produc¬ 
tions  are :  1.  Alen§on,  where  the  magnificent  6  point  a  &  aiguille,1  (made 
with  needles,)  known  by  the  name  of  L  points  de  France,1  are  made. 
These  laces  are  sometimes  veritable  works  of  art. 

u  2.  Chantilly,  Bayeux  and  Caen,  whose  products  are  similar,  and 
include  black  silk  laces  of  large  dimension  for  dresses,  flounces,  shawls, 
and  veils.  This  manufacture,  particularly  at  Bayeux,  has  been  brought 
to  the  highest  perfection. 

u  3.  Lille  and  Arras,  where  pillow  lace  is  made  of  excellent  quality, 
but  is  little  used  in  the  present  day. 

u  4-  Bayeux,  which  furnishes  that  very  durable  sort  of  lace  known  as 
Valenciennes. 


112 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


u5.  Mirecourt,  (Vosges,)  celebrated  for  its  new  creations  ;  the  produc¬ 
tions  from  this  locality,  specially  manufactured  according  to  the  exigen¬ 
cies  of  fashion,  are  much  sought  after  by  the  general  public  and  imitated 
largely  in  foreign  countries. 

“6.  Auvergne,  where  the  Puy  laces  and  guipures  are  made  at  very  low 
prices ;  the  manufacture  of  this  description  of  lace  employs  a  very  large 
number  of  hands,  and  the  amount  produced  is  enormous. 

u  All  the  raw  materials  used  in  textile  fabrics  are  employed  in  this 
manufacture,  and  are  spun  specially  for  it.  The  flax  yarn  comes  from 
Lille  ;  the  cotton  from  the  north  of  France  and  from  England.  Lyons 
furnishes  white  and  black  silk  yarn,  as  also  the  gold  and  silver  thread ; 
the  woollen  yarn  (goat’s  hair  and  mohair)  is  spun  at  Bradford.  The 
price  of  the  raw  material  amounts  to  from  six  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  the 
value  of  the  production.  Pillow  lace  is  made  on  a  sort  of  frame,  very 
light  and  simple  in  construction,  and  which  is  held  on  the  knees  of  the 
lace-maker.  The  shape  of  this  pillow  has  varied  little  for  the  last  300 
years,  and  is  called  a  L  coussin  or  carreau  ;’  it  is  invariably  the  property 
of  the  workwoman. 

u  The  total  number  of  lace-makers  is  estimated  at  200,000  women  and 
girls.  They  gain,  on  an  average,  1  franc  25  centimes  per  day  ;  some  who 
are  particularly  skilful  and  industrious  earn  as  much  as  3  francs  50 
centimes  for  10  hours’  hard  work.  Lace-makers  are  for  the  most  part  peas¬ 
ant  women,  who  all,  without  exception,  work  in  their  own  homes,  often 
quitting  their  pillows  and  babes  to  attend  to  household  duties,  or  to  work 
in  the  fields.  Lace  making  has  the  advantage  of  being  carried  on  at 
home,  and  therefore  not  depriving  agriculture  of  too  many  able  hands. 
French  lace  is  sold  at  all  markets — to  the  United  States,  the  Brazils, 
Russia,  Germany,  Italy,  Great  Britain,  the  East,  and  to  India.  Paris  is 
the  principal  centre  of  consumption. 

u  The  annual  production  of  this  trade  is  valued  at  100,000,000  francs, 
but  it  is  very  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  precise  calculation,  as  lace  is  not 
only  sold  as  a  simple  production,  but  is  used  in  so  many  different  ways 
in  the  several  departments  of  trade.  We  may  note  among  the  recent 
improvements  the  invention  of  many  new  tinted  designs  and  stitches, 
as  also  the  production  of  that  thick  kind  of  lace,  with  the  pattern  in  high 
relief,  which  imitates,  at  a  comparatively  low  price,  the  old  Venetian 
point,  as  well  as  that  of  Flanders  and  Raguse. 

NET. 

u  Saint  Pierre-les-Calais,  and  Calais,  are  the  principal  centres  of  the 
cotton  net  and  silk  blonde  manufactories  ;  plain,  embroidered,  figured, 
and  damask  silk  nets  are  made  at  Lyons ;  figured  and  plain  net  for 
upholstery,  at  Lille ;  Saint  Quentin  and  Inchy  produce  white  cotton  net, 
plain  and  figured;  Amiens  supplies  machine-made  lace  in  silk  and 
mohair,  (goat’s  hair.)  Cotton,  silk,  and  wool  are  employed  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  machine-made  lace,  as  also  in  that  of  all  kinds  of  net ;  the 


CLOTHING. 


113 


cotton  comes  from  Lille,  tlie  silk  from  Lyons  and  England,  and  the 
wool  from  Bradford,  where  they  succeed  in  spinning  a  kilogram  of 
goat’s  hair  into  300,000  metres  of  yarn.  Machine-made  net  and  lace  is 
generally  woven  in  manufactories  by  the  aid  of  steam  power,  acting  with 
wonderful  automatical  precision.  The  machinery  is  very  complicated 
and  expensive,  and  represents  a  value  of  no  less  than  25,000,000  francs ; 
a  great  many  different  systems  are  adopted,  but  the  most  general  are 
the  pusher,  lever,  and  circular  machines. 

“  The  manufacture  of  net  employs  about  25,000  hands,  both  male  and 
female.  The  women  earn  from  1  franc  to  2  francs  per  day,  the  men  from 
3  francs  to  6  francs.  The  latter  alone  work  at  the  machinery ;  the  women 
are  occupied  in  the  preparation  and  arrangement  of  the  raw  materials. 
The  net  trade  has  made  great  progress  in  the  last  10  years,  thanks  to 
the  numerous  improvements  that  have  taken  place  in  its  method  of  pro¬ 
duction,  and  especially  to  the  manufacture  by  machinery  of  silk  blonde 
and  lace.  The  productions  of  Calais  and  Lyons  are  now  in  universal 
demand,  and  the  principal  markets  are  the  United  States,  Italy,  Ger¬ 
many,  Spain,  the  East,  India,  and  even  England — cotton  and  silk  net, 
blonde  and  lace,  made  by  machinery  being  of  an  infinitely  lower  price 
than  hand-made  lace,  and  is  of  much  more  general  use;  this  section 
of  the  trade  doing  business  to  the  amount  of  about  75,000,000  francs, 
yearly.  Among  the  most  recent  improvements,  we  may  point  out  the 
wonderful  imitations  of  real  silk  blonde,  the  production  of  very  exquis¬ 
ite  silk  and  woollen  lace,  and  numerous  modifications  in  the  machinery 
which  permit  the  attainment  of  great  variety  of  effects  and  beauty  of 
detail. 

EMBROIDERY. 

u  Embroidery  is  carried  on  in  all  parts  of  France,  and  the  chief  cen¬ 
tres  of  production  may  be  divided  into  four  principal  groups  : 

u  1.  White  embroidery  for  clothing  and  upholstery  comes  from  the 
departments  of  Yosges,  Meurthe,  Meuse,  Moselle,  Haute- Saone,  Bhone, 
and  Calvados,  and  also  Paris. 

u  2.  Gold  and  silver  embroidery,  artistic  and  fancy  embroidery  for 
military  uniforms,  church  ornaments  and  vestments,  upholstery  and 
other  garments,  are  made  in  Paris  and  Lyons. 

u  3.  The  principal  seat  of  production  for  that  embroidery  in  silk  and 
wool  called  tapestry  work  is  Paris,  and  the  departments  of  Eure,  Yonne, 
Lot,  Doubs,  &c. 

u  4.  Tarare  is  especially  celebrated  for  its  large  articles  of  upholstery, 
such  as  curtains,  &c.,  embroidered  on  net  and  muslin. 

u  Embroidery  is,  so  to  speak,  the  raising  of  one  fabric  on  another ;  a 
multitude  of  different  kinds  of  articles  are  used  to  embroider  with,  such 
as  straw,  jet,  beads,  and  gold  and  silver  thread ;  but  cotton,  silk,  and 
wool,  are  those  most  commonly  employed.  Embroidery  is  prepared  by 
hand  and  by  machinery ;  the  former  is  worked  merely  on  the  fingers,  on 
8  u  E 


114 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


canvas,  or  on  tambour  frames.  For  braiding  the  sewing  machine  is 
much  used.  Within  the  last  six  years  embroidery  has  been  worked  by 
machinery,  and  the  new  embroidering  machines,  though  still  rare  in 
France,  (about  100  having  been  erected,)  have  superseded  hand- work  in 
many  cases.  The  number  of  women  and  girls  employed  at  embroidery 
in  France  is  estimated  at  100,000  ;  they  all  work  at  their  own  homes. 
There  are  but  few  workshops,  and  the  work  done  there  is  confined  to  the 
production  of  special  articles.  The  wages  of  the  workwomen  are  very 
variable ;  those  who  do  the  artistic  description  of  embroidery  with  gold 
and  silver  thread  earn  from  3  to  5  francs  a  day ;  the  others  from  1  to  2 
francs. 

u  Paris  is  the  principal  centre  of  this  trade,  and  the  most  important 
manufacturers  have  all  a  depot  there.  French  embroidery  is  prized  for 
the  beauty  of  its  manufacture  and  the  novelty  of  the  design.  It  is 
exported  to  the  United  States,  Italy,  the  east,  Russia,  and  British  India. 
The  importance  of  this  trade,  on  account  of  the  great  number  of  hands 
employed,  is  considerable.  The  value  of  the  raw  materials  used,  and 
even  that  of  the  fabrics  on  which  the  embroidery  is  done,  is  often  infe¬ 
rior  to  the  value  of  the  workmanship,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  accu¬ 
rately  separate  the  value  of  the  workmanship  from  that  of  the  manufac¬ 
tured  material  on  which  it  is  based,  and  thus  arrive  at  a  correct  estimate 
of  the  worth  of  the  entire  product  in  a  commercial  point  of  view.  How¬ 
ever,  the  wages  of  the  workwomen  amount  yearly  to  a  sum  of  more  than 
30,000,000  francs.  Among  the  latest  improvements  we  must  distinguish 
the  new  embroidery  machines,  which  will  more  than  double  the  produc¬ 
tion;  the  invention  of  new  stitches  for  gold  and  silver  embroidery,  and 
that  of  tinted  and  shaded  needle- work  embroidery. 

TRIMMINGS. 

u  Lyons  is  celebrated  for  its  gold  and  silver  military  gimps,  cords,  and 
trimmings ;  St.  Etienne  for  its  fashionable  trimmings  for  dresses  and 
outer  garments,  and  for  all  those  fancy  articles  which  are  created  and 
changed  with  the  fashion.  At  Mines,  St.  Chaumond,  and  Rouen  may 
be  found  excellent  manufactures  of  cord,  braid,  and  elastic  fabrics ;  but 
Paris  is  the  active  and  important  centre  of  the  trade.  For  trimmings 
all  the  textile  fabrics  are  employed,  principally  wool,  silk,  and  cotton,  and 
sometimes  straw,  gold,  silver,  aluminium,  &c.  Each  different  descrip¬ 
tion  of  trimmings  demands  a  special  kind  of  manufacture;  some  are 
made  with  the  needle,  and  some  on  looms  of  high  and  low  warpr  with 
and  without  Jacquards ;  the  more  ordinary  productions  are  made  by 
means  of  steam  machinery.  The  manufacture  of  trimmings  occupies 
more  than  30,000  hands,  and,  after  that  of  lace-making  and  embroidery, 
is  the  trade  which  employs  the  largest  number  of  women  and  children. 
The  wages  are  variable,  as  they  depend  not  only  on  the  skill  of  the  work¬ 
man,  but  upon  the  nature  of  the  work.  Men  earn  from  three  to  eight 
francs  per  day,  and  the  women  and  children  from  one  to  three  francs. 


CLOTHING. 


115 


This  branch  of  industry,  very  considerable  from  the  great  number  of 
hands  employed  and  the  vast  capital  it  represents,  is  very  prosperous  at 
the  present  time.  All  the  foreign  manufacturers  buy  the  new  designs 
from  Paris,  for  the  purpose  of  copying  them.  The  exportation  is  very 
large,  principally  to  North  and  South  America,  India,  the  East,  England, 
Russia,  Spain,  and  Italy.  The  entire  production  is  supposed  to  exceed 
100,000,000  francs  yearly.  The  chief  improvements  we  have  to  point  out 
are:  great  improvements  in  the  different  kinds  of  looms,  which  has 
much  increased  the  production  5  considerable  diminution  in  price,  and 
an  enormous  development  of  the  whole  trade.” 

CLASS  34.— HOSIERY,  UNDER-CLOTHING,  AND  MINOR  ARTI¬ 
CLES. 

The  productions  exhibited  in  this  class  formed  twelve  distinct  groups : 

I.  Hosiery 5  2.  Buttons 5  3.  Braces,  garters,  and  buckles 5  4.  Gloves; 

5.  Fans ;  6.  Umbrellas  and  parasols ;  7.  Canes  and  whips ;  8.  Cravats ; 
9.  Shirts ;  10.  Ladies’  and  children’s  ready-made  under-clothing ; 

II.  Stays ;  12.  Petticoats  and  crinolines. 

Full  and  entertaining  particulars  of  the  trades  interested  in  these 
branches  are  given  below.  They  are  extracted  from  the  official  cata¬ 
logue,  and  relate  to  France.  Hosiery  was  largely  represented  by  other 
nations.  France  was  rich  in  fancy  articles,  such  as  ladies’  silk  stockings 
with  open  lacework  and  embroidery,  mittens,  scarfs,  and  veils.  England 
excelled  in  articles  of  a  more  substantial  make,  but  in  cotton  and  woollen 
hosiery  she  was  without  a  rival.  In  almost  all  the  other  groups  France 
maintained  the  first  position,  and  was  quite  undisturbed  by  competition. 
There  were  four  American  exhibitors  in  this  class. 

HOSIERY. 

u  Hosiery  is  made  in  almost  every  part  of  France,  it  being  manufac¬ 
tured  in  no  less  than  500  communes,  but  principally  in  the  departments 
of  the  Aube,  Marne,  Oise,  Somme,  Gard,  Herault,  Seine,  Calvados,  and 
Upper  Garonne. 

The  textile  fabrics  employed  are  principally  cotton  and  wool,  while 
silk,  floss  silk,  flax,  and  the  down  of  the  Thibet  goat  (Cashmere)  are 
used,  though  less  generally.  The  cotton  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  hosiery  is  carded,  combed,  and  spun  in  France,  and  is  derived  chiefly 
from  America,  Egypt,  and  India.  The  price  of  the  cotton  varies 
according  to  quality:  that  of  India  (No.  10  to  24)  is  worth  from  4  francs 
to  5  francs  50  centimes  the  kilogram.  That  of  America  and  Egypt 
(No.  16  to  150)  from  7  francs  to  36  francs  the  kilogram.  The  wool  is 
furnished  by  France,  England,  Russia,  Italy,  Germany,  Australia,  Spain, 
and  Africa,  and  is  carded  or  combed  and  spun  in  France.  The  price 
varies  from  4  francs  50  centimes  to  20  francs,  according  to  the  number, 
of  6  to  80,000  meters  to  the  kilogram. 

The  silk  is  spun,  but  the  cocoons  are  obtained  chiefly  from  the  Levant, 


116 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


and  also  from  Italy  and  France.  The  common  qualities  are  worth  from 
75  francs  to  90  francs  the  kilogram.  The  finer  qualities  from  120  to 
130  francs.  Floss  silk  is  spun  in  France  and  Switzerland.  In  1866  the 
price  per  kilogram  of  the  more  ordinary  sorts  varied  from  25  to  36 
francs,  and  for  the  superior  qualities  from  45  to  60  francs. 


Flax  thread  is  very  little  used  now,  and  that  only  by  some  few  manu¬ 
facturers  at  Pas-de-Calais.  It  is  sold  at  from  3  to  18  francs  the  kilo¬ 
gram. 

Cashmere  goat’s  hair  is  but  seldom  employed.  The  finer  qualities 
are  worth  from  26  to  60  francs  the  kilogram,  and  the  more  ordinary 
from  18  to  20  francs.  The  use  of  the  hair  of  the  rabbit  has  been  entirely 
discontinued  of  late  years. 

Nearly  all  the  machines  for  making  hosiery  are  worked  by  hand;  how¬ 
ever,  steam  machinery  is  being  gradually  introduced  into  some  of  the 
principal  French  manufactories,  and  hand  machines  are,  for  the  most 
part,  employed  by  those  men  who  work  at  their  own  homes.  Knitting 
is  no  longer  required,  except  for  some  few  fancy  articles,  and  then  it  is 
always  performed  by  women,  who  work  at  home. 

In  France  the  small  manufactories  of  hosiery  are  very  numerous, 
while  there  are  but  few  large  ones.  The  men  and  women  who  work  in 
their  own  houses — which  form  by  far  the  greater  proportion,  being  90 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  number  employed  in  the  trade — earn  30  per  cent, 
less  than  those  ayIio  are  occupied  in  the  factories.  Forty-five  per  cent, 
of  the  employes  are  women,  their  occupation  consisting  in  sewing  the 
seams,  embroidery,  getting  up  the  various  articles,  and  knitting  and 
crocheting  different  fancy  goods. 

The  greater  part  of  the  manufacturers  have  depots  in  Paris,  which 
constitutes  it  the  principal  market  for  French  hosiery.  The  town  of 
Troyes  is  the  chief  manufacturing  centre,  and,  at  the  same  time,  an 
important  market.  About  half  the  home  trade  is  carried  on  directly 
between  the  manufacturer  and  retail  vender,  the  other  half  through  the 
medium  of  wholesale  houses.  Exportation  is  mostly  undertaken  by 
commission  merchants.  The  annual  production  amounts  to  about 
100,009,000  francs,  of  which  15,491,722  francs  are  exported.  As  much 
as  549,788  francs  of  hosiery  was  imported  into  France  this  year.  Great 
progress  has  been  made  in  this  branch  of  industry  since  1865. 

Firstly,  as  to  the  means  of  production,  Ave  must  mention  the  automatic 
rectilinear  looms,  of  different  kinds,  and  both  of  English  and  French 
invention,  Avliich  allow  a  workman  to  produce  at  one  time  six  stockings, 
and  even  twel\Te,  of  different  fineness,  whereas  the  old-fashioned  small 
machines  only  made  one  at  a  time.  Also,  the  circular  machines  made 
according  to  a  new  system,  of  every  size,  and  by  which  no  less  than 
thirty  roAVS  can  be  woven  with  one  revolution  of  the  machine;  and 
again,  the  machine  for  taking  up  the  stitches  and  sewing  the  stockings 
in  the  greatest  perfection.  Secondly,  the  productions  themselves  are  of 
a  much  more  equal  quality,  and  made  with  greater  care.  The  amount 


CLOTHING 


117 


exported  lias  much  augmented  this  branch  of  the  trade,  being  now  car¬ 
ried  on  to  a  very  large  extent.  The  number  of  mills  where  yarn  is  pre¬ 
pared  for  working  hosiery  has  greatly  increased.  The  salaries  of  the 
workmen  have  risen  about  30  per  cent,  since  1855. 

BUTTONS. 

u  Paris  is  the  principal  centre  of  this  industry.  Buttons  of  all  sorts  are 
manufactured  there  in  metal,  silk,  mother-of-pearl,  horn,  enamel,  and  also 
those  fancy  kinds  which  serve  to  ornament  outer  garments.  The  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Oise  is  the  seat  of  manufacture  for  buttons  in  shell,  mother- 
of-pearl,  vegetable  ivory,  bone,  ivory,  &c,  besides  silk  buttons,  which 
are  one  of  the  most  staple  productions  of  France,  and  which  are  exclu¬ 
sively  made  in  this  department.  China  buttons  are  made  in  great  quan¬ 
tities  at  Briare,  in  the  department  of  Loiret,  at  Montereau,  Seine- 
et-Marne,  and  at  Creil,  Oise.  As  to  the  other  places,  where  only  horn, 
mother-of-pearl,  and  bone  buttons  are  manufactured,  they  are  of  so  little 
importance,  comparatively,  that  we  shall  not  make  any  particular  men¬ 
tion  of  them. 

The  raw  materials  made  use  of  in  this  branch  of  industry  may  be 
divided  into  five  sections :  gold,  silver,  aluminium,  German  silver,  copper, 
tin,  zinc,  iron,  steel,  &e.;  silk,  wool,  linen,  cotton,  velvet,  and  various 
other  fabrics ;  china,  enamel,  glass,  crystal,  beads,  imitation  stones, 
mosaics,  &c.  The  amount  of  metals  used  annually  in  the  first  series 
may  be  estimated  at  2,500,000  kilograms,  representing  a  sum  of 
4,000,000  francs.  The  silk  and  other  fabrics  of  series  No.  2  may  be  val¬ 
ued  at  about  the  same  amount.  The  raw  materials  of  the  third  series, 
nearly  all  derived  from  the  tropics,  are  employed  to  an  extent  of  3,000,000 
kilograms,  exceeding  5,000,000  francs  in  value.  The  annual  consump¬ 
tion  of  horns,  hoofs  of  mammalia,  and  the  other  articles  of  the  fourth 
series,  is  not  less  than  1,500,000  francs7  worth;  while  the  glass  and  china 
manufactures  of  the  last  series  are  entirely  of  French  manufacture,  and 
represent  a  yearly  value  of  2,500,000  francs. 

Steam  and  hydraulic  machinery  has  come  into  more  general  use  since 
1855,  and  is  principally  employed  for  cutting  out  the  raw  materials,  and 
for  stamping  metal  buttons.  The  other  kinds  are  made  by  hand,  with 
the  help  of  small  machines  and  tools.  Certain  kinds  of  silk  buttons  are 
the  only  ones  made  entirely  by  hand. 

The  number  of  hands  employed  in  France  in  the  manufacture  of  but¬ 
tons  is  22,000;  of  which  8,000  are  men,  10,000  women,  and  4,000  children, 
some  of  whom  work  at  home  and  others  in  manufactories.  The  wages 
may  be  estimated  at  4  francs  25  centimes  per  day  for  the  men,  1  franc 
85  centimes  for  women,  and  1  franc  10  centimes  for  children. 

All  kinds  of  French  buttons  are  exported  to  Great  Britain,  Italy, 
Russia,  and  North  America,  while  South  America,  Mexico,  and  China 
buy  a  large  quantity  of  the  common  sorts.  The  annual  production  may 
be  valued  at  45,000,000  francs,  of  which  three-fourths  are  sent  to  foreign 


118 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


countries.  This  branch  of  industry,  which  was  comparatively  insignifi¬ 
cant  thirty  years  ago,  has  made  extraordinary  progress  since  1855,  and 
we  may  safely  say  that  France  furnishes  to  the  whole  civilized  world  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  button  manufacture. 

BRACES,  GARTERS,  AND  BUCKLES. 

“The  manufacture  of  garters  and  braces  has  been  created  in  France 
since  1834.  From  Paris,  where  it  was  first  established,  it  was  removed 
to  Rouen,  where  it  now  almost  exclusively  flourishes.  Buckles  in  copper 
are  principally  made  in  Paris ;  those  in  steel  at  Rancourt,  (Ardennes.) 
The  raw  materials  consist  of  cotton,  India-rubber,  and  silk  for  orna¬ 
mentation. 

For  these  articles,  buckles  are  chiefly  manufactured  in  copper  and 
steel  5  the  metals  employed  in  making  buckles  for  trousers,  waistcoats, 
and  shoes,  are  steel,  iron,  copper,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  &c.  Rouen  employs 
relatively  but  a  smaller  number  of  hands  in  the  manufacture  of  garters 
and  braces  ;  all  the  work  is  done  by  machinery.  In  Paris,  hand  labor 
predominates.  For  the  manufacture  of  buckles  by  means  of  cutters, 
machinery  has,  since  1836,  quite  replaced  hand  labor.  The  workmen  and 
apprentices  who  weave  the  braces  are  employed  in  manufactories,  while 
the  women  who  mount  them  work  at  their  own  homes.  The  men  earn 
5  francs  50  centimes  per  day,  and  the  women  3  francs.  The  apprentices 
are  not  paid,  but  are  provided  with  board  and  lodging.  The  greater  part 
of  the  men  who  make  buckles  work  in  manufactories  ;  but  the  produc¬ 
tions  are  finished  off  by  workmen  in  their  own  homes.  The  men’s  wages 
vary  from  2  francs  50  centimes  to  5  francs ;  the  women’s  from  1  franc 
50  centimes  to  2  francs  50  centimes,  and  that  of  the  children  from  75 
centimes  to  2  francs. 

French  braces  and  garters  are  exported  to  nearly  every  part  of  the 
world;  principally  to  England,  Russia,  and  America.  The  buckles  made 
in  France  compete  advantageously  with  those  of  the  best  foreign  manu¬ 
facturers.  The  annual  production  of  braces  and  garters  in  France 
amounts  to  about  10,000,000  francs  in  value.  The  manufacture  of  buckles 
in  Paris  alone  amounts  to  2,000,000  francs,  of  which  one-third  is  exported. 
Among  the  improvements  of  the  last  15  years  we  must  mention  the 
weaving  machine  of  Mr.  Fromage,  producing  80  dozen  pairs  of  braces  per 
day,  of  which  the  price  of  manufacture  does  not  amount  to  more  than  six 
centimes  per  dozen ;  also  the  inven  tion  of  the  hygienic  braces,  which  differ 
from  the  other  kinds,  inasmuch  as  the  stress  of  the  elastic  fabric  is 
entirely  removed  from  the  shoulders,  and  only  bears  upon  the  lower  part 
of  the  braces.  Lastly,  the  common  kind  of  buckles  have  been  replaced 
by  those  called  a  pont,  of  a  much  more  convenient  form. 

KID  GLOVES. 

“The  principal  manufactures  of  kid  gloves  are  to  be  found  in  Paris, 
Grenoble,  t/haumont,  and  St.  Junieiq  (haute  Vienne ;)  the  lambskin 


CLOTHING. 


119 


gloves  are  made  chiefly  at  Luneville  and  Niort,  and  those  in  deer-skin 
and  chamois-leather  (called  castor)  at  Rennes.  Many  provincial  towns 
make  gloves  for  local  use,  as  Lyons,  Nancy,  Strasburg,  and  Rochefort. 
The  manufacture  of  gloves  employs  kid,  lamb,  and  sheep-skins,  as  well 
as  the  skins  of  the  lamb,  the  deer,  and  the  reindeer,  (dressed  chamois 
fashion.)  Almost  all  these  skins  are  procured  in  Europe ;  but  the  finest 
are  to  be  met  within  the  centre  of  France.  The  best  kids  come  from 
Switzerland,  the  north  of  Italy,  Tyrol,  Austria,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and 
Silesia  5  those  of  northern  Europe  are,  in  general,  very  inferior. 

The  skins  are  first  tanned,  then  dyed  and  cut  out  to  make  gloves. 
Dressing  by  means  of  machinery  has  been  tried,  but  does  not  seem  to 
have  succeeded  for  any  but  the  thickest  kind  of  skin.  The  u  dollage,”  or 
process  of  equalizing  the  thickness  of  the  skin,  is  done  either  by  hand  or 
by  means  of  stone  cylinders  moved  by  steam.  The  fingers  are  divided 
by  means  of  dies  moved  by  a  screw.  The  remainder  of  the  processes  are 
performed  entirely  by  hand.  The  dyeing  of  the  skins  is  likewise  a 
manual  occupation.  Two  sorts  of  dyes  are  used  for  skins ;  that  which  is 
applied  with  a  brush,  and  that  into  which  skins  are  dipped.  After  the 
skins  have  been  dressed,  they  are  sorted  and  appropriated  to  the  use  for 
which  they  seem  most  fitting;  then  comes  the  dollage,  the  cutting,  &c. 

The  working  tanners  earn  daily,  in  the  Paris  workshops,  from  4  francs 
50  centimes  to  5  francs;  and  in  the  provinces  from  3  francs  to  3  francs  50 
centimes.  The  palissoneurs ,  who  work  by  the  piece,  can  earn  as  much  as 
6  to  8  francs  a  day  in  Paris,  and  from  5  to  6  francs  in  the  provinces. 
The  wages  of  those  who  dye  the  prepared  skins,  and  who  also  work  by 
the  piece,  amount,  in  Paris,  to  5  or  6  francs  per  day;  and  in  the  provinces 
to  4  or  5  francs.  Skins  prepared  in  the  chamois  style  are  chiefly  manu¬ 
factured  in  Milhau  and  Niort,  and  the  hands  employed  in  this  process 
receive  about  the  same  amount  of  wages  as  the  tanners. 

The  glove  trade  occupies  in  France  about  50,000  or  55,000  work-people, 
of  whom  40,000  or  45,000  are  women.  Those  men  who  cut  out  and  pre¬ 
pare  the  gloves,  and  who  work  in  their  own  dwellings  and  in  the  work¬ 
shops  of  their  employers,  can  earn  from  6  to  8  francs  per  day,  and  even 
as  much  as  10  francs ;  the  wages  in  the  provinces  may  be  estimated  at  one- 
fifth  less.  Some  workwomen,  especially  those  that  cut  out,  earn  from  3 
to  4  francs;  others  from  2  francs  50  centimes  to  3  francs.  The  women 
who  sew  and  stitch  the  gloves,  and  who  work  principally  in  the  country, 
seldom  earn  more  than  1  franc  per  day. 

The  productions  are  sold  directly  to  retail  vendors  for  home  consump¬ 
tion,  and  to  commission  merchants  for  exportation.  Some  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  glove  manufacturers  have  established  houses  in  the  principal  foreign 
markets,  especially  in  England  and  America.  The  number  of  gloves 
made  up  annually  in  France  amount  to  1,800,000  or  2,000,000  dozen  pairs, 
which  represents  a  sum  of  nearly  70,000,000  francs.  With  the  gloves  of 
first  quality  the  materials  are  worth  about  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  the 
production ;  the  price  of  manufacture,  the  general  expenses,  and  the  profits 


120 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


account  for  the  other  third.  The  materials  of  the  second  and  third  quali¬ 
ties  cost  a  little  less,  and  the  manufacture  and  general  expenses  a  little 
more  in  proportion.  At  least  two-thirds  of  the  produce  of  the  glove  trade 
are  exported ;  England  and  America  consume  nearly  the  whole  of  this 
amount.  The  French  glove  trade  has  made  no  marked  progress  since 
1855;  but  it  still  remains  immeasurably  superior  to  all  foreign  manufac¬ 
tures. 

FANS. 

“Fans  are  composed  of  two  parts:  the  mountings  are  made  in  certain 
communes  of  the  department  of  Oise,  and  the  upper  part  in  Paris;  and 
it  is  there  also  that  the  two  are  joined  together,  so  that  Paris  may  be 
considered  the  principal  manufacturing  centre.  The  raw  materials  used 
in  the  making  of  fan-mountings  are: 

1.  White  mother-of-pearl,  called  poulette,  which  comes  from  Madagas¬ 
car,  and  costs  nine  francs  the  kilogram ;  another  sort  of  white  mother- 
of-pearl,  called  Franche,  which  comes  from  the  same  place,  but  costs  11 
or  12  francs  the  kilogram;  black  mother-of-pearl,  brought  from  Sid¬ 
ney,  and  sold  at  seven  francs  the  kilogram ;  oriental  mother-of-pearl,  and 
the  green  delotide  kind,  which  is  found  in  Japan,  and  is  worth  about  35 
centimes  the  shell;  the  Burgot  variety,  found  also  in  Japan,  and  worth 
85  centimes  the  shell;  brown  tortoise-shell,  from  India  and  China,  and 
light-colored  tortoise-shell,  the  former  costing  60  francs  the  kilogram 
and  the  latter  200  francs ;  also  ivory,  sold  at  40  francs  the  kilogram ; 
and  lastly,  bone,  largely  used  for  fan  mountings,  and  furnished  by  Paris, 
Bordeaux,  and  Bouen,  at  50  centimes  the  kilogram. 

2.  Oriental  woods — ebony,  mahogany,  rose,  satin,  and  lemon-tree 
wood,  and  in  general  all  the  hard  woods  of  Africa,  Ceylon,  and  Mada¬ 
gascar,  which  cost,  on  an  average,  60  centimes  the  kilogram;  sandal 
wood,  which  comes  from  Japan,  and  which  is  worth  2  francs  25  centimes 
the  kilogram. 

3.  Indigeneous  woods,  such  as  plane  tree,  acacia,  beam  tree,  wild 
cherry,  plum,  apple,  and  pear  tree,  cost  from  15  to  20  centimes  the  kilo¬ 
gram. 

The  materials  of  which  the  coverings  of  the  fans  are  made  vary  accord¬ 
ing  to  taste  and  fashion;  silk,  crape,  lawn,  paper,  feathers,  and  kid, 
are  used. 

Machinery  has  replaced  hand- work  in  the  cutting  of  the  mountings, 
except  for  ivory  and  tortoise-shell.  Designers  make  the  drawings  for 
the  fan  coverings.  These  drawings  are  lithographed  or  engraved  on 
copper,  steel,  or  wood,  and  then  printed,  pasted,  colored,  or  painted, 
mounted,  bound,  edged,  spangled,  riveted,  and  examined.  Some  work¬ 
men  work  in  shops  by  the  day ;  all  the  others  work  by  the  piece,  at  their 
own  houses,  with  their  wives  and  children.  The  fan  trade  occupies,  in 
France,  4,000  workmen  of  different  trades;  of  which  1,000  are  in  Paris 
and  3,000  in  the  department  de  l’Oise.  Workers  in  bone,  ivory,  &c., 


CLOTHING. 


121 


gilders,  looking-glass  workers,  paper  makers,  feather  mounters,  paint¬ 
ers,  embroiderers,  goldsmiths,  jewellers,  engravers,  chasers,  carvers,  &c., 
all  combine  in  the  manufacture  of  these  articles,  whether  they  be  plain 
or  ornamented,  superior  or  ordinary.  The  wages  of  the  workmen  are, 
on  an  average,  5  francs  a  day;  those  of  the  workwomen  vary  from  2 
francs  50  centimes  to  4  francs  50  centimes. 

Paris,  [  J apan]  and  China  monopolize  the  fan  trade.  Spain,  Italy,  Portu¬ 
gal,  and  England  are  the  principal  foreign  markets  in  Europe.  The  Bra¬ 
zils,  Mexico,  Havana,  St.  Thomas,  Chili,  Peru,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  North 
America  may  be  considered  merely  as  tributaries.  Some  fans  are  also 
exported  to  the  East  Indies,  and  as  far  as  Manilla;  but  in  those  ports 
the  rivalry  with  China  for  the  ordinary  articles  is  maintained  with  diffi¬ 
culty.  The  annual  production  amounts  to  10,000,000  francs,  of  which 
three-fourths  is  exported.  The  progress  made  in  the  fan  trade  since 
1855  consists  in  the  use  of  mechanical  processes  for  the  production  of 
current  articles  and  in  the  more  developed  application  of  art  to  indus¬ 
try,  the  improvement  in  certain  mechanical  processes,  such  as  (to  cite 
but  one  example)  a  machine  for  ornamenting  by  heat,  capable  of  execu¬ 
ting,  on  a  mounting  of  two  francs,  a  work  which  could  not  be  attained 
by  hand  at  any  price. 


UMBRELLAS  AND  PARASOLS. 

The  principal  centres  of  production  are  Paris,  Angiers,  Bordeaux,  and 
some  less  important  towns  of  France.  For  umbrella  and  parasol  covers 
cotton  tissues  are  employed,  which  are  produced  at  Bouen,  and  worth 
from  40  centimes  to  1  franc  25  centimes  the  metre;  silk,  made  at  Lyons, 
and  worth  from  2  to  20  francs;  and  alpaca,  imported  from  England,  and 
costing  from  1  franc  to  3  francs  50  centimes  the  metre.  Parasols  are 
ornamented  with  lace  of  various  kinds,  made  at  Alengon,  Puy,  and 
Caen,  worth  from  25  francs  to  1,500  francs  the  cover,  or  with  imitation 
lace,  produced  at  Lyons,  Calais,  St.  Pierre,  &c.,  only  costing  from  3 
francs  to  25  francs.  The  embroidery  and  trimmings  are  made  in  Paris. 

Colonial  woods,  of  all  kinds,  only  form  about  one-twentieth  part  of  the 
material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  umbrella  and  parasol  handles.  The 
price  of  bamboos  and  laurel  wood  vary;  for  bamboos,  from  10  to  35 
francs  the  hundred,  and  for  the  laurel  from  20  to  50  francs  the  hundred. 
Algiers  supplies  the  myrtle,  of  which  the  prices  vary  from  20  to  50 
francs  the  hundred;  and  Guiana  nearly  all  the  colonial  wood,  costing 
from  30  to  170  francs  the  hundred  for  sticks  of  90  centimetres  to  1  metre 
in  length.  The  woods  of  French  growth  are  beach,  yoke-elm,  oak,  syc¬ 
amore,  maple,  beam  tree,  hazelwood,  wild  cherry,  cornelian  tree,  med¬ 
lar,  and  holly;  the  prices  vary  from  5  to  45  francs  the  hundred  handles, 
ready  rounded.  Umbrella  and  parasol  handles  are  made  in  considerable 
quantities,  of  various  materials,  of  which  the  principal,  besides  woods 
of  all  kinds  and  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  are  bullock,  buffalo,  ram, 
and  rhinoceros  horn;  bone,  ivory,  and  tortoise-shell  are  also  employed  in 


122 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tlie  manufacture.  The  prices  vary  to  infinity :  bullock  horn  from  25  cen¬ 
times  to  1  franc  50  centimes  each;  buffalo  and  ram  horn  from  50  centimes 
to  3  francs;  and  rhinoceros  horn,  ivory,  and  tortoise-shell  from  2  to  100 
francs  per  piece.  The  most  ordinary  prices  for  these  last  are  from  6  to 
20  francs  each.  Umbrella  and  parasol  frames  are  made  in  steel,  ratan, 
and  whalebone.  The  steel  wire  used  is  worth,  according  to  the  size, 
from  1  franc  80  centimes  to  2  francs  10  centimes  the  kilogram,  all 
prepared;  that  is  to  say,  drawn,  cut  into  lengths,  and  tempered.  Ra¬ 
tan,  which  is  used  for  common  mountings,  comes  from  India.  The  prices 
vary  from  1  franc  to  1  franc  50  centimes  the  kilogram,  cut,  squared, 
turned,  pressed,  and  varnished.  Whalebone  is  becoming  exceedingly 
scarce;  its  price  has  risen  to  15  fraucs  the  kilogram;  that  is  to  say,  it 
has  tripled  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  The  wood  is  cut  up  and 
rounded  by  machinery;  the  ornamentation,  carving,  and  varnishing  are 
performed  by  hand.  A  part  of  the  frames  are  made  by  machinery,  but 
hand- work  is  employed  in  the  great  majority  of  instances.  Sewing  ma¬ 
chines  begin  to  be  applied,  with  great  advantage,  to  the  sewing  of  the 
seams. 

The  workmen  employed  in  the  workshops  receive  one-third  of  the  total 
profits ;  those  who  work  at  home,  for  others,  two-thirds.  All  the  women 
work  at  home.  The  average  wages  for  the  men  are  5  francs  per  day ; 
those  of  the  women,  3  francs. 

The  trade  is  principally  wholesale,  and  confined  to  the  dealers  in  the 
provinces,  through  the  medium  of  commercial  travellers,  and  directly  to 
those  who  negotiate  personally  with  the  manufacturers  every  half  year, 
the  foreign  trade  being  conducted  solely  through  the  medium  of  export 
agents. 

The  Paris  shops  treat  directly  with  the  producers,  the  purchases  com¬ 
prising  a  considerable  moiety  of  the  entire  trade.  Cotton  parasols  are 
worth  from  1  franc  25  centimes  to  5  francs ;  those  in  silk  from  4  to  40 
francs.  Cotton  umbrellas  are  worth  from  1  to  10  francs ;  those  in  silk 
from  3  to  150  francs.  The  principal  foreign  markets  are  Spain,  Greece, 
Italy,  Turkey,  Austria,  Switzerland,  Prussia,  Russia,  Holland,  Belgium, 
England,  and  her  dependencies,  Asia,  Egypt,  North  and  South  America. 
The  umbrella  and  parasol  trade  does  business,  annually,  to  the  amount 
of  about  35,000,000  francs. 

Few  changes  have  taken  place  since  1855  in  the  manufacturing  pro¬ 
cesses,  excepting  the  introduction  of  sewing  machines.  The  average 
wages  of  the  workmen,  workwomen,  and  others  employed,  has  risen 
about  20  per  cent. 

WALKING  STICKS,  RIDING  AND  DRIVING  WHIPS. 

Paris  is  the  principal  centre  of  production.  Canes,  ratans,  and  stiff 
and  flexible  bamboos,  worth  from  10  to  400  francs  the  hundred  pieces, 
are  imported  from  British  India,  China,  and  Japan.  Palm,  myrtle, 


CLOTHING. 


123 


orange,  and  locust-tree  wood,  wortli  from  40  to  100  francs  tlie  hundred 
pieces,  come  from  Algeria.  Dog- wood,  thorn,  oak,  elm,  ash,  and  wild 
cherry-tree  woods,  costing  from  10  to  50  francs  the  hundred  pieces,  are 
produced  in  France,  (Alsace,  Lorraine,  and  Nivernais.)  "Whalebone, 
ivory,  tortoise-shell;  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  and  rams’  horns,  worth  from  90 
centimes  to  30  francs  the  kilogram;  gold,  silver,  brass,  white  metal, 
gold-plated  on  copper  and  silver,  jasper,  cornelian,  lapis  lazuli,  mala¬ 
chite,  &c. ;  cotton,  silk,  and  catgut,  are  bought  in  the  Paris  and  Lon¬ 
don  markets. 

All  the  articles  are  made  by  hand,  except  the  plaiting  of  the  whips, 
which  is  done  by  machinery.  After  the  moulding  of  the  horn  and  tor¬ 
toise-shell,  and  the  laying  of  tortoise-shell  on  ram’s  horn,  the  principal 
operations  are  the  planing  and  varnishing  of  canes,  stoving,  cutting  and 
carving  wood  and  ivory,  chasing  and  engraving  metal. 

The  workmen  working  in  shops  form  a  third  of  the  whole  number  of 
persons  engaged  in  this  industry.  This  does  not,  however,  include  the 
women.  The  work-people  who  work  at  their  own  houses  include  men, 
women,  and  children,  and  form  the  other  two-thirds.  The  wages  of  the 
work-people  are  very  good;  the  men  earn  from  3  francs  50  centimes  to  7 
francs,  and  the  women  2  francs  50  centimes  to  3  francs. 

The  manufacturers  sell  directly  to  the  retailers  in  Paris,  and  to  the 
provincial  dealers  through  the  medium  of  travellers.  The  exportation 
is  carried  on  by  commission  agents. 

Walking  sticks  are  worth  from  25  centimes  to  100  francs  each;  riding 
whips  from  25  centimes  to  50  francs;  and  driving  whips  from  1  to  50 
francs.  These  articles  are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  value  of  the  industry,  divided  between  about  60  manufacturers, 
living  in  Paris,  is  between  about  3,500,000  and  4,000,000  francs. 

The  principal  improvements  to  be  noted  since  1855  are  the  employment 
of  gas  for  coloring  and  dressing  the  wood,  and  the  use  of  machines  for 
plaiting  two  whips  at  a  time.  Nevertheless,  the  competition  of  Germany 
has  become  serious  as  regards  common  and  low-priced  articles.  This 
state  of  things  must  be  attributed  to  the  rise  in  wages,  which  are  8  to  10 
per  cent,  higher  in  Paris  than  a  short  time  since. 

CRAVATS  AND  SHIRTS. 

This  trade  originated  in  Paris,  and  has  greatly  developed  since  1848. 
It  has  increased  to  a  large  extent,  particularly  during  the  last  few  years. 
The  makers  of  cravats  especially  employ  silk  stuffs,  from  the  lowest  to 
the  highest  prices.  The  number  of  work-people  occupied  can  be  esti¬ 
mated  at  about  10,000,  and  the  average  of  their  daily  wages  at  2  francs 
50  centimes. 

This  industry  employs,  at  the  present  moment,  a  considerable  number 
of  sewing  machines;  and  the  low  prices  of  the  articles  made  render  them 
acceptable  to  all  classes  of  the  population. 


124 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Shirt-making  for  men  possesses  considerable  importance  at  the  present 
moment.  It  includes  the  making  of  shirts,  shirt  fronts  and  collars,  waist¬ 
coats,  drawers,  flannel  bands  and  shirts,  and  linen  and  cotton  drawers, 
The  cotton  stuffs  employed  in  this  trade  come  from  the  manufactories  of 
Mulhouse  and  Rouen ;  England,  Ireland,  and  France  supply  the  linen 
fabrics.  This  industry,  which  has  been  scarcely  30  years  in  existence, 
has  greatly  extended  latterly. 

The  shirt-makers  can  be  divided  into  two  categories :  those  who  deal 
directly  with  the  retail  houses  and  those  who  make  for  the  wholesale 
trade  and  for  exportation.  The  work-people  employed  under  the  first 
category  earn,  on  an  average,  two  francs  per  day;  the  second  category  of 
dealers  have  their  articles  made  in  the  provincial  workshops,  in  asylums, 
and  convents,  and  rarely  give  more  than  one  franc  a  day  to  the  work¬ 
women  employed.  The  number  of  women  supplied  with  work  by  the 
shirt-making  trade  is  estimated  at  about  30,000.  This  total  includes  the 
cutters,  needlewomen,  mounters,  embroiderers,  and  laundresses. 

The  amount  annually  produced  reaches  70,000,000  francs,  of  which 
25,000,000  francs’  worth  are  delivered  for  exportation.  The  manufacture 
of  shirts,  flannel  bands,  and  drawers,  has  also  increased  to  a  great  extent 
dining  the  last  10  years,  in  consequence  of  the  orders  given  for  the  army. 
The  total  value  of  this  branch  of  business  amounts  to  about  10,000,000 
francs.  Articles  in  flannel  are  made  by  the  same  persons,  as  are  also 
similar  articles  in  cotton  and  linen;  and  although  there  is  some  differ¬ 
ence  in  the  methods  employed,  the  mode  of  manufacture  may  be  looked 
upon  as  the  same.  The  flannels  used  in  this  trade  are  produced  in  the 
town  of  Rheims ;  and  it  should  be  added  that  the  quality  and  lowness 
of  its  price  causes  it  to  find  great  favor  in  the  foreign  market.  As  a  last 
consideration,  it  should  be  mentioned  that  the  industries  above  referred 
to  have,  in  one  respect,  a  very  interesting  aspect,  as  they  allow  the  women 
employed  in  it  to  work  at  their  own  homes,  and  thereby  give  their  atten¬ 
tion  at  the  same  time  to  the  duties  of  the  household. 

UNDERCLOTHING  FOR  WOMEN  AND  CHILDREN. 

This  is  another  trade,  which  has  been  greatly  developed  during  the 
last  few  years.  Among  the  various  articles  which  it  includes  may  be 
mentioned  chemises,  jackets  and  drawers  for  ladies  and  children,  and 
which,  with  many  secondary  articles,  comprise  the  childbed  linen  and 
marriage  trousseau.  The  manufacture  of  these  various  articles  demands, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  more  elegant  kinds,  much  experience  and 
taste,  and  great  skilfulness  and  care  on  the  part  of  the  women  employed 
in  it.  The  Parisian  seamstresses  earn  from  2  francs  25  centimes  to  3 
francs  a  day ;  and  those  who  work  in  the  provinces,  in  the  converts,  asy¬ 
lums,  &c.,  from  1  franc  25  centimes  to  2  francs  25  centimes  per  day.  The 
number  of  women  employed  in  the  made-up  linen  trade  is  about  10,000. 
Sewing  machines  have  had  a  powerful  influence  in  developing  this  business ; 
the  women  who  work  them  earning  from  3  francs  to  3  francs  50  centimes 


CLOTHING. 


125 


per  day.  Tlie  ready-made  linen  of  France,  and  above  all,  that  of  Paris, 
enjoys  a  good  reputation  abroad,  and  the  export  trade  lias  increased  in  a 
notable  manner  since  1855.  The  articles  known  under  the  name  of  Paris 
hosiery  are  in  great  demand  in  England,  Germany,  Spain,  Switzerland, 
and  the  two  Americas.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  fabrics  which  are  used  in 
the  ready-made  linen  trade  are  of  French  origin,  and  especially  from  the 
factories  of  Quentin,  Tarare,  and  St.  Etienne.  Alsace  and  several  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  north  supply  linen  cloth  and  plain  cotton  tissues.  That  kind 
of  lace  known  as  Valenciennes  is  supplied  by  Belgium.  The  value  of 
this  trade  is  estimated  at  about  30,000,000  francs  per  annum. 

Since  1855,  the  stay-making  trade  has  progressed  in  a  very  considera¬ 
ble  manner,  and  the  value  of  the  business  has  increased  in  a  very  notable 
degree.  Stays  are  divided  into  two  very  distinct  categories :  stays  with 
seams,  and  stays  without  seams.  The  sewn  stays  are  made  by  hand 
or  with  sewing  machines.  The  seamless  stays  are  woven  on  the  Jac¬ 
quard  power-loom.  It  is  especially  in  Paris,  or  in  the  principal  provin¬ 
cial  towns,  that  the  sewing  stays  are  made.  The  seamless  stays  are 
produced  in  large  establishments  at  Bapaume,  (Pas-de  Calais,)  Bar-le- 
Duc,  (Meuse,)  and  at  Ehezy,  (Bhone.)  The  raw  materials  employed  in 
stay-making  are  white  and  gray  drills,  which  are  supplied  by  the  manu¬ 
factures  of  Flers  and  Evreux,  real  or  imitation  whalebone,  sewing-cot¬ 
ton  spun  in  France  and  in  England,  and  sewing-silk,  which  is  exclusively 
bought  of  Paris  houses. 

Women  are  alone  employed  in  the  making  up  of  stays,  and  work  in 
tacking  and  sewing  workshops ;  they  earn,  according  to  their  capacity, 
from  1  franc  75  centimes  to  4  francs  50  centimes  a  day.  For  the  mak¬ 
ing  of  stay  bones  of  all  kinds  men  are  employed,  whose  daily  wages  are 
from  3  to  5  francs. 

At  the  present  moment,  the  stay-making  trade,  in  consequence  of  the 
new  patterns  introduced  since  1862 — the  results  of  which  have  been,  in 
most  cases,  to  prevent  the  great  inconvenience,  or  rather  the  serious  dan¬ 
ger  proceeding  from  imperfectly  manufactured  stays — merits  encouraging 
notice.  It  has  entered  into  a  rational  path,  and  pays  still  greater  atten¬ 
tion  to  the  laws  of  health  and  nature.  On  this  point  we  must  not  omit 
to  mention  the  judicious  innovations  of  clasps  in  the  place  of  laces,  the 
absence  of  gussets,  &c.  This  branch  of  industry  is  daily  establishing 
itself  in  the  estimation  of  scientific  men,  who  are  not  infiuenced  by  the 
unhappy  and  injurious  exigencies  of  fashion. 

The  crinoline  trade,  comparatively  recent  in  its  origin,  and  which  occu¬ 
pies  such  an  important  place  in  ladies’  dress,  comprehends  two  rather  dis¬ 
tinct  articles,  skeleton  crinolines  and  crinoline  petticoats.  These  articles 
are  made  in  all  the  towns  of  France,  but  the  sale  of  them  is  especially 
active  in  Paris;  and  the  Parisian  makers  ow7e  this  not  only  to  the  ele¬ 
gance  of  their  productions,  but  also  to  the  continual  creation  of  new 
patterns. 

The  principal  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  are  the  bands  of  steel, 


126 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


rolled  and  cut,  which  are  made  in  France  and  England,  and  which  are 
encased  in  a  cotton  covering,  produced  by  machinery.  The  woollen  and 
cotton  stuffs  employed  in  crinoline-making  come  especially  from  Roubaix, 
Amiens,  Tarare,  and  Saint  Quentin.  The  diaper,  cambric  muslin,  and 
other  fancy  tissues  are  supplied  by  the  manufactories  of  Mulhouse,  Rouen, 
and  Saint  Marie-aux-Mines ;  the  tape  and  sewing  cotton  are  made  at  Ber- 
nay.  To  these  various  products  must  be  added  the  silk  and  velvet  trim-, 
mings,  and  the  buttons  of  all  sorts,  made  in  France  and  Germany.  The 
construction  of  petticoats  without  steel  forms  a  special  branch  of  the 
trade  in  question.  The  Parisian  work-people  are  the  most  skilful  in  the 
making  of  these  various  articles,  and  their  salaries  vary  from  3  francs 
50  centimes  to  4  francs  a  day.  The  value  of  this  trade  is  estimated  at 
20,000,000  francs,, of  which  half  is  due  to  the  export  trade. 

CLASS  35.— CLOTHING  FOR  BOTH  SEXES. 

The  articles  exhibited  in  class  35  may  be  divided  under  nine  different 
heads:  1st.  Clothing  for  men;  2d.  Clothing  for  women;  3d.  Bonnets 
and  head-dresses  for  women ;  4th.  Artificial  flowers ;  5th.  Ornamental 
feathers;  6th.  Men’s  hats;  7th.  Men’s  caps  and  other  head-gear ;  8th. 
Boots  and  shoes ;  9th.  Fancy  hair  work. 

The  familiar  objects  embraced  in  this  class  need  no  detailed  description 
in  an  official  report.  For  the  most  part  they  have  been  already  described 
in  the  newspapers  devoted  to  fashions,  and,  at  all  events,  a  walk  through 
any  fashionable  thoroughfare  will  convey  a  better  idea  of  what  was  shown 
than  any  labored  effort  of  the  reporter.  France  was  again  upon  her  own 
ground,  and  distanced  all  competition.  We  give  below  the  latest  French 
particulars  of  the  curious  branches  of  industry  included  in  the  class. 
America  had  nine  exhibitors. 

Men’s  clothes  are  made  almost  everywhere,  but  the  principal  establish¬ 
ments,  both  for  fashionable  as  well  as  ready-made  garments,  are  in  Paris. 
Low-priced  articles  are,  for  the  most  part,  made  in  the  provinces.  Many 
important  houses  have  their  principal  workshops  in  the  departments  of 
the  Nord,  Pas-de-Calais,  Gironde,  Gard,  &c.  Tailors  and  clothiers  employ 
a  great  variety  of  fabrics,  and  consequently  of  all  prices.  Tailors  and 
clothiers  also  use  a  considerable  quantity  of  trimmings  and  buttons  of  all 
kinds.  A  few  years  ago  tailors’  work  was  done  altogether  by  hand. 
Now,  sewing  machines  are  used  to  an  immense  extent;  in  fact,  it  maybe 
said  that  the  greater  part  of  the  seams  of  garments  are  sewn  by  these 
machines. 

The  cost  of  the  workmanship  of  men’s  clothes  amounts  to  about  one- 
fifth  the  value  of  the  goods.  The  workmen  employed  by  the  tailors  and 
clothiers  are  naturally  divided  into  two  different  categories:  those  wTho 
prepare,  cut  out,  and  arrange  the  work,  and  those  who  put  it  together. 
Five-sixths  of  the  tailors  work  at  home,  while  the  rest  are  employed  in 
the  tailors’  work-rooms.  As  to  the  workwomen — who,  in  Paris,  are  only 
half  so  numerous  as  the  workmen — five-sixths  of  them  work  at  home. 


CLOTHING. 


127 


Tlie  men,  working  either  by  the  day  or  by  the  piece,  earn  from  three  to 
six  francs  a  day,  though  some  more  industrious  and  skilful  gain  from 
eight  to  ten  francs.  The  women  earn  from  two  to  three  francs  Hfty 
centimes,  and  a  few  from  five  to  six  francs.  The  tailor  and  clothier  deal 
directly  with  the  purchaser.  The  tailors  generally  do  their  own  cutting 
out,  but  the  vendors  of  ready-made  goods  employ  cutters,  who  prepare 
the  work  for  the  sewers.  The  business  of  exportation  is  generally  made 
through  the  mediation  of  agents.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  extent  of  the  production  of  men’s  garments ;  but  it  must  be  consid¬ 
erable,  as  the  tailors  and  clothiers  in  Paris  alone  do  business  to  the 
amount  of  more  than  150,000,000  francs  per  annum.  The  articles  exported 
do  not  amount  to  the  tenth  part  of  the  whole. 

The  business  has  made  great  progress  since  1855.  The  use  of  sewing 
machines  increases  every  day.  Many  foreign  governments  have  now 
recourse  to  French  clothiers  for  the  equipment  of  their  troops.  This  new 
branch  of  the  business  has  rendered  great  service  to  the  workmen,  ena¬ 
bling  them  to  obtain  employment  in  all  seasons  of  the  year;  and  also  to 
the  great  cloth  manufactories,  by  giving  them  extra  work,  or  helping 
them  to  get  rid  of  unsalable  articles. 

CLOTHING  FOR  WOMEN. 

Paris  is  the  great  centre  for  the  making  of  ladies’  clothing.  This  branch 
of  trade  employs  an  immense  quantity  of  stuffs  of  all  prices,  from  common 
printed  cotton  to  the  most  expensive  velvet.  Articles  for  summer  wear 
are  principally  made  of  the  light  fabrics  of  Eheims,  Elbeuf,  Sedan,  and 
Eoubaix,  Scotch  cashmeres,  and  French  merinos;  while  those  for  winter 
are  made  of  the  thick,  strong  stuffs  of  Sedan,  Elbeuf,  and  the  south  of 
France.  Pillow  and  machine-made  lace,  as  well  as  Paris,  St.  Etienne, 
and  Lyons  guipures  and  gimps,  are  used  for  the  trimmings  of  ladies’ 
clothes.  The  clothiers  give  the  stuffs,  cut  or  uncut,  to  dressmakers  or 
ladies’  tailors,  who  employ  from  four  to  forty  workwomen  besides  those 
who  work  at  home.  The  articles  are  generally  mounted  and  sewn  by 
hand,  the  sewing  machines  being  used  for  the  trimmings.  The  sewing 
of  ladies’  outer  clothing  is  done  almost  entirely  by  women,  and  females 
are  generally  employed  for  the  sewing  machine  also.  At  this  trade  men 
earn  in  Paris  on  an  average  live  francs  a  day  and  women  two  francs 
twenty-five  centimes. 

The  export  of  ladies’  ready-made  clothes  is  very  considerable,  the  princi¬ 
pal  markets  being  England,  Belgium,  Holland,  Eussia,  Spain, Italy,  Turkey 
North  and  South  America,  and  Australia.  The  articles  principally 
exported  are  known  by  the  names  of  paletots,  talmas,  pelisses,  mantelets, 
embroidered  ^hawls,  scarfs,  and  jackets.  Dresses,  hoods,  and  children’s 
clothing  are  also  exported.  The  wholesale  houses  where  these  articles 
are  made  furnish  the  small  provincial  linen  drapers  and  commission 
merchants,  while  the  principal  linen  drapers  in  Paris  and  the  provinces 
generally  buy  the  patterns  and  have  the  articles  made  up  for  themselves. 


128 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  production  of  these  articles  in  the  whole  of  France  is  estimated  at 
100,000,000  francs,  (£4,000,000.)  Paris  alone  makes  to  the  amount  of 
40,000,000.  Five-sixths  of  the  whole  are  used  in  France,  and  only  one- 
sixth  is  exported.  Ready  made  articles  are  sold  from  three  francs  to 
four  hundred  francs  each;  embroidered  shawls,  for  instance,  vary  in 
price  from  eight  francs  to  three  hundred.  This  branch  of  industry 
increases  daily;  new  patterns  are  continually  produced,  and  are  remark¬ 
able  for  taste  and  originality.  Here,  again,  the  growing  use  of  the  sewing 
machine  must  be  noted;  The  business  of  the  dressmakers — that  is  to 
say,  those  who  make  ladies’  clothes,  and  particularly  dresses  to  order — 
is  daily  becoming  more  important.  This  is  one  of  the  Parisian  trades 
that  demand  the  greatest  amount  of  taste  and  invention ;  it  is,  naturally, 
almost  exclusively  followed  by  women.  However,  there  are  in  Paris 
many  important  houses  whose  business  is  confined  to  the  making  of 
dresses  where  men  are  employed.  The  greater  number  of  dressmakers 
are  paid  by  the  day,  though  some  work  by  the  piece;  the  wages  are  not 
high ;  they  earn,  on  an  average,  two  francs  twenty -five  centimes  per  day. 
Dressmakers  do  not  work  exclusively  for  home  use;  a  certain  quantity 
of  handsome  articles  are  sent  to  foreign  countries.  The  export  trade  of 
Paris  amounts  to  about  the  twelfth  part  of  the  whole  production. 

ladies’  head-dresses. 

Millinery  is  essentially  a  Parisian  trade;  it  is  in  Paris  that  all  those 
novelties  are  created  which,  at  the  commencement  of  each  season,  decide 
the  fashions.  The  materials  used  in  bonnet  and  cap  making,  such  as 
buckram,  wire,  whalebone,  various  stuff's,  flowers,  and  lace,  are  obtained 
from  special  manufacturers.  The  milliners,  so  to  speak,  only  arrange  and 
combine  these  materials.  There  is  no  fixed  method  of  manufacturing 
articles  of  millinery;  it  is  altogether  a  matter  of  taste  and  ingenuity. 
The  workmanship  forms  only  a  small  item  in  the  value  of  the  whole. 
Three-quarters  of  the  working  milliners  are  Parisian;  about  an  eighth 
part  are  natives  of  Belgium  and  Germany ;  the  rest  come  from  the  pro¬ 
vinces,  especially  Angouleme,  Tours,  Nancy,  and  Dieppe.  Part  of  these 
workwomen  board  and  lodge  with  their  employers,  and  earn,  on  an  ave¬ 
rage,  two  and  a  half  francs  a  day.  This  trade  employs  very  few  men; 
a  great  number  of  young  girls  work  as  apprentices.  Nearly  all  milliners 
sell  direct  to  the  purchaser.  Some  houses  make  up  articles  specially  for 
exportation,  and  these  alone  employ  under-milliners,  who  receive  the 
requisite  materials  for  a  certain  number  of  bonnets  and  head-dresses,  and 
prepare  the  work  by  tacking  the  various  stuffs  upon  the  ready-made 
shapes  which  they  furnish.  The  ribbons  and  flowers  are  always  added 
by  the  milliner  herself. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  exact  amount  of  bonnets  and  head-dresses 
annually  made  in  France,  but  it  must  be  considerable,  as  the  Parisian 
milliners’  returns  amount  to  nearly  20,000,000  francs,  (£800,000;)  the 
export  amounts  to  about  a  tenth  of  the  whole.  Paris  millinery  is  sent 


CLOTHING.  129 

chiefly  to  America,  England,  Spain,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Russia, 
and  the  French  and  English  colonies. 

ARTIFICIAL  FLOWERS. 

The  fabrication  of  artificial  flowers  occupies  a  conspicuous  position 
among  the  various  and  interesting  Parisian  industries,  and  may  be 
called  artistic.  The  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  are  very  numer¬ 
ous;  for  the  leaves  and  blossoms,  jaconet,  nansouk,  cambric,  muslin, 
velvet,  crape,  satin,  silk,  French  cambric,  feathers,  paper  and  wax  are 
made  use  of;  for  the  stems,  berries  and  fruits,  wire,  silk,  cotton,  floss  silk, 
paper,  starch,  gum,  gelatine,  wax,  paste,  chenille,  quills,  whalebone,  gauze, 
chopped  wool  and  glass  balls  are  employed.  For  mounting  the  flowers, 
silk,  paper,  gauze,  iron,  and  brass  are  required.  Artificial  flower-makers 
always  use  the  same  instruments — goffering  irons,  stamps,  &c. ;  the 
galvano-plastic  process  is  sometimes  employed. 

The  cost  of  the  workmanship  amounts  to  about  the  four- tenths  of  the 
value  of  the  productions,  and  the  materials  employed  to  about  three- 
tenths;  the  remaining  three-tenths  represent  the  profit  of  the  producer. 
The  manufacture  of  artificial  flowers  is  divided  into  a  great  many  differ¬ 
ent  branches;  for  the  preparation  of  the  colors  there  are  special  work¬ 
shops.  The  manufacture  of  artificial  flowers  is  generally  carried  on  at 
the  homes  of  the  work-people;  such  is  the  case  in,  at  least,  1,500  of  the 
2,000  Paris  flower-makers.  This  trade  employs  15,000  people,  of  whom 
nine-tenths  are  women  and  girls.  The  men  earn  about  four  francs  a  day; 
the  women  two  francs  twenty-five  centimes.  The  mounting  and  sale  of 
artificial  flowers  is  carried  on,  for  the  most  part,  in  handsome  shops  and 
show-rooms,  where  all  kinds  of  flowers  are  generally  sold,  as  well  as  the 
different  sorts  of  ornamental  feathers.  Three-quarters  of  the  whole 
amount  of  artificial  flowers  are  exported  through  the  medium  of  commis¬ 
sion  agents.  The  extent  of  the  trade  is  about  18,000,000  francs  per 
annum.  Artificial  flowers  are  exported  principally  to  America,  England, 
Belgium,  Russia,  and  Germany. 

ORNAMENTAL  FEATHERS. 

Feathers  are  prepared  and  mounted  in  Paris,  which  enjoys  a  justly- 
earned  reputation  for  the  preparation,  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  arrange¬ 
ment  of  this  article.  The  most  beautiful  and  recherche  feathers  are  those 
of  the  ostrich  and  marabout,  which  are  imported  through  Leghorn  and 
London.  Next  come  the  feathers  of  the  birds  of  paradise,  the  cassowary, 
and  those  known  by  the  name  of  aigrettes,  and  bastard  ostrich  feathers, 
called  vulture’s  plumes.  Cock’s  feathers,  the  down  of  the  white  turkey, 
and  the  feathers  of  the  various  kinds  of  exotic  and  indigenous  birds,  are 
also  made  use  of.  The  different  preparations  to  which  feathers  are  sub¬ 
mitted  consist  merely  in  arrangement,  bleaching,  and  dyeing,  though  we 
must  not  forget  to  mention  a  mechanical  process  by  which  goose’s  feathers 
are  made  to  imitate  different  kinds  of  grasses. 

9  u  E 


130 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  ornamental  feather  trade  employs  few  men,  but  a  great  number  of 
women  and  girls.  The  dyeing  of  feathers  is  all  that  is  done  by  men. 
The  great  part  of  these  feathers  are  exported,  through  the  medium  of 
commission  merchants,  to  America  and  the  colonies ;  but  Paris  furnishes 
also  the  principal  milliners  of  Europe.  Ornamental  feathers  are  prepared 
to  the  amount  of  10,000,000  francs,  of  which  about  8,000,000  are  exported. 
The  manner  of  dyeing  and  preparing  feathers  has  undergone  little  modi¬ 
fication  since  1855 ,  only  a  method  has  been  discovered  of  turning  black 
feathers  into  gray,  which  allows  of  their  being  dyed  of  various  colors. 

men’s  hats  and  caps. 

French  hatters  manufacture  silk  hats,  black  and  white,  short  nap 
beaver  hats,  fancy  dressed  felt  hats  for  country  wear  and  for  travelling, 
and  soft  felt  hats.  Paris,  Lyons,  Marseilles,  Aix,  Toulouse,  Bordeaux, 
and  some  other  southern  towns,  are  the  centres  of  the  hat  trade.  Caps 
of  various  kinds  are  principally  made  in  Paris,  Bueuil,  Chalons,  and 
Condom.  The  principal  materials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats  are 
the  skins  of  the  beaver  and  muskrat,  imported  from  Canada  ;  that  of  the 
Gondinrat  of  the  centre  of  South  America;  the  fur  of  the  hare,  furnished 
by  France,  Germany,  and  Russia;  that  of  the  rabbit,  so  abundant  in 
France,  and  wool  of  different  kinds  used  for  making  cheap  articles. 
France  alone  supplies  annually  rabbit  and  hare  skins  to  the  amount  of 
70,000,000  francs,  and  exports  35,000,000  worth.  The  average  price  of 
rabbit  skins  is  40  francs  for  104  skins;  hare  skins  are  worth  one-third 
more.  The  manufacture  of  hats  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  sorts, 
the  manufacture  of  soft  and  firm  felt  hats  and  that  of  silk  hats.  Work¬ 
men,  whose  special  business  it  is  to  cut  the  hair  from  the  skins,  furnish 
the  makers  with  their  raw  materials.  The  manufacture  of  felt  hats 
includes  several  operations.  The  fur  is  first  beaten,  either  by  hand  or  by 
a  machine.  By  this  process  a  bag  of  felt  twice  the  size  of  the  hat  is  pro¬ 
duced;  this  is  then  fulled,  either  by  hand  or  by  a  special  machine  used  for 
the  purpose.  Arrived  at  this  point  of  its  manufacture,  the  hat  is  scraped 
with  a  knife,  to  take  off  the  long  hairs,  rubbed  with  pumice-stone,  then 
stiffened  or  not,  as  required.  It  is  then  dyed,  blocked  into  forms,  bound, 
and  finally  the  leather  and  head-lining  are  added.  The  manufacture  of 
silk  hats  is  different.  First  of  all,  the  form  is  made  of  various  fabrics, 
stiffened  with  gum- shellac,  and  upon  it  is  placed  a  kind  of  silk  plush,  and 
within  it  a  fabric  which  serves  for  lining.  A  great  many  silk  hats  are 
made  with  the  adhesive  linings,  in  which  case  the  interior  becomes  part 
of  the  solid  form.  The  working  hatters  are  generally  well  paid;  some 
earn  as  much  as  10  francs  per  day,  but  the  average  is  between  40  and  50 
francs  per  week.  The  men  work  by  the  piece,  and  are  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  foremen,  chosen  from  among  the  best  workmen.  The  latter 
earn  from  2,000  to  3,000  francs  per  year.  Women  do  not  earn  more  than 
from  18  to  24  francs  per  week.  Nearly  all  the  men  and  women  employed 
in  this  trade,  and  especially  the  men,  work  in  the  factories. 


CLOTHING. 


131 


Tlie  productions  of  the  French  hatters  are  exported  to  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  world,  sales  being  effected  through  the  medium  of  commission 
merchants.  The  prices  of  hats  vary  greatly;  they  are  sold  from  three  or 
four  francs  to  25  and  30  francs  each.  Opera,  or  spring  hats,  in  partic¬ 
ular,  are  exported  in  considerable  quantities.  The  manufacture  of  hats 
alone,  without  taking  into  consideration  various  kinds  of  caps,  amounts 
to  the  sum  of  24,000,000  francs,  or  nearly  £1,000,000  a  year,  out  of  which, 
at  least,  10,000,000  worth  of  felt  and  about  2,000,000  worth  of  silk  hats 
are  exported. 

Since  1855  a  great  many  ingenious  tools  and  machines  have  been 
invented  to  facilitate  the  manufacture  of  hats.  The  materials  employed 
remain  the  same,  but  the  wages  of  the  workmen  have  greatly  increased. 
The  hat  manufacturers  now  make  and  completely  finish  their  goods,  so 
that  the  hatter  who  puts  his  name  into  the  crown  of  the  hat  is  only  an 
agent  between  the  producer  and  consumer. 

The  principal  places  where  caps  are  made  are  Paris,  Toulon,  Lyons, 
Limoges,  Lille,  Bernay,  &c.  The  manufacture  of  men’s  caps  employs  a 
great  variety  of  fabrics,  from  silk  and  fine  cloth  to  the  commonest  stuff*. 
Even  old  materials  dyed  and  turned  are  made  use  of.  The  manufacture 
of  the  better  sort  of  caps  has  been  greatly  improved  during  the  last  few 
years.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  sewing  machine,  which  does  the  sewing 
very  neatly,  besides  doing  a  great  variety  of  embroidery  at  comparatively 
low  prices.  The  women  who  make  caps  sometimes  work  at  the  shops 
and  sometimes  at  home.  One  set  of  workwomen  join  together,  with  the 
aid  of  the  sewing  machine,  the  several  pieces  of  the  cap,  which  is  then 
padded,  if  required,  stitched,  and  embroidered ;  women  press  the  seams, 
put  on  the  peak,  and  complete  the  work.  Most  of  the  workwomen  work 
at  home,  and  earn  from  2  francs  and  25  centimes  to  2  francs  and  50  cen¬ 
times  per  day. 

Most  of  the  caps  made  are  sold  at  home,  but  a  certain  number  are 
exported  to  America,  Spain,  Portugal,  Holland,  Germany,  and  Italy. 
This  trade  is  carried  on  through  commission  merchants.  The  value  of 
the  caps  made  amounts  to  about  20,000,000  francs  annually,  and  a 
small  portion,  as  already  stated,  is  exported.  The  cap  called  “kepi,” 
which,  since  1848,  has  been  introduced  into  the  army,  the  national  guard, 
the  public  schools,  and  administrations,  forms  a  considerable  item  in  the 
manufacture. 

The  workmen’s  wages  have  greatly  increased  since  1855.  They  are 
all  now  pretty  well  remunerated.  Connected  with  the  general  cap  trade 
is  that  of  the  Greek  cap  or  u  fez.”  These  are  either  knitted  or  made  of 
felted  cloth.  The  principal  fabrics  of  fez  caps  are  produced  at  Orleans, 
Paris,  Rueuil,  Chalons,  and  Condom.  A  considerable  portion  of  these 
caps  are  exported. 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES. 

Shoemaking  may  now  be  divided  into  three  classes — sewed  boots  and 
shoes,  which  represent  a  large  amount  of  business ;  those  put  together 


132 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


by  pegs  or  nails;  and  those  put  together  by  screws.  Sewed  boots  and 
shoes  are  mostly  made  in  Paris,  Nantes,  Marseilles,  Bordeaux,  and 
Fougeres ;  pegged  boots  and  shoes  in  Paris,  Liancourt,  Romans,  Blois, 
and  Angers ;  while  those  made  with  screws  are  only  manufactured  in 
Paris.  Shoemakers  generally  use  ox  and  cow  hides  for  the  soles,  while 
the  upper  leathers  are  made  of  calf,  kid,  goat,  and  sheep  skins.  Woollen, 
silk,  and  woollen  mixed,  cotton  and  linen,  and  elastic  fabrics,  are  also 
brought  into  use. 

France  produces  about  eight-tenths  of  the  whole  amount  of  hides 
employed  for  making  soles,  five-tenths  of  the  calf  skins,  five- tenths  of  the 
kid  and  goat  skins,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  sheep  skins  used  for  upper 
leathers.  As  to  the  different  woollen,  silk  and  woollen,  cotton  and  thread 
fabrics  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  they  are  nearly 
all  produced  in  France.  However,  only  five-tenths  of  the  mixed  fabrics 
of  wool  and  cotton,  and  eight-tenths  of  the  elastic  fabrics  used  in  shoe¬ 
making,  are  of  French  manufacture.  The  various  kinds  of  lining  are 
made  in  France.  No  machinery  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  those 
boots  and  shoes  which  are  made  to  order.  On  the  other  hand,  ready¬ 
made  boots  and  shoes  are  partly  manufactured  by  machinery,  and  those 
soles  which  are  made  with  pegs  and  screws  are  put  together  by  machin¬ 
ery.  The  raw  materials  are  cut  out  by  means  of  paring-knives  and  cut¬ 
ting-out  machines  of  various  kinds. 

The  men  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  are  divided 
into  three  classes — the  foremen,  receivers,  and  cutters.  The  proportion 
of  workmen  and  workwomen  working  in  their  own  homes  is  eighty-five 
to  the  hundred ;  the  rest  are  employed  in  the  manufactories.  Half  of 
the  people  employed  in  this  trade  are  women ;  their  work  consists  in 
binding,  tacking,  stitching,  and  joining  the  upper  portions.  Women 
earn,  on  an  average,  2  francs  per  day,  and  men  4  francs.  The  ready¬ 
made  boot  and  shoe  trade  is  in  France  carried  on  by  commercial  travel¬ 
lers,  who  sell  to  the  provincial  dealers.  Commission  merchants  buy  for 
exportation.  The  average  price  of  good  boots  and  shoes  is  16  francs  for 
men,  8  francs  for  women,  and  6  francs  for  children ;  the  commoner  sort 
of  boots  and  shoes  for  men  are  sold  on  an  average  at  8  francs,  for  women 
at  5  francs,  and  children  at  3  francs  a  pair.  These  productions  of  the 
French  trade  are  principally  exported  to  the  Levant,  North  and  South 
America,  the  East  and  West  Indies,  England,  Italy,  and  Switzerland. 
Paris  alone  produces  boots  and  shoes  to  an  amount  of  100,000,000  francs ; 
the  provinces  also  contribute  largely  to  this  trade,  and  about  40,000,000 
francs’  worth  of  boots  and  shoes  are  exported. 

Since  1855  the  use  of  sewing  machines  for  the  putting  together  of  the 
upper  leathers  has  become  very  general,  and  the  various  other  mechan¬ 
ical  means  for  saving  labor  are  being  employed  on  a  large  scale.  Work¬ 
men’s  wages  have  risen  20  per  cent,  in  the  same  space  of  time. 


CLOTHING. 


133 


HAIR-WORK. 

The  hair  trade  is  now  one  of  considerable  importance.  It  is  in  Paris 
that  hair  is  particularly  well  prepared,  and  it  is  also  in  Paris  that  wigs 
and  false  hair  are  made  in  the  greatest  perfection.  Hair  is,  in  Prance, 
chiefly  obtained  in  the  following  departments :  Puy  de  Dome,  Cantal, 
Correze,  Lozere,  Deux  Sevres,  Yienne,  Allier,  Manche,  Cotes  du  Nord, 
and  Ille  et  Tillable.  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Germany  also  furnish  a  large 
amount  of  human  hair.  A  great  deal  of  beautiful  hair  is  obtained  from 
the  convents.  The  hair  from  the  western  departments  is  superior  to  that 
from  the  south  and  midland  departments.  The  price  of  hair  not  pre¬ 
pared  and  sorted  is,  on  an  average,  50  francs  the  kilogram;  but  in 
1865  it  rose  to  nearly  65  francs,  and  it  is  even  supposed  to  have  been 
sold  at  100  francs. 

In  these  productions  there  are  only  two  kinds  of  manufacture — that  of 
wigs,  fronts,  &c.,  and  that  of  false  plaits  and  curls.  The  beauty  of  the 
article  varies  according  to  the  skill  of  the  hair  dresser.  In  such  matters 
the  form  is  everything.  The  condition  of  the  women  and  workmen 
employed  in  this  trade  is  becoming  better  every  day.  The  wages  have 
risen  considerably  during  the  last  few  years ;  the  working  hair-dressers 
now  earn  on  an  average  5  francs  a  day ;  those  women  who  are  employed 
in  making  false  plaits,  &c.,  receive  on  an  average  2  francs  and  25  cent¬ 
imes  per  day,  and  those  who  make  wigs,  &c.,  3  francs.  Hair-dressers 
deal  directly  with  the  public. 

The  hair  trade  is  carried  on  by  large  wholesale  buyers,  who  obtain  the 
hair  from  the  travellers  and  small  itinerant  dealers,  and  then,  after  its 
having  undergone  different  preparations,  sell  it  to  the  hair-dressers.  The 
'  average  price  of  prepared  hair  is  140  francs  the  kilogram ;  wigs  cost, 
on  an  average,  40  francs  the  piece,  and  chignons  15  francs.  In  France 
are  sold  annually  68,000  kilograms  of  hair,  of  which  40,000  are  French 
and  20,000  from  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Germany;  8,000  kilograms  of 
refuse  hair  are  gathered  in  the  hair-dressers’  rooms  and  other  different 
quarters.  Great  Britain,  America,  and  Russia  buy  from  France  30,000 
kilograms  of  hair ;  25,000  kilograms  are  employed  in  France  in 
making  wigs,  &c.,  and  about  13,000  are  exported  into  different  other 
countries.  During  the  last  few  years  a  great  many  new  kinds  of  fabrics 
in  which  to  implant  the  hair  for  the  making  of  wigs  have  been  invented. 
They  are  made  of  all  kinds  of  materials — silk  net,  cotton  net,  and  silk 
gauze ;  there  is  even  a  fabric  woven  of  white  hairs.  All  the  wigs,  plaits, 
&c.,  are  made  by  women,  as  well  as  the  watch-chains,  bracelets,  and 
other  fancy  articles  in  hair. 

CLASS  36. — JEWELRY  AND  ORNAMENTS. 

“The  articles  exhibited  in  this  class  form  two  principal  divisions,  and 
comprise:  1.  Fine  and  imitation  jewelry;  2.  Trinkets,  including  gold 
ornaments,  decorated  or  enriched  with  precious  stones  or  enamels ;  plated 


134 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


jewelry ;  copper  gilt  jewelry,  which  may  be  decorated  with  imitation 
pearls,  coral  work,  steel  and  black  ornaments. 

“According  to  the  distinction  made  in  France,  gold  and  silver  are  mere 
accessories  in  jewelry,  but  precious  stones  are  essential ;  while  the  con¬ 
trary  is  the  case  with  respect  to  trinkets  or  bijouterie,  (which  terms  do 
not  correspond  with  those  used  in  England.)  Paris  is  the  chief  seat  of 
the  jewelry  and  ornament  trade  of  France  $  after  the  capital  city  comes 
Lyons,  Marseilles,  and  the  departments  of  Cantal,  Puy  de  Dome,  and 
Ariege.  Watch  cases  are  made  especially  at  Besangon.  The  lapidary 
trade,  both  for  precious  and  other  stones,  has  become  a  very  important 
branch  of  industry  in  the  Jura. 

“  The  chief  materials  used  in  the  manufactures  of  jewelry  are  diamonds, 
precious  stones,  pearls,  or  imitation  gems.  The  prices  of  pearls  and  pre¬ 
cious  stones  are  very  variable,  on  account  of  weight,  color,  and  quality. 
The  principal  sources  are  India,  the  Indian  archipelago,  Siberia,  and  the 
central  regions  of  the  new  world.  The  raw  materials  of  bijouterie  are : 
gold,  of  the  value  of  2,600  francs  the  kilogram ;  and  silver,  worth  200 
francs  the  kilogram.  The  chief  sources  of  supply  are  Australia, 
Siberia,  and  North  America.  The  jeweller  receives  the  cut  gems  from 
the  lapidary,  who,  from  his  experience,  is  enabled  to  add  greatly  to  their 
value.  The  cutting  is  performed  with  the  aid  of  a  mechanical  process. 
The  business  of  the  jeweller  is  to  mount  the  gems  or  other  substances, 
his  trade  being  especially  one  of  taste.  The  workman  models  and  chases 
the  precious  metals,  and  enriches  them  with  enamels,  or  with  gems  or 
stones.  The  elements  employed  by  both,  such  as  the  bezels'  or  settings, 
bodies  of  rings,  and  other  parts,  are  produced  with  the  aid  of  cutting 
presses,  rollers,  and  other  machines.  Plated  jewelry  work  is  executed, 
with  the  aid  of  machinery,  with  such  perfection  that  sheets  of  copper, 
upon  which  are  soldered  plates  of  gold  one-twelfth  the  thickness  of  the 
former,  are  transformed  into  ornaments  of  all  kinds  without  exhibiting  a 
trace  of  the  existence  of  copper.  In  these  trades,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  special  cases,  the  masters  rarely  employ  more  than  eight  or  ten 
workmen,  and  on  one-quarter  of  the  whole  work  alone  only  employ  one 
journeyman  and  apprentices.  The  operatives  sometimes  work  in  the 
shops  of  their  employers  and  sometimes  at  home ;  the  last-named  repre¬ 
senting  about  one-tenth  of  the  entire  body.  Women  are  also  employed 
to  the  extent  of  about  20  per  cent.,  but  chiefly  in  polishing.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  markets  for  the  exportation  of  jewelry  and  trinkets  are  Spain  and 
her  colonies,  the  United  States,  Brazil,  Turkey,  Egypt,  Italy,  Switzer¬ 
land,  England,  and  Bussia. 

“The  quantity  of  gold  annually  employed  by  the  jewellers  and  gold¬ 
smiths  of  France  is  equal  to  17  tons,  and  of  the  value  of  44,200,000  francs, 
(£1,768,000.)  The  silver  amounts  to  89  tons,  of  the  value  of  17,800,000 
francs.  The  workmanship  adds  60  per  cent,  to  the  value  of  the  gold  and 
40  per  cent,  to  that  of  silver.  The  total  value  of  the  production  is  there¬ 
fore  95,640,000  francs,  (£3,825,000.)  The  exports  of  gold  jewelry  are 


CLOTHING. 


135 


equal  to  two  and  a  half  tons,  and  of  the  commercial  value  of  10,400,000 
francs ;  and  of  silver  work  to  eleven  and  a  half  tons  of  the  value  of 
3,150,000  francs,  (£126,000.)  The  diamonds,  pearls,  and  other  gems  are 
not  included  in  the  above  estimate.  The  trade  is  carried  on  by  1,250 
manufacturers,  who  employ  20,500  persons,  of  whom  12,500  are  workmen, 
properly  so  called.  It  is  estimated  that  2,000  wholesale  dealers  and 
1,000  merchants  are  engaged  indirectly  in  disposal  of  the  produce  of  the 
trade. 

u  The  employment  of  machinery  has  become  general  since  1855,  and  has 
reduced  the  cost  of  production  without  detracting  from  the  perfection 
or  finish  of  the  work.  Plated  gold  jewelry  is  without  a  rival  abroad, 
and  enables  French  commerce  to  compete  with  the  low-standard  gold 
work  of  England  and  Germany.  The  formation  of  a  company  for  sweep¬ 
washing,  and  the  reduction  of  the  products,  the  initiation  of  a  syndical 
chamber,  and  of  an  association  formed  of  masters  and  workmen,  have 
greatly  favored  the  progress  which  the  jewelry  trade  commenced  to 
make  in  1855.” — Introduction  to  the  class ;  official  catalogue. 

ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  JEWELRY. 

The  principal  exhibitors  in  this  class  were  France  and  England.  In 
the  absolute  merit  of  the  goods  exposed — speaking  only  of  the  finer 
sorts — it  would  be  difficult  to  say  which  excelled  the  other.  English 
jewelry,  in  accordance  with  English  taste  in  general,  is  characterized 
by  solidity  and  massiveness.  French  jewelry,  on  the  contrary,  aims  at 
lightness  of  effect  and  beauty  of  design.  The  English  try  to  make  their 
precious  stones  secure $  the  French  to  make  them  fascinating  and  also 
secure.  The  precious  stones  of  a  piece  of  jewelry  are  let  into  small 
cells  cut  for  each  individual  stone  out  of  a  solid  piece  of  silver  or  gold. 
The  stones  when  inserted  into  these  have  to  be  secured  that  the  portion 
of  the  edge  of  the  stone  held  by  and  therefore  concealed  in  the  setting 
may  be  the  smallest  portion  possible  consistently  with  firmness  of  grip. 
To  avoid  the  vulgarity  of  heaviness  and  the  insecurity  of  lightness 
requires  the  nicest  skill.  Precisely  as  the  artist  triumphs  over  these 
difficulties  does  he  produce  a  work  of  excellence  and  durability. 

There  was  a  dazzling  display  of  diamonds  particularly  noticeable  in 
the  French  court  where  the  exhibitors  were  together,  and  the  opportu¬ 
nity  for  contrast  and  study  were  most  readily  commanded.  In  the 
English  section  the  exhibitor's  occupied  little  stalls  of  their  own  like  sen¬ 
try  boxes,  and  isolated  themselves  as  much  as  possible  from  their 
neighbors. 

The  productions  of  Mr.  Massin  and  Mr.  Froment  Meurice  were  remark¬ 
able  for  perfection  of  workmanship  and  richness  of  materials.  One  of 
the  most  beautiful  examples,  by  the  first-named  jeweler,  was  a  sprig  of 
wild  rose  executed  in  diamonds,  presenting  the  lightness,  the  suavity  of 
curve,  elasticity  of  bough,  and  other  characteristics  of  nature  itself.  In 
perfection  of  symmetry  and  radiant  simplicity  it  was  almost  faultless. 


136 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


A  pair  of  earrings  shaped  as  rosebuds,  whereof  the  bud  was  a  pink 
pearl,  formed  an  exquisite  adjunct  to  a  parure  of  similar  treatment  rep¬ 
resenting  a  rose  branch,  while  a  charmingly  rendered  water-lily  and  a 
cornflower  of  sapphires  and  diamonds  may  further  be  pointed  out,  as 
lovely  specimens  of  Mr.  Massiffs  handling  of  the  forms  of  nature.  These 
works  were  carefully  scrutinized  by  the  jury  and  found  to  be  as  firm 
as  they  were  light  and  elegant. 

The  value  of  Mr.  Meurice’s  jewels  was  mainly  in  the  workmanship.  A 
head  ornament  of  colored  diamonds,  a  shell  with  a  sprig,  was  the  most 
elegant  and  probably  the  most  valuable  ornament  of  the  kind  in  the 
Exposition.  It  is  extremely  difficult  to  match  colored  diamonds.  These 
were  extremely  well  mated  and  worked  up.  Among  them  were  some 
pink  diamonds,  which,  with  more  brilliancy,  had  almost  the  depth  and 
color  of  the  ruby.  There  were  also  green,  yellow,  and  brown  diamonds 
among  them. 

The  fashions  seem  once  more  to  incline  to  colored  gems.  Lemoine 
made  an  immense  display  of  dark  pearls  in  all  shades  of  green,  red,  pink, 
yellow,  and  brown.  They  are  used  mainly  in  combination  with  diamonds. 

Boucheron,  another  maker  of  repute,  had  a  good  display  of  diamond 
jewelry.  A  single  pair  of  earrings  in  this  case  was  worth  $120,000  in 
gold.  They  were  set  with  simplicity,  but  each  weighed  23  carats.  The 
same  maker  exhibited  many  articles  where  the  skill  of  workmanship 
exceeded  the  value  of  the  material. 

In  a  different,  but  not  much  cheaper  way,  were  tli#  agates  and  rock 
crystals  of  Duron  set  in  the  style  of  Benvenuto  Cellini  and  his  school ; 
works  of  art  that  would  worthily  occupy  a  place  in  any  collection. 

In  an  adjoining  case  were  two  necklaces  of  half  crystalized  black 
diamonds,  a  mineral  phenomenon  little  known,  and  remarkable  more  for 
its  rarity  than  beauty. 

The  jewels  of  the  Countess  of  Dudley,  exhibited  in  the  English  sec¬ 
tion,  were  the  finest  in  the  Exhibition,  both  as  regards  the  size  and  color 
of  the  stones  employed.  They  were  shown,  with  many  other  splendid 
specimens  of  work,  in  the  cases  of  Messrs.  Hunt  and  Boskell. 

Mr.  Harry  Emmanuel  and  the  other  British  makers  amply  sustained 
their  world- wide  reputations. 

The  effort  of  the  present  time  in  the  manufacture  of  diamond  jewelry 
is  to  give  movements  to  the  different  parts  by  which  the  reflections  and 
refractions  are  increased. 

DIAMOND-CUTTING-  ESTABLISHMENT. 

The  illustration  of  the  processes  by  which  precious  stones  or  other 
artificial  imitations  are  wrought  was  excellently  given  by  Mr.  Coster,  of 
Amsterdam,  who  had  a  diamond-cutting  factory  erected  in  the  Park, 
fitted  up  with  the  customary  machinery  and  occupied  by  his  regular 
workmen.  The  first  rough  shaping  of  the  more  important  facets  of  the 
brilliant  is  performed  by  operating  with  two  diamonds  at  once,  each 


CLOTHING. 


137 


firmly  secured  in  a  handle  and  bruising  each  against  the  other,  angle 
against  angle.  The  dust  that  falls  from  the  stones  is  preserved  for  the 
subsequent  processes  of  grinding  and  polishing  those  facets  that  distin¬ 
guish  the  many-sided  brilliants  from  the  dull  original  crystal  of  dia¬ 
mond.  It  is  used,  mingled  with  oil,  on  a  flat  iron  disk,  which  revolves 
rapidly  by  means  of  steam  power,  the  stone  being  laid  upon  this  disk  or 
wheel  and  pressed  upon  it  by  means  of  a  weighted  tool,  which  the 
attendant  watches  carefully.  Skill  of  eye  and  hand,  only  attainable  by 
great  practice,  is  needed  for  this  work.  But  more  curious  still,  and 
requiring  equal  or  greater  skill,  is  the  cleavage,  or  splitting  of  the  stone. 
A  little  notch  is  scratched  in  the  diamond  by  means  of  a  knife  pointed 
with  the  same  material.  A  steel  blade  is  then  inserted  in  this  opening, 
and  a  tap  cleaves  the  stone  in  the  direction  required.  The  process  is 
rapid  and  based  on  mathematical  rules  which  govern  the  splitting  of 
the  stone.  The  diamond,  when  a  blow  is  struck  on  an  edged  tool  placed 
parallel  to  one  of  the  octahedral  faces  of  the  crystal,  readily  splits  in  that 
direction.  It  was  not  the  less  remarkable  to  see  the  process  so  aptly 
performed. 

There  were  other  objects  of  interest  in  Mr.  Coster’s  exhibition.  For 
the  first  time  the  diamond  was  exhibited  side  by  side  with  the  minerals 
that  accompany  it  in  the  river-bed  of  Brazil;  and  there  were  very  rare 
examples  in  which  crystals  of  diamonds  were  included  within  a  mass  of 
quartz  crystals,  having  all  the  appearance  of  having  been  formed  simul¬ 
taneously  with  the  diamond,  but  believed  by  some  of  the  mineralogists 
to  be  artificial  combinations.  But  the  most  extraordinary  curiosity  pos¬ 
sessed  by  Mr.  Coster  was  a  rose-pink  diamond  of  some  29  carats,  endowed 
with  the  marvellous  property  of  becoming  perfectly  bleached  by  an 
exposure  of  some  four  minutes  to  the  effect  of  the  atmospheric  light.  It 
recovers  its  rose  color  at  a  gentle  heat  and  retains  it  for  any  length  of 
time  in  darkness. 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  in  this  place  to  give  some  particulars  of 
Mr.  Coster’s  Amsterdam  establishment,  which  employs  316  lapidaries, 
assistants  and  apprentices,  88  cutters,  and  21  splitters,  forming  an 
aggregate  of  425  workmen,  and  receiving  from  $5,000  to  $6,000  per  week 
for  wages.  The  annual  importation  of  the  diamond  in  the  rough  state 
amounts  to  nearly  1,000  pounds  troy.  Of  this  immense  quantity  Mr* 
Coster  has  received  nearly  half.  For  the  finer  varieties  of  diamond, 
averaging  in  weight  under  half  a  carat,  a  price  equivalent  to  $50  or  $55 
(always  in  gold)  a  carat  is  now  paid;  and  the  price  has  doubled  since 
1848,  at  which  date  $22  or  $25  would  have  purchased  diamonds  for 
which  $50  or  $55  have  to  be  paid  now.  Thus  a  diamond  of  2  carats 
weight,  worth  then  some  $150,  is  now  worth  from  $300  to  $350,  and  some¬ 
times  more;  while  a  perfect  brilliant  of  4  carats  is  now  worth  from  $1,000 
to  $1,500.  When  Jeffries  wrote  his  book  on  the  diamond,  a  century  and 
a  half  ago,  a  carat  diamond  now  worth  $85  was  valued  at  $40. 

Two  of  the  three  great  existing  historical  diamonds  were  cut  by  Mr. 


138 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Coster.  These  were  the  Koh-i-noor,  of  103  carats,  and  the  Star  of  the 
South,  a  Brazilian  stone,  slightly  brown  in  hue,  of  125  carats.  The 
third,  known  as  the  Pitt  or  Regent  diamond,  the  well-known  crown  jewel 
of  France,  weighs  135  carats,  and  was  cut  in  the  last  century. 

Among  the  curious  uses  of  diamonds,  rubies,  and  other  fine  stones,  may 
be  mentioned  that  of  using  them  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  fine  wire. 
They  are  drilled  to  the  requisite  diameter,  and  answer  the  purpose  better 
than  any  other  material.  Precious  stones  are  also  used  for  the  working 
points  of  watches,  for  pointing  drilling  machines,  and  many  other  pur¬ 
poses.  Indeed,  the  increased  price  of  the  diamond  may  be  ascribed  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  rapidly  becoming  a  tool  as  well  as  an  ornament. 
Thus,  while  it  is  superseding  steel,  steel  revenges  itself  by  stepping  into 
the  polite  domains  of  the  diamond.  It  has  even  created  a  sensation 
there.  Much  of  the  fine  steel  jewelry  exhibited  in  the  Exposition  was 
second  only  in  delicate  faceting  and  brilliancy  to  that  of  the  diamond 
itself. 

There  was  but  a  single  exhibitor  in  this  class  from  the  United  States* 
It  was  to  be  regretted,  inasmuch  as  in  a  medium  style  of  cheap  jewelry 
the  United  States  can,  owing  to  the  great  use  of  machinery,  be  com¬ 
pared  favorably  with  the  best. 

CLASS  37.— PORTABLE  ARMS. 

The  manufactures  included  in  this  class  form  three  distinct  series: 
1st.  Sporting  and  gallery  fire-arms,  comprising  fowling-pieces,  rifles,  pis¬ 
tols,  revolvers,  duck-guns,  blunderbusses,  and  military  arms  for  exporta¬ 
tion  ;  2d.  Side-arms  and  other  arms,  sneli  as  sabres,  swords,  foils,  poign- 
ards,  bayonets,  axes,  maces,  casques,  shields,  cuirasses,  &c. 

The  principal  centres  of  production  in  France: 

1st.  For  fowling-pieces  and  highly-finished  fire-arms,  are  Paris  and  St. 
Etienne.  The  latter  place,  producing  the  largest  quantity,  may  there¬ 
fore  be  considered  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  trade.  Paris  is  famous  for 
its  highly-finished  arms.  Her  models  are  sought  by  all  nations,  and  the 
arms  produced  by  her  manufacturers  are  justly  renowned  for  the  finish 
of  the  work,  the  perfection  of  the  details,  and  the  elegance  of  the  forms. 

2d.  Military  arms  for  exportation  are  produced  almost  entirely  by  the 
directors  of  the  factories  of  the  state,  at  St.  Etienne,  Chattellerault, 
(Vienne,)  Tulle,  (Correze,)  and  Mutzig,  (Bas  Rhin,)  and  by  private  makers 
in  Paris  and  Maubeuge,  (Kordj)  certain  detached  portions  are  made  at 
Charleville,  (Ardennes.) 

3d.  Swords  and  other  side-arms  are  made  at  Chattellerault,  Kingen- 
thal,  (Bas  Rliin,)  and  St.  Etienne,  but  the  whole  of  the  mountings,  scab¬ 
bards,  and  accessories  are  produced  in  Paris,  where  they  form  a  special 
industry,  remarkable  for  artistic  workmanship  and  finish. 

4th.  The  manufacture  of  percussion  caps,  priming,  and  cartridges,  is 
confined  exclusively  to  the  metropolitan  departments  of  the  Seine  and 
Seine-et-Oise,  and  is  in  the  hands  of  five  or  six  manufacturers,  who  are 


CLOTHING  139 

enabled  not  only  to  supply  the  entire  home  demand,  but  also  to  export 
a  considerable  quantity. 

The  iron  and  steel  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  fire  and  other  arms 
are  produced  on  French  soil.  For  the  finer  arms  the  iron  is  derived  from 
the  department  of  the  Yosges,  and  costs,  on  an  average,  60  francs  the 
100  kilograms,  (33  francs  the  hundred  weight.)  The  steel  comes  from 
Isere  and  Loire,  and  costs  from  120  to  150  francs.  The  mountings 
and  accessories  of  swords  and  other  side-arms  require,  also,  copper,  horn, 
leather,  ivory,  mother-of-pearl,  silver,  gold,  and  other  materials.  Steel 
forms  the  chief  material  of  military  arms ;  it  is  derived  from  the  basin 
of  the  Loire,  at  Kive-de-gier  and  Ferminy,  and  is  delivered,  on  an  aver¬ 
age,  at  95  francs  the  100  kilograms  for  cannons,  and  at  160  francs  for 
sabres,  bayonets,  and  cuirasses.  The  price  of  the  iron  employed  in  the 
making  of  military  arms  is  65  francs  the  100  kilograms.  Steel  forms 
about  three-fifths  of  the  material  of  the  arms  manufactured  in  France, 
and  its  amount  is  estimated  at  2,500  tons  per  annum  for  all  kinds  of 
arms.  The  walnut  wood  used  for  gun-stocks  is  produced  at  Auvergne 
and  Poitou;  the  price  of  the  wood  when  cut  up  is  about  2  francs  per 
piece  for  military  arms,  and  8  francs  for  fowling-pieces.  Percussion  caps, 
priming,  and  cartridges  are  manufactured  with  Chilian  copper,  which, 
when  refined  and  rolled  out,  is  worth  in  France,  on  the  average,  250 
francs  the  100  kilograms.  Brass  wire  only  costs  225  francs.  The 
makers  of  these  articles  use  about  500  tons  of  copper  per  annum.  The 
fulminating  powder  is  composed  of  mercury,  from  the  mines  of  Spain, 
costing  5  francs  40  centimes  per  kilogram;  alcohol,  mineral  acids, 
nitrate  of  soda,  and  chlorate  of  potash,  at  the  price  of  4  francs.  These 
last  materials  are  of  French  production.  The  making  of  cartridges 
absorbs  annually  200  tons  of  paper,  made  in  France,  and  costing  from 
60  francs  to  170  francs  the  100  kilograms.  Lastly,  the  materials  of 
felt  wads  cost  28  francs  the  100  kilograms. 

Machinery  occupies  daily  a  more  conspicuous  place  in  the  production 
of  the  barrel,  the  stock,  and  certain  other  parts  of  military  fire-arms. 
For  the  barrels,  the  principal  means  employed  are  the  tilt-hammer,  for 
faggoting  iron  and  steel;  rollers,  the  lathe,  and  slide-rest,  to  replace  the 
file;  drilling,  boring,  and  rifling  machines.  The  barrels  of  highly-finished 
arms  are  manufactured  with  the  aid  of  the  same  machines  and  tools,  to 
which,  however,  must  be  added  the  soldering  furnace,  for  uniting  double 
barrels.  Lathes,  countersinking  tools,  and  planing  machines  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  stocks,  the  lock-plates,  and  other  portions  of 
military  arms.  Lastly,  the  use  of  machines  has  been  adopted  in  the 
making  of  revolvers,  which  have  been  in  great  demand  during  the  last 
few  years.  Hand-labor,  on  the  contrary,  is  still  employed  for  the  adjust¬ 
ment  and  fitting  of  the  various  parts  of  arms.  The  same  is  the  case  as 
regards  highly-finished  arms ;  and,  w  ith  the  sole  exception  of  the  barrel,  it  is 
easy  to  comprehend  that  the  application  of  machinery  w  ould  be  almost 
impossible  in  the  case  of  elaborate  and  fancy  arms,  which  require  delicate 


140 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ornamentation  and  great  variety  in  tlie  form.  In  the  case  of  swords  and 
other  side-arms,  the  operations  of  sharpening  and  mounting  are  also  per¬ 
formed  by  hand.  This  portion  of  the  manufacture  which  partakes  of 
the  arts  of  the  engraver,  chaser,  gilder,  and  arm-goldsmith,  in  their 
highest  phases,  can  never  be  executed  without  the  hand  of  man. 

Each  maker  of  percussion  caps,  priming,  and  cartridges  has  his  own 
peculiar  machines  and  materials.  These  are  driven  by  steam,  and  include 
cutting  and  stamping  presses,  rollers,  filling  machines,  &c. 

Men,  women,  and  children  are  employed  in  the  making  of  arms.  The 
manufacture  of  percussion  caps,  and  particularly  of  cartridges,  employs 
a  large  number  of  women.  Generally  the  work-people  are  employed  in 
the  shops  of  the  manufacturers,  and,  under  the  direction  of  the  latter,  a 
certain  number  work  at  home.  Some  are  paid  by  the  piece  and  others 
by  the  day.  The  number  of  workmen  employed  in  this  trade  is  about 
15,000.  The  arms  are  sold  generally  where  they  are  manufactured,  but 
especially  in  Paris  and  at  St.  Etienne.  Paris  is  the  principal  market;  the 
armorers  there  supply  not  only  the  arms  called  Parisian,  but  also  many 
others  made  elsewhere,  and  which  are  sometimes  finished  by  Parisian 
workmen.  Paris  is  also  the  market  for  side-arms,  mounted  and  finished, 
for  the  officers  of  the  army,  the  officials  who  wear  uniforms,  for  the  pro¬ 
vincial  dealers  in  arms  and  military  equipments,  and  finally  for  exporta¬ 
tion.  Paris  is  thus  the  great  depot  for  arms,  as  well  as  for  cartridges. 
The  whole  production  of  arms,  cartridges,  &c.,  in  Prance  may  be  set 
down  at  about  15,000,000  francs  in  value.  This  amount,  of  which  St. 
Etienne  represents  about  6,000,000  francs,  may  be  divided  as  follows: 
Fire-arms  and  bayonets,  10,000,000  francs;  side-arms,  1,000,000  francs; 
caps,  priming,  and  cartridges,  4,000,000;  total,  15,000,000  francs. 

Among  the  improvements  introduced  into  the  manufacture  of  arms 
since  1855,  the  committee  note  the  following:  Planing  machines,  which 
allow  more  perfect  workmanship  in  the  barrels,  as  regards  their  finishing 
and  boring;  the  many  improvements  made  in  the  methods  of  breech-load¬ 
ing;  the  adoption  of  small  calibre  and  breech-loading  for  military  arms; 
the  use  of  cast  steel  in  place  of  iron  for  the  barrels  of  rifled  and  other 
arms;  and,  lastly,  the  introduction,  already  referred  to,  of  mechanical 
processes  which  tend  to  replace  manual  labor  more  and  more  every  day. 
England  and  America  preceded  France  for  some  time  in  these  respects ; 
but  manufacturers  have  followed  boldly  the  examples  of  these  two  nations, 
and  march  in  their  footsteps  with  courage  and  success.  We  must  point 
out,  also,  the  introduction  of  more  ingenious  methods  in  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  cartridges,  with  the  view  to  obtain  the  most  complete  and  effect¬ 
ive  combustion. 

The  manufacture  of  arms,  considering  its  importance  and  the  amount 
of  trade,  is  not  yet  sufficiently  developed;  but  sensible  progress  has 
already  been  made,  and  the  impulse  which  circumstances  have  recently 
given  to  the  production  of  military  arms  is  aiding  us  to  bridge  over  more 
rapidly  the  distances  which  separate  France  from  the  more  advanced 


CLOTHING. 


141 


nations.  Moreover,  it  is  right  to  repeat  that,  in  the  matter  of  highly, 
finished  arms,  French  manufacturers  stand  in  the  first  rank ;  it  defies  all 
competition  as  regards  artistic  taste,  elegance  of  form,  and  the  ability 
of  workmen.  Similar  superiority  is  also  to  be  noted  in  the  case  of 
priming  and  cartridges.  This  class  of  manufacture,  which  is  not  of 
French  origin,  and  not  yet  40  years  old,  has  grown  with  great  rapidity, 
and  its  products,  which  have  nearly  doubled  since  1855,  are  sought  by 
all  nations,  on  account  of  their  perfection  and  low  price.  The  rapidly- 
increasing  use  of  breech-loading  arms,  and  the  improvements  which  are 
constantly  introduced,  are  opening  up  new  sources  for  this  manufacture, 
and  promise  it  an  almost  unlimited  field. — Alexander  Fouquier,  member  of 
the  committee  of  admission  of  class  37. 

It  may  be  presumed  that  the  invention  of  portable  arms  was  almost 
coeval  with  the  creation  of  man,  inasmuch  as  the  term  means  anything 
from  a  stone,  or  club  cut  from  the  neighboring  thicket,  to  the  electric 
pistol,  which  does  not  even  put  a  murderer  to  the  trouble  of  pulling  the 
trigger.  To  make  a  weapon  that  would  protect  the  bearer  from  the 
onslaughts  of  wild  beasts  was  an  early  necessity.  He  did  it  rudely  at 
first,  but  improved  as  he  found  a  finer  beast — man — to  kill.  No  art  has 
made  such  rapid  strides  as  this,  and  no  art  has  left  behind  it  such  unques¬ 
tionable  traces  of  its  growth  and  progress.  The  tiller  who  whistles  at 
his  plough,  in  our  western  lands,  turns  up  at  each  furrow  some  indica¬ 
tion  that  a  race  less  agricultural,  but  vastly  more  belligerent,  has  pre¬ 
ceded  him.  In  the  gallery  devoted  to  the  so-called  “history  of  labor” 
were  specimens  of  all  the  earlier  weapons,  commencing  with  the  flint, 
and  progressing  rapidly  to  the  metal.  The  progress,  even  in  the  remote 
past,  was  rapid;  in  the  present  day  it  has  exceeded  that  of  any  other 
art.  Especially  is  this  the  case  in  fire-arms.  Skill  can  never  be  abolished, 
either  in  warfare  or  in  sporting;  but  a  very  small  amount  of  skill  is  all 
that  the  manufacturer  of  to-day  requires.  The  soldier  blazes  at  his 
enemy  at  5,000  yards  until  he  “pots”  him,  or  undergoes  the  process  of 
being  “potted”  himself.  The  sportsman  pursues  his  covey  with  cart¬ 
ridges  that  place  themselves  in  a  breech-loader,  and  require  nothing  at 
his  hands  except  a  touch  of  the  finger.  Well  may  Captain  Majendie, 
R.  A.,  bewail  this  state  of  things.  “It  is  impossible,”  says  this  officer, 
who  was  also  a  reporter  on  the  class,  “not  to  feel  that  the  interest 
which  has  hitherto  attached  to  this  class  of  arms  has,  in  a  great 
measure,  departed  since  the  general  adoption  of  breech-loading  rifles. 
The  occasions  henceforth  must  be  comparatively  rare  in  which  hand-to- 
hand  contests  will  be  possible.”  This  opinion,  indeed,  found  practical 
expression  in  a  bayonet  exhibited  among  the  English  arms  by  Mr.  Scott 
Tucker.  It  was  hardly  half  the  length  of  the  present  bayonet,  and  Mr. 
Scott  Tucker  suggests  its  adoption,  on  the  distinct  ground  of  “the  chance 
of  crossing  bayonets  being  materially  lessened  by  the  introduction  of 
breech-loaders.”  He  claims  for  it  the  advantages  of  being  comparatively 
light,  cheap,  strong,  handy  to  draw  and  return,  less  easily  parried,  quick 


142 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


for  thrust  and  withdrawal,  free  from  chance  of  locking,  and  out  of  the 
way  when  skirmishing. 

Of  swords  and  spears  and  hand-lances  the  variety  was  almost  without 
limits.  Solingen,  as  of  yore,  distinguished  itself  in  these  branches. 
During  the  early  months  of  the  rebellion  Solingen  blades  were  regarded 
almost  as  articles  of  luxury  5  they  commanded  extravagant  prices.  Here 
are  the  terms  upon  which  they  are  supplied  in  Europe:  An  English 
infantry  officer’s  regulation  sword,  with  steel  scabbard,  may  be  obtained 
wholesale  for  22  francs  5  a  French  line  officer’s  sword,  for  24  francs.  The 
process  by  which  the  Solingen  makers  impart  to  their  sword  blades  a 
gilding  of  peculiar  permanence  is  said  to  be  a  secret;  so,  also,  with  the 
precise  combination  of  metals  used  in  their  manufacture.  A  good  Sol¬ 
ingen  blade  can  be  wound  round  the  body,  and  when  released  will 
straighten  absolutely.  The  blades  of  Toledo,  much  more  expensive,  do 
no  more. 

Swords  of  every  shape  and  quality  were  found  in  almost  all  the  sec¬ 
tions  of  the  building,  remarkable  either  for  excellence,  cheapness,  or 
decoration.  Among  the  latter  class  may  be  included  nearly  all  weapons 
that  came  from  the  east.  Turkey,  for  instance,  had  no  fewer  than  102 
exhibitors,  and  about  the  same  number  of  articles. 

In  long-range  arms  of  precision  there  has  been  but  little  progress  made 
since  the  introduction  of  the  conical  gas-expanding  bullet  of  1855,  but  an 
infinite  variety  of  small  improvements  have  been  introduced  for  the  bet¬ 
ter  throwing  forth  of  the  projectile.  The  American  rifles  were  consid¬ 
ered  among  the  best  exhibited.  The  object  of  late  has  not  been  to  secure 
greater  length  of  range,  but  to  obtain  a  quicker  rate  of  discharge ;  hence 
the  breech-loaders.  Weapons  of  this  make  were  naturally  the  features 
of  the  Exhibition.  Twelve  years  ago  breech-loacling  had  been  largely 
applied  on  the  continent  of  Europe  to  sporting  guns,  but  it  has  not  been 
applied  to  any  considerable  extent  (except  in  Prussia)  to  rifles,  either  for 
military  or  sporting  purposes.  In  1867  it  was  the  accepted  principle  of 
all  military  arms.  The  battle  of  Sadowa  abolished  all  theories  on  the 
subject.  The  principal  result  showed  that  the  breech-loader  was  the 
most  deadly  weapon  on  that  memorable  day.  Every  government  is  now 
supplying  its  troops  with  new  pieces  on  this  plan,  or  altering  the  old 
ones  in  conformity  with  it.  Models  adapted  for  either  purpose  were 
exhibited  in  every  court.  The  superiority  of  the  breech-loaders  having 
been  accepted,  a  new  question  has  arisen,  namely,  whether  the  central 
fire,  or  the  pin  or  rim  fire,  is  the  best.  It  is  a  matter  which  has  been  fully 
discussed  in  the  report  of  the  American  commission  appointed  to  inquire 
into  it. 

Nearly  all  the  small-arms  on  the  revolving  principle  were  made  in 
accordance  with  well-known  American  inventions.  The  American  dis¬ 
play  of  these  weapons  was  very  good. 

A  novelty,  already  referred  to,  was  exhibited  in  the  American  depart¬ 
ment,  consisting  of  a  gun  fired  by  electricity.  The  apparatus  is  concealed 


CLOTHING. 


143 


in  the  stock.  It  is  claimed  for  this  mode  of  ignition  that  there  will  be 
less  danger  in  preparing  the  cartridge,  inasmuch  as  it  contains  no  ful¬ 
minating  powder,  and  that,  for  a  like  reason,  there  will  be  no  risk  in  the 
transportation  of  ammunition;  also,  that  the  arm  cannot  be  fired  acci¬ 
dentally,  and  that,  as  there  is  no  blow  of  the  hammer,  there  is  no  inevi¬ 
table  deviation  in  the  aim  of  the  person  who  fires  the  piece.  The  rapidity 
of  fire  is  clamed  to  be  greater,  and  the  escape  of  gas  less,  than  in  other 
arms.  All  these  points  have  yet  to  be  proved  in  practice. 

Another  curiosity  was  a  muzzle-loading  cap  gun,  having  two  bullets 
for  each  barrel,  the  piece  having  two  barrels  and  four  hammers.  Each 
barrel  is  loaded  with  two  charges  and  two  balls ;  the  front  charges  are 
fired  by  the  front  set  of  hammers ;  when  these  have  been  fired,  the  sec¬ 
ond  pair  of  hammers  are  brought  into  play  to  fire  the  hinder  charges. 
The  manufacturer  claims  that  there  is  no  danger  of  the  first  charge 
exploding  the  second. 

And  still  a  last  curiosity  was  a  shield  in  the  English  collection,  from 
which  projects,  in  place  of  a  spike,  the  muzzle  of  a  breech-loading  pistol. 
These  shields  formed  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  body-guard  of  Henry 
VIII,  dated  1530. 

CLASS  38.— TRAVELLING  AND  CAMP  EQUIPAGES. 

This  class  includes  four  principal  divisions,  which  again  include  many 
distinct  industries. 

The  first  division,  camp  equipage,  comprises  two  branches :  Articles 
for  soldiers  and  articles  for  officers;  for  agents  and  workmen  engaged 
in  the  construction  of  railways,  of  the  canal  of  the  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
&c.,  and  scientific  explorers  and  travellers.  During  the  Crimean  war 
the  French  government  caused  a  great  number  of  tents  and  other 
objects  to  be  made,  which  served  first  for  that  war  and  afterwards  in  the 
Italian  campaign.  Since  that  time  the  demand  has  been  arrested  in  that 
quarter;  but  foreign  governments  buy  their  camp  equipage  of  French 
manufacturers,  and  this  trade  amounts  on  an  average  to  about  5,000,000 
francs  per  annum.  As  regards  equipments  for  officers,  agents  and  others, 
the  trade  amounts  to  2,500,000  or  3,000,000  francs,  principally  for  abroad. 

The  second  series,  travelling  equipments,  is  divided  into  three  branches : 
Articles  in  iron  work,  leather  trunks  and  portmanteaus,  wooden  chests 
and  ladies’  travelling  bags.  Fifteen  years  since  the  first-named  articles 
were  all  imported ;  at  present  the  home  manufacture  supplies  all  demands, 
and,  outof  aproduction  which  represents  about  1,200, 000  francs  per  annum, 
about  one-fifth  is  exported.  The  manufacture  of  leather  trunks  and  wooden 
boxes,  which  took  its  rise  in  France  about  thirty  years  since,  has,  since  the 
opening  of  railways,  assumed  an  importance  which  grows  every  day.  The 
value  of  the  trade  amounts  to  5,000,000  francs  a  year,  and  about  one- 
third  of  the  production  is  exported.  Twelve  years  since  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  ladies’  leather  bags  was  unknown  in  France.  It  soon  afterwards 
was  established,  and  has  since  grown  with  considerable  rapidity.  The 


144 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


value  of  tlie  manufacture  is  8,000,000  francs  per  annum,  of  which  three- 
fourths  are  exported. 

The  third  series,  sporting  equipments,  includes,  besides  the  articles 
which  come  properly  under  that  denomination,  certain  other  items, 
among  which  are  water-proof  and  waxed  cloths.  This  class  of  manu¬ 
factures,  the  centre  of  which  is  at  St.  Sylvain  (Calvados),  has  followed  a 
constantly  increasing  rate  for  several  years.  The  manufacture  amounts 
to  1,000,000  francs  per  annum,  and  one-third  of  the  whole  is  exported. 
The  trade  in  oiled  and  water-proof  cloths  is  not  very  old  in  France,  but 
at  the  present  moment  the  production  not  only  suffices  for  all  demands 
of  the  home  markets,  but  allows  three-fifths  to  be  exported.  The  raw 
materials  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  above-named  articles  are 
cloths  and  drills,  which  are  ^produced  in  the  departments  of  the  Nord, 
Sartlie,  Orne,  and  Mayenne ;  leather,  which  is  furnished  chiefly  from 
Paris;  card-board,  principally  supplied  from  Lyons;  poplar  wood,  which 
comes  from  various  parts  of  France;  and  linen  tissues,  the  produce  of  the 
ISTord,  Seine  Inferieure,  Haut  Ehin,  and  Rhone. 

Hand  labor  predominates  in  the  manufacture  of  camp,  travelling  and 
sporting  equipages,  but  machines  have  been  used  for  a  long  time  to  per¬ 
form  the  sewing,  especially  in  the  case  of  tents  and  bags,  and  their 
employment  has  greatly  reduced  the  market  price,  and  at  the  same  time 
allowed  a  production  of  four  times  the  quantity  in  the  space  of  time. 
The  greater  part  of  the  workmen  are  engaged  in  the  shops  of  the  manu¬ 
facturers,  but  a  certain  portion  work  at  home.  Women  are  employed, 
particularly  in  the  tent  trade.  In  Paris  those  who  work  the  machines 
earn  from  3  to  4  francs  a  day;  others  only  realize  from  2  francs  to  2 
francs  50  centimes.  The  men  earn  from  5  to  G  francs.  The  iron-workers 
obtain  5  to  8  francs.  In  the  other  branches  the  wages  vary  from  4  to  6 
francs  for  the  men,  and  from  2  francs  50  centimes  to  3  francs  50  centimes 
in  the  case  of  the  women.  The  total  number  of  persons  engaged  in  the 
trade  is  between  3,000  and  4,000;  during  the  Crimeau  war  the  number 
was  as  high  as  10,000.  Paris  is  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  centre  of 
manufacture  for  camp  and  travelling  equipments.  In  the  departments 
some  towns,  such  as  Lyons,  Toulouse,  and  Tours,  a  few  makers  can  be 
found,  but  they  are  very  limited  in  number  and  work  principally  to  order. 
The  distribution  of  the  trades  connected  with  the  production  of  sporting 
requisites  has  been  already  shown. 

It  will  have  been  seen,  by  what  has  already  been  said,  that  the  raw 
materials  used  by  the  manufacturers  of  the  articles  which  come  under 
Class  38  are  almost  exclusively  of  home  production.  The  value  of  the 
trade  amounted  in  the  year  18G5  to  about  25,000,000  francs,  and  one-half 
of  the  amount  produced  was  exported.  The  date  of  the  commencement 
of  these  various  branches  of  industry  is  but  recent;  they  had  scarcely 
arisen  at  the  time  of  the  Universal  Exhibition  in  Paris  in  1855.  Since 
that  period,  however,  they  have  developed  rapidly;  and,  at  the  present 
time,  in  consequence  of  the  improvements  brought  to  bear  in  every  part 


CLOTHING. 


145 


of  tlie  manufacture  and  tlie  good  taste  and  finish  of  the  articles,  France 
has  nothing  to  fear  from  any  rivals  whatever,  and  can  even  cope  with 
them  in  their  own  markets. 

The  fourth  series  comprises  blankets  and  rugs.  This  trade,  although 
confined  to  a  small  number  of  houses,  has  assumed  very  great  import¬ 
ance  in  France,  and  employs  a  considerable  number  of  workmen.  The 
trade  not  only  supplies  the  home  market,  but  exports  a  part  of  its  pro¬ 
ductions.  The  chief  materials  used  are  wool  and  cotton ;  hair  of  differ¬ 
ent  kinds  is  also  employed,  but  there  are  no  examples  of  this  in  the  Exhi¬ 
bition.  Wool  performs  the  most  important  part  in  the  manufacture.  That 
of  France  is  the  most  esteemed,  but  wool  from  Africa,  the  Levant,  and 
La  Plata  is  also  employed.  Algerian  wool  is  capable  of  being  bleached 
to  almost  absolute  whiteness,  but  its  quality  is  not  equal  to  that  of 
France.  The  manufacture  of  white  woollen  blankets  presents  great  dif¬ 
ficulties  $  like  that  of  cloth,  it  has  to  pass  through  all  the  operations  of 
spinning,  bulling,  &c.,  without  possessing  the  resource  of  dressing  to 
remedy  imperfections.  The  employment  of  cotton  blankets  is  less  com¬ 
mon,  but  the  simplicity  of  the  method  of  manufacture  and  the  moderate 
price  of  the  raw  material  gives  them  a  special  interest,  as  coming  within 
the  means  of  the  less  wealthy  classes.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the 
manufacture  of  railway  rugs  is  not  represented  by  French  producers, 
especially  as  that  industry,  which  has  become  very  important,  is  essen¬ 
tially  remarkable  for  the  improvements  that  have  been  introduced,  and 
which  give  the  productions  incontestable  practical  advantages  over  those 
of  other  countries. 

There  was  a  good  display  of  French  articles  in  this  class,  but  consider¬ 
ing  the  importance  that  travelling  has  assumed  of  late  years,  and  never 
more  so  than  in  1867,  the  competition,  if  it  can  be  dignified  by  the  name, 
was  strikingly  poor.  There  was  no  novelty  worthy  of  record.  America 
had  nine  exhibitors,  among  them  the  Quartermaster  General  of  the 
United  States  army,  who  exhibited  the  material  in  use  for  transportation, 
clothing,  and  equipment  in  camp  and  in  garrison. 

CLASS  39.— TOYS. 

“Class  39  comprises:  1.  Automatons,  (mechanical  figures  and  ani¬ 
mals.)  2.  Toys  in  general,  including  an  immense  variety  of  articles,  of 
which  dolls  form  the  most  important  branch,  and  among  which  may 
be  mentioned,  besides  kitchen  utensils,  dinner  and  tea  things,  card-board 
boxes  and  other  articles,  dressed  figures,  animals  and  arms.  The  greater 
number  of  toys  are  manufactured  in  Paris.  The  common  wooden  play¬ 
things  form  the  special  trade  of  the  town  of  Liesse,  Aisne.  Limoges  sup¬ 
plies  the  China  services,  which  are  ornamented  in  Paris ;  at  Severs  and 
Sarrequemines  are  made  these  same  articles  in  various  kinds  of  earthen¬ 
ware.  The  manufacture  of  the  different  kinds  of  toys  necessitates  the 
use  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  raw  material  known,  and  the  co-opera- 
10  u  E 


146 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


tion  of  nearly  every  trade.  Nearly  all  the  Paris  toys  are  made  by  hand, 
by  men  and  women ;  children  are  not  employed,  being  unable  to  bestow 
upon  the  work  the  excessive  patience  and  minute  attention  which  it 
demands.  Cutting  and  stamping  presses  and  lathes  are  used  for  the 
metal  and  wooden  toys.  Few  makers  employ  more  than  20  work-people. 
In  Paris,  the  larger  number  of  the  men  work  at  the  shops ;  the  number 
of  women  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  men.  The  making  of  dolls’ 
clothes  alone  occupies  several  hundred  women,  of  whom  half  work  at 
home.  The  wages  are,  on  an  average,  4  francs  a  day  for  men,  and  from 
1  franc  75  centimes  to  2  francs  a  day  for  women.  The  makers  deliver 
their  products  to  the  retail  dealers  and  to  agents  for  exportation.  Very 
few  among  them  export  directly  to  other  countries.  The  manufacture  of 
small  wares  occupies  about  2,200  people,  and  business  is  done  in  it  to 
the  amount  of  10,500,000  to  11,000,000  francs  (£440,000)  a  year,  of  which 
two-fifths  are  realized  by  the  exportation  trade.  The  toy  manufacture 
is  making  rapid  progress ;  the  models  are  more  varied  and  have  more 
taste  and  elegance;  greater  attention  is  paid  to  the  work  and  the  prices 
have  nevertheless  diminished.  Automatons  and  mechanical  playthings 
have  been  brought  to  great  perfection,  and  the  singing  birds  are  made 
to  imitate  nature  so  far  as  to  deceive  the  most  practiced  ear.  Certain 
instructive  toys,  moved  by  electricity,  can,  without  danger,  be  placed  in 
the  hands  of  children.  Numbers  of  dolls  are  made  whose  trousseaux 
show  so  much  taste  and  are  so  elegant,  that  they  are  constantly  used  by 
dress  and  bonnet  makers  as  types  of  Parisian  toilettes.” — From  the  trans¬ 
lation  of  the  official  catalogue — France. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  add  anything  to  the  above  resume ,  except  that 
the  few  exhibitors  in  other  countries  seldom  rivalled  and  never  excelled 
the  French  makers. 


GROUP  Y 


PRODUCTS,  RAW  AND  MANUFACTURED,  OF  MIN¬ 
ING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 


Class  40.  Mining  and  Metallurgy  —  Class  41.  Products  of  the  Cultivation  of 
Forests  and  of  the  Trades  appertaining  thereto.— Class  42.  Products  of 
Shooting,  Fishing,  and  of  the  Gathering  of  Fruits  obtained  without  culti¬ 
vation.— Class  43.  Agricultural  Products  (not  used  as  food)  easily  Pre¬ 
served. — Class  44.  Chemical  and  Pharmaceutical  Products.— Class  45.  Speci¬ 
mens  of  the  Chemical  Processes  for  Bleaching,  Dyeing.  Printing,  and  Dress¬ 
ing.— Class  46.  Leather  and  Skins. 


CLASS  40. — MINING  AND  METALLURGY. 


This  class  included : 

Collections  and  specimens  of  rocks,  minerals,  and  ores,  ornamental 
stones,  marble,  serpentine,  onyx,  hard  rocks,  refractory  substances,  earths 
and  clays. 

Various  mineral  products ;  sulphur,  rock  salt,  salt  from  salt  springs, 
bitumen  and  petroleum. 

Specimens  of  fuel  in  its  natural  state  and  carbonized;  compressed 
coal. 


Metals  in  a  crude  state ;  pig  iron,  iron,  steel,  cast  steel,  copper,  lead, 
silver,  zinc,  &c. ;  alloys. 

Products  of  washing  and  refining  precious  metals,  of  gold-beating,  &c. 

Electro-metallurgy;  objects  gilt,  silvered,  or  coated  with  copper  or 
steel  by  galvanic  process. 

Products  of  the  working  of  metals ;  rough  castings,  bells,  wrought 
iron,  iron  for  special  purposes,  sheet-iron  and  tin  plates,  iron  plates  for 
casing  ships  and  constructions,  copper,  lead,  and  zinc  sheets* 

Manufactured  metals ;  blacksmiths’  work,  wheels  and  tires,  unwelded 
pipes,  chains,  &c. 

Wire-drawing;  needles,  pins,  wire- work  and  wire  gauze;  perforated 


sheet  iron. 

Hardware,  iron-mongery,  edge  tools,  copper,  tinware,  &c. ;  other  metal 
manufactures. 

As  almost  all  the  countries  that  participated  in  the  Exposition  were 
able  to  send  raw  materials,  the  number  of  exhibitors  in  this  class  was 
very  great,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  list,  which  shows  the  number 
of  exhibitors  from  each  country  of  importance : 


Prance .  349 

Algeria .  33 

Holland .  7 


Belgium .  104 

Prussia .  51 5 

Hesse .  2 


148 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Bavaria . 

. . .  25 

Sweden . 

Wurtemberg . 

.  9 

Norway . 

Austria . 

.  182 

Russia . 

Switzerland . 

.  14 

Italy . 

Spain . 

.  183 

Turkey . 

Portugal . 

.  39 

United  States .... 

Greece . 

.  79 

Great  Britain . 

Colonies  and  dependencies  of  Great  Britain : 


Barbadoes .  3 

Canada .  68 

Cape  of  Good  Hope .  8 

Malta .  6 

Natal .  15 


Newfoundland  . . 
Nova  Scotia 

Queensland . 

South  Australia. 
Victoria . 


97 

19 

91 

262 

21o 

68 

137 

12 

22 

10 

17 

6 


It  should  be  observed  that  in  the  case  of  Prussia,  and  perhaps  some 
of  the  other  countries,  each  mine,  or  company,  or  individual  furnishing 
specimens  of  minerals  to  the  collections  w  as  enumerated  as  an  exhibitor, 
thus  repeating  many  times  the  same  product.  If  the  names  of  all  the 
donors  to  the  collections  from  the  United  States  had  been  sent  in,  the  list 
would,  in  like  manner,  amount  to  many  hundreds. 

In  neatness  and  careful  preparation  the  Prussian  mineral  collection 
was  the  finest  in  the  Exposition.  The  specimens  were  all  rather  large, 
but  were  uniformly  trimmed  and  well  arranged.  The  whole  wras  illus¬ 
trated  by  numerous  well  drawn  and  colored  maps  and  sections  of  mines, 
and  by  models  of  furnaces.  The  collection  comprised  the  products  of 
the  mines  and  quarries  of  the  country,  and  was  systematized  and  arranged 
under  the  orders  of  the  minister  of  commerce  and  public  wrorks  by  Doctor 
Wedding,  mining  engineer,  who  received  a  silver  medal  from  the  jury  as 
a  recognition  of  his  labors.  It  was  accompanied  by  a  special  printed 
catalogue.  The  principal  minerals  shown  w~~*e  coal,  iron  ores,  copper 
ores,  and  argentiferous  lead  ores.  The  salt  mines  of  Stassfurt  wrere  repre¬ 
sented  by  a  quantity  of  the  salt  cut  from  the  mine  in  large  blocks  and 
built  up  in  the  Exposition  building  into  the  shape  of  a  half  dome.  A  very 
interesting  series  of  salts  of  potash  found  above  the  salt  bed  were  also 
shown.  These  potash  salts  are  novT  largely  used  for  the  preparation  of 
manures  and  for  other  purposes  requiring  potash.  The  supply  is  be¬ 
lieved  to  be  practically  inexhaustible,  and  it  has  already  greatly  dimin 
ished  the  demand  for  wood  ashes. 

Spain  made  an  exceedingly  interesting  exhibit  of  its  ores  in  a  building- 
erected  specially  for  the  purpose  and  for  the  agricultural  products,  in 
the  Park.  The  prominent  objects  were  blocks  of  cinnabar  from  the  famous 
mine  of  Almaden,  w hicli  is  still  largely  worked. 

In  the  Russian  section  there  was  an  interesting  suite  of  models  of 
famous  meteorites,  and  many  pepites  and  nuggets  of  native  platinum  from 
the  Siberian  mines  of  Prince  Demidoff.  The  display  of  wrought  and  sheet 
iron  was  very  good,  but  the  chief  attraction  was  the  variety  of  rough 
and  polished  precious  stones,  and  large  vases  and  candelabras  made  of 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC.  149 

malachite,  jasper  and  rhodonite,  (described  more  particularly  under  class 
15,  Group  III.) 

Among*  other  notable  objects  was  a  mass  of  beautiful  malachite,  very 
solid,  weighing  over  two  tons,  from  the  mine  of  Prince  Demidoff.  This 
mine  was  discovered  in  1814  and  has  yielded  35,000  j pounds  of  malachite, 
about  700  tons  since  1840,  besides  a  large  amount  of  copper.  A  mass  of 
native  copper  sent  from  the  Kirghiz  steppes,  Siberia,  and  weighing  about 
1,500  pounds,  much  resembles  the  specimens  from  Lake  Superior,  and 
like  them  contains  some  native  silver.  The  most  remarkable  exhibit 
of  graphite  was  made  by  J.  P.  Alibert,  of  Mount  Batougol,  near  Irkoutsk, 
Siberia.  A  large  glass  case  was  filled  with  blocks  of  the  graphite  cut 
and  fashioned  into  various  forms  and  exhibiting  a  fine  polish. 

MINERALS  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  mineral  exhibition  of  the  United  States  was  very  creditable.  The 
coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  gold,  silver,  and  quicksilver,  and  the  petro¬ 
leums  of  Pennsylvania  and  California,  were  all  represented.  Among  the 
iron-ores  may  be  noted  a  large  mass  from  the  Iron  mountain  of  Missouri, 
blocks  from  Lake  Superior,  and  masses  from  the  iron  region  of  Lake 
Champlain.  There  was  also  a  large  representation  of  our  limonite  ores, 
and  of  the  franklinite  from  New  Jersey.  The  recently  discovered  black 
band  iron  ore  was  there  also,  and  was  doubtless  thought  by  most  persons 
to  be  coal,  it  is  so  black  and  coal-like  in  appearances  This  ore  is  said  to 
form  a  bed  five  feet  thick  directly  below  the  anthracite  coal,  or  only  150 
feet  from  it.  It  contains  39  per  cent,  of  iron  and  35  of  combustible  matter. 
Its  enormous  value  can  hardly  be  estimated. 

Several  large  and  very  rich  masses  of  silver  ore  from  the  Poorman  lode, 
Idaho,  attracted  much  attention,  and  received  recognition  from  the  jury 
by  the  award  of  the  gold  medal.  These  masses  occupied  the  summit  of  a 
pyramidal  mass  of  ores  in  which  were  found  blocks  of  iron  ore  from  Mis¬ 
souri  Iron  mountain  and  Lake  Superior,  copper  and  ingots  from  Lake 
Superior,  coal  of  Pennsylvania,  silver  ore  from  California,  and  rock-salt 
from  Louisiana. 

The  copper  of  Lake  Superior  was  well  represented  by  specimens  of  the 
crystallized  metal  and  of  the  minerals  which  accompany  it,  sent  by  Mr. 
Bigelow  of  Boston. 

The  gold-bearing  quartz  of  California,  and  the  ores  of  copper,  quick¬ 
silver,  lead,  iron,  manganese,  and  other  metals,  together  with  the  salt, 
borax,  sulphur,  coal,  and  petroleum  from  the  same  State,  were  exhibited 
by  a  collection  classified  and  sent  forward  by  W.  P.  Blake,  the  State 
commissioner,  and  which  received  a  silver  medal.  The  gold  ores  of  Col¬ 
orado  were  shown  by  a  large  and  brilliant  collection  arranged  by  J .  P. 
Whitney,  of  Boston,  commissioner  from  the  Territory,  who  received  a 
gold  medal  for  the  display. 

The  Chester  Iron  Company,  of  Massachusetts  made  a  very  interesting 
exhibit  of  the  ores  of  iron  and  emery,  with  the  associated  minerals  from 


150 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Chester,  Massachusetts.  This  emery  was  discovered  a  few  years  since 
by  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  in  the  ores  of  the  company,  and  it  is  now 
largely  explored.  The  jury  signalized  the  value  of  this  emery,  and  of  the 
discovery,  by  awarding  a  silver  medal  to  the  company  and  a  silver  medal 
to  Dr.  Jackson  as  the  discoverer. 

The  minerals  of  the  United  States  section  were  catalogued  by  Mr. 
D’Aligny,  commissioner,  to  whom  the  jury  awarded  a  silver  medal. 

IRON  AND  STEEL. 

Wrought  iron,  in  all  its  forms,  figured  largely  in  this  department  of 
the  exhibition.  Enormous  bars,  plates,  and  girders  were  to  be  seen  in 
the  English,  French,  Bussian,  and  Prussian  sections.  The  iron  ores  of 
Sweden  were  represented  by  large  blocks  which  formed  the  base  of  a 
pyramid  of  iron  bars  and  rods,  square,  round,  and  twisted,  together 
with  samples  of  the  various  grades  of  pig  iron  and  bars  of  steel. 

The  manufactures  of  the  cast-steel  works  of  F.  Krupp,  in  Essen,  Prus¬ 
sia,  were  represented  by  a  cast-steel  ingot,  locomotive  tires,  railway 
axles,  junction  rings  for  steam  boilers,  crank  shafts  for  marine  steam 
engines,  and  plates  or  girders,  besides  several  breech-loading  rifled  guns, 
all  of  cast  steel. 

The  ingot  of  steel  is  the  largest  ever  made.'  It  is  about  10  feet  high 
and  50  inches  in  diameter,  and  weighs  40  tons.  The  upper  end  of  the 
block  is  forged  intc^an  octagonal  shape,  and  the  whole  is  to  be  forged 
under  a  50-tons  hammer  into  a  marine  crank  shaft.  Cast-steel  tires  for 
locomotives  form  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  manufactures.of  this 
establishment.  Nearly  40,000  are  made  each  year.  They  are  all  forged 
out  of  ingots  without  wielding.  This  is  accomplished  in  the  following 
manner:  The  ingots  are  first  forged  out  into  long  plates,  from  which 
rectangular  pieces  of  the  weight  of  the  intended  tires  are  cut  off.  A  slit 
is  then  made  in  the  centre  of  these  pieces  and  the  opening  is  enlarged 
by  wedges  until  a  ring  is  formed,  and  this  ring  is  ultimately  worked  into 
a  tire  in  a  rolling  mill. 

One  great  attraction  of  the  Exposition  was  the  enormous  steel  gun 
from  this  establishment.  This  was  210  inches  long,  14  inches  bore,  and 
weighed  50  tons.  It  is  intended  for  the  arming  of  coast  batteries  to 
defend  them  from  the  attacks  of  plated  ships.  It  required  sixteen  months’ 
work  day  and  night  to  complete  this  monster  gun. 

The  works  of  Mr.  Krupp  cover  about  450  acres,  200  of  which  are  roofed 
over.  He  employs  8,000  men,  and  2,000  more  at  the  iron  and  coal  mines. 
The  value  of  the  yearly  production  of  these  works  is  said  to  be  over 
$7,500,000. 

The  exhibition  made  by  the  Bochum  Company,  Westphalia,  is  also 
exceedingly  interesting.  Four  bells  of  cast  steel  w^eigh,  respectively, 
1,800,  4,500,  9,000,  14,750  kilograms.  The  largest  is  nearly  10  feet  in 
diameter  at  the  mouth.  This  company  also  show  a  string  of  22  car- 
av heels  all  cast  in  one  piece  connected  at  the  hub,  the  viiole  weighing 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC 


15  i 


nearly  10,000  kilograms;  and  also  tlie  cylinder  of  a  locomotive  engine 
with  steam  pipes  and  box  and  flanges,  complete  in  one  piece  of  solid  cast 
steel  as  it  came  from  the  mould. 

The  exhibitions  of  steel,  iron,  &c.,  in  the  French  department  were 
remarkably  fine  and  complete.  The  largest  ingot  of  cast  steel  weighed 
25,000  kilogram,  or  about  half  as  much  as  the  great  Krupp  ingot. 
Beautifully  finished  steel  cannon  and  fittings  were  shown  in  connection 
with  thick  armor  plates  for  ships,  some  of  which  had  been  indented 
by  pointed  shot  from  heavy  rifled  guns.  These  guns  and  steel  ingots 
were  placed  in  buildings  in  the  Park,  where  a  great  variety  of  the  pro¬ 
ducts  of  iron  and  steel  works  were  arranged  together. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  exhibits  in  the  whole  Exposition  was  the 
collection  of  ornamental  iron  castings  from  the  foundries  of  Durenne  at 
Sommevoire,  consisting  of  bas-reliefs,  busts,  statuettes,  and  figures  of 
the  size  of  life.  The  success  which  has  there  been  attained  in  the  repro¬ 
duction  of  fine  works  of  art  is  wonderful.  The  castings  are  beautifully 
smooth  and  sharp,  and  when  covered  with  copper,  by  the  galvano-plas- 
tic  process,  they  have  the  appearance  and  durability  of  bronze. 

In  the  English  section,  Messrs.  Johnson,  Matthey  &  Co.,  of  London, 
exhibited  an  extensive  collection  of  the  precious  metals,  and  of  large 
stills  made  from  platinum  for  the  use  of  manufacturers  of  sulphuric 
acid.  One  of  these  stills  was  sufficiently  capacious  to  concentrate  eight 
tons  of  acid  a  day,  and  was  valued  at  $12,500.  These  stills  are  made 
without  joints,  soldered  with  gold  as  formerly,  the  joints  having  been 
formed  by  autogenous  soldering.  There  was  also  shown  in  the  same 
case  an  ingot  of  platinum  forged  into  one  mass  large  enough  to  make  a 
five-ton  still.  The  collection  contained  many  of  the  rarest  metals,  such 
as  ruthenium,  osmium,  iridium,  &c.  The  total  value  of  the  exhibit  was 
estimated  at  $100,000. 

CLASS  41.— FOREST  PRODUCTS  AND  INDUSTRIES. 

The  collections  of  specimens  of  forest  trees,  of  timber,  boards,  and  of 
ornamental  wood,  were  very  extensive.  France,  Austria,  Canada,  Norway, 
and  Sweden,  Russia,  Brazil,  and  Australia  were  the  principal  exhibitors. 
Austria,  by  the  Administrations  of  the  forests  of  the  different  states,  sent 
the  trunks  of  oak,  fir,  pine,  and  other  trees,  with  a  great  variety  of 
planks,  boards  and  timber  for  building  purposes.  The  trunks  of  the 
large  trees  were  sawed  into  lengths  convenient  for  transportation,  and 
were  afterwards  united  upon  the  ground.  The  great  size  of  these  objects 
prevented  their  being  received  into  the  buildings,  and  they  were  placed 
in  a  group  together  in  the  Austrian  section  of  the  Park. 

The  exportation  of  Austrian  woods  is  increasing,  and  has  already 
reached  the  total  value  of  75,000,000  francs.  Full  statistics  are  given  in 
a  brochure  prepared  under  the  orders  of  the  minister  of  commerce  and 
political  economy,  and  entitled  aLes  Richesses  forest ieres  de  l’Aut riche 
et  leur  exportation”  Vienna,  18G7. 


152 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  Canadian  exhibit  attracted  much  attention  by  the  size  of  the  hewed 
timbers  of  fir  and  pine,  and  the  beauty  of  the  specimen  slabs  of  the  wal¬ 
nut,  maple,  oak,  ash  and  other  forest  trees.  This  collection  was  pre¬ 
pared  under  the  direction  of  the  Abbe  Brunet,  and  was  accompanied  by 
a  complete  descriptive  catalogue,  forming  a  pamphlet  of  64pages.  A  gold 
medal  was  awarded  by  the  jury. 

The  Brazilian  woods  were  tastefully  arranged  in  a  room,  with  the  walls 
and  ceiling  painted  in  imitation  of  the  forests  of  the  country. 

The  saw-mills  and  lumbermen  of  Norway  and  Sweden  united  in  send¬ 
ing  samples  of  their  sawed  and  planed  lumber  suitable  for  building. 
There  are  in  Norway  3,300  saw-mills,  and  the  annual  production  of  lum¬ 
ber  is  said  to  be  worth  about  $12,000,000.  The  exports  in  1865  reached 
a  value  of  45,600,000  francs — about  $9,120,000.  A  little  over  one-half  of 
these  exports  consist  of  sawed  lumber,  and  the  remainder  is  in  the 
form  of  logs  and  timbers ;  the  latter  are  sent  chiefly  to  Holland  and 
England. 

The  State  of  California  failed  to  send  the  cross-section  of  the  great 
tree  Sequoia  gigantea ,  as  proposed.  It  was  found  that  a  cross-section  of 
a  tree  30  feet  in  diameter  would  weigh  several  tons,  and  that  it  coiild  not 
possibly  be  transported  from  the  forest  in  season  for  the  exhibition. 
There  were  several  samples  of  a  beautiful  ornamental  wood  from  that 
State,  a  species  of  arbutus,  the  “madrona”  or  u  laurel,”  which  were  remark¬ 
able  for  their  beauty  of  grain.  An  ornamental  door  made  of  this  wood 
by  J.  D.  Boyd,  of  San  Francisco,  was  very  beautiful  in  this  respect,  and 
also  in  finish.  There  were  contributions  from  the  States  of  Illinois, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Wisconsin. 

FORESTS  OF  FRANCE. 

The  French  exhibition  was  beautifully  arranged  in  a  saloon  of  gallery 
V,  at  the  end  adjoining  the  main  avenue.  Sections  of  all  the  principal 
kinds  of  forest  trees  of  the  empire  were  ranged  around  the  walls,  and  the 
interspaces  were  filled  with  moss.  The  tables  in  the  centre  supported 
models  of  the  mills,  and  of  the  machines  and  tools  used  in  cutting  and 
preparing  the  timber  for  market.  The  following  general  exhibit  of  the 
extent  of  forests  of  France,  and  of  the  industries  immediately  con¬ 
nected  with  them,  was  prepared  by  the  committee  of  admission  of  the 
class,  and  is  extracted  from  the  translated  catalogue. 

u  The  objects  shown  in  this  class  fall  under  four  principal  divisions: 

ul.  Collections  and  models,  including  specimens  of  all  kinds  of  tim¬ 
ber  and  woods  indigenous  to  or  naturalized  on  the  soil  of  France ;  the 
tools,  implements  and  machines  used  in  the  forest,  and  in  the  various 
occupations  carried  on  there  ;  models  of  habitations  and  buildings,  such 
as  keepers’  lodges  and  cottages,  establishments  for  sawing,  for  the  inspec¬ 
tion  of  timber  and  other  operations ;  plans,  in  relief,  of  various  works 
executed  in  important  localities  j  the  replanting  of  the  Alps,  and  the 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC.  153 

most  remarkable  methods  employed  for  clearing  forests  situated  in  hilly 
countries  5  saw-mills,  water-mills,  &c. 

“2.  The  more  important  products  of  forest  industry,  such  as  cork, 
fibres,  tanning  materials,  charred  wood  and  charcoal. 

u3.  Timber  cut  up  and  prepared;  mouldings,  shaped  woods,  clap¬ 
boards,  staves  and  other  split  wood. 

“4.  Coarse  basket  work,  wooden-shoe  making,  &c. 

u  Amidst  these  various  products  is  exhibited  the  forest  chart  of  France, 
which  shows  in  the  most  striking  manner  the  importance  of  the  wood¬ 
lands  of  the  country,  and  the  remarkable  relation  which  exists  between 
them  and  the  geological  constitution  of  the  soil.  The  collections  of  class 
41  will  be  completed  on  the  most  interesting  manner,  by  a  series  of 
specimens  of  destructive  forest  insects,  with  a  selection  of  timber  ravaged 
by  the  fructifications  of  a  certain  number  of  exotic  conifers  which  must 
be  regarded  as  naturalized;  lastly  by  a  series  of  publications  on  practi¬ 
cal  or  scientific  questions  relating  to  sylvaculture.  The  collections  of 
transverse  sections  of  trees,  and  of  other  specimens  of  timber,  will  exhibit 
the  marvellous  productiveness  of  the  soil  of  France  in  ligneous  matters. 
The  many  kinds  of  timber  and  other  woods  will  be  represented  by  numer¬ 
ous  samples  from  various  parts  of  the  country  where  the  trees  which 
furnish  them  exist  under  the  most  varied  conditions.  The  examination 
of  these  specimens  will  show  how  the  qualities  of  the  same  species  of 
tree  vary  according  to  the  fertility  the  exposure  and  the  mineralogical 
composition  of  the  soil. 

u  The  most  important  wooded  spots  of  France  are :  in  the  north, 
the  forest  of  Fontainebleau,  17,300  hectares;1  Compiegne,  14,000;  Ram- 
bouillet,  f3,000 ;  Tillers  Gotterets,  11,500 ;  Mormal,  9,000 ;  in  the  east, 
the  forest  of  Chaux,  11,500  hectares ;  LaHarth,  14,500 ;  Hagueneau,  15,000 ; 
Dabo,  11,000 ;  Haye,  7,000 ;  Grande  Chartreuse,  6,200 ;  in  the  west,  the 
forest  of  Lyons,  10,500  hectares;  Berce  Perceigne,  10,500;  Ecouves,  7,500; 
in  the  centre  of  France,  the  forest  of  Orleans,  37,600  hectares;  Troncais, 
10,500;  Tiezron,  5,200 ;  Chateauroux,  5,100;  Bertranges  Guerigny,  5,300 ; 
in  the  south,  the  forest  of  La  Maitrise  de  Quillau,  11,000  hectares;  Soule, 
7,000;  Lannet,  5,000. 

u  The  woodlands  of  the  empire  amount  to  8,900,000  hectares,  divided  as 
follows : 

u  1.  1,100,000  hectares  belonging  to  the  state,  of  which  49  per  cent,  is  in 
timber — 539,000  hectares,  and  51  per  cent,  in  coppice,  with  or  without  tim¬ 
ber — 561,000  hectares. 

“  2.  2,200,000  hectares,  the  property  of  communes  or  of  public  establish¬ 
ments,  of  which  36  per  cent,  is  covered  with  timber — 720,000  hectares, 
and  64  per  cent,  coppice,  with  timber  or  coppice  alone — 1,280,000  hec¬ 
tares. 

u  3.  5,800,000  hectares,  the  property  of  private  owners,  in  timber,  17 
per  cent.,  980,000 ;  in  coppice,  with  or  without  timber, '4, 814, 000. 


A  hectare  is  equal  to  2  acres,  J  rood,  35  perches. 


154 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“The  annual  products  of  these  forests  are  in  the  following  proportions : 
3  for  the  state  land,  2.75  for  those  of  the  communes,  and  2  for  those 
belonging  to  private  owners,  giving  a  gross  total  of  about  20,000,000 
cubic  metres,  viz :  timber  and  working  woods,  2,000,000  cubic  metres ; 
wood  for  fuel,  18,000,000  cubic  metres. 

u  These  resources  are  on  the  increase  in  consequence  of  the  numerous 
improvements  in  management  and  of  the  construction  and  amelioration 
of  the  means  of  transport  undertaken  upon  a  large  scale  during  the  past 
ten  years  in  the  forest  lands  of  the  state  and  the  communes.  But  the 
production  is  still  far  from  sufficient  to  supply  the  demands  of  consump¬ 
tion. 

u  The  annual  consumption  in  France  is  as  follows : 
u  1.  In  timber  for  constructive  purposes  and  wood  used  in  manufactures. 
The  naval  and  mercantile  marine,  118,000  cubic  metres  ;  artillery  and 
engineering,  30,000 ;  railways,  000,000 ;  building,  1,600,000 ;  lath  wood 
and  espaliers,  &c.,  3,700,000;  river  navigation,  carriage  buildings,  furni¬ 
ture,  utensils,  &c.,  4,300,000.  Total,  10,348,000  cubic  metres. 

u  2.  Fire- wood,  30,000,000  of  steres,1  and  charcoal,  15,000,000  of  steres. 
The  consumption  thus  exceeds  the  production  by  the  following  quanti¬ 
ties  :  In  timber  and  wood  for  manufacture,  about  8,000,000  cubic  metres ; 
in  fire  wood,  15,000,000  steres.  The  balance  is  principally  drawn  from 
Norway,  Russia,  Germany,  and  Italy.  The  importation  of  common 
woods  of  all  kinds,  which  in  1855  did*  not  amount  in  value  to  70,000,000 
francs,  was  154,000,000  in  1805.  During  the  same  period  of  ten  years, 
the  importation  rose  from  less  than  9,000,000  to  31,000,000.  The  neces¬ 
sarily  restricted  limits  of  this  introduction  renders  it  impossible  to  men¬ 
tion  all  the  manufactures  in  which  wood  is  employed.  The  number  is 
very  large  and  the  entire  catalogue  of  the  exhibition  furnishes  the  most 
complete  inventory  of  the  usages  to  which  wood  is  applied.  We  shall 
pass  in  review,  successively,  the  articles  directly  connected  with  forest 
products,  and  which  are  specially  represented  in  class  41. 

CORK. 

u  Cork  is  the  substance  lying  beneath  the  true  bark  of  a  particular  kind 
of  oak,  called  the  cork-oak,  and  which  grows  principally  in  Italy,  Corsica, 
Algeria,  Spain,  and  the  south  of  France.  The  tree  begins  to  furnish  cork 
at  the  age  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years ;  but  the  first  cork  is  of  poor 
quality  and  only  fit  to  make  floats  and  other  coarse  objects,  and  Spanish 
black,  which  is  nothing  more  than  cork  burned  in  closed  vessels.  After 
the  first  layer  has  been  removed  the  cork  bark  is  deposited  with  more 
regularity,  and  then  yields  materials  fit  for  the  finer  purposes,  such  as  the 
making  of  wine  and  other  corks,  sheets,  and  other  well  known  objects 
used  for  many  purposes.  From  the  period  already  mentioned,  the  cork 
may  be  removed  from  the  tree  regularly  once  in  8  or  10  years,  and  the 
same  tree  will  yield  cork  12  or  15  times.  Raw  cork,  or  that  which  has 

1  A  stere  consists  of  35.3174  feet. 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 


155 


merely  been  rasped,  comes  principally  from  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Algeria.  Spain  supplies  nearly  the  whole  of  the  manufactured  cork  of 
commerce.  Seville  is  the  most  important  entrepot  of  this  product.  Its 
principal  application  is  in  the  making  of  bottle  corks ;  but  floats  and  a 
thousand  small  articles,  in  which  lightness  is  a  necessity,  are  also  made 
of  the  same  materials.  The  importations  into  France  were,  in  1855,  532J 
tons,  of  the  total  value  of  about  257,224  francs.  In  18G5,  they  had  risen 
to  3,855J  tons,  of  the  value  of  2,502,696  francs.  The  export  amounted 
to  169J  tons  in  1855,  and  in  1865  had  risen  to  1,319J  tons,  of  the  value  of 
1,236,900  francs. 

CHARCOAL. 

u  Charcoal  is  the  result  of  the  slow  and  imperfect  combustion  of  wood. 
It  is  manufactured  in  two  different  methods.  The  first  and  most  general 
is  that  which  is  practiced  in  the  forest  itself  in  mounds  or  stacks  con¬ 
taining  from  40  to  50  steres.  This  process  yields  hard,  sonorous  charcoal, 
which  lights  with  difficulty,  but  which,  once  in  a  state  of  ignition,  gives 
great  heat  and  burns  for  a  considerable  time.  The  second  process  con¬ 
sists  in  distilling  the  wood  in  closed  retorts ;  but  the  charcoal  thus  obtained 
has  not  the  qualities  of  the  former.  It  is  friable,  very  light,  very  porous, 
and  highly  inflammable.  The  quality  of  the  charcoal  (valued  according 
to  its  density)  corresponds  pretty  closely  with  that  of  the  wood  from 
which  it  is  made.  The  method  of  burning,  whether  fast  or  slow,  the  age 
of  the  wood,  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  the  tree  grew,  all  affect  the 
quality  and  weight  of  the  charcoal.  Charcoal-making  is  the  object  of  an 
extensive  industry  in  many  European  countries.  In  France  it  employs 
a  great  nrnnber  of  workmen,  who  sometimes  pass  whole  years  in  the 
forest.  Still  our  production  is  not  equal  to  the  demand,  and  from  150,000 
to  200,000  cubic  metres  of  charcoal  are  imported  annually  from  Belgium, 
Germany,  and  Italy.  In  1856  the  imports  were  204  tons,  of  the  total 
value  of  3,670,128  francs.  In  1865  they  had  fallen  to.  151  tons  and 
2,876,000  francs.  In  the  same  period  of  10  years  the  exports  grew  from 
1,209  tons,  of  the  value  of  108,800  francs,  to  6,698  tons  and  602,800  francs. 

TANNING  BARKS. 

u  This  expression  is  applied  generally  to  the  bark  of  indigenous  trees  used 
in  the  tanning  of  hides  and  skins.  Such  bark  is  furnished  by  the  oak ,  beech , 
chestnut,  willow,  white  birch,  and  fir  trees.  The  departments  of  Ardennes, 
Moselle,  Meuse,  Meurtlie,  Bas-Bhin,  Mevre,  Yonne,  Saone-et-Loire,  Cote- 
d’Or,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  Deux  Sevres,  Gironde,  Yaucluse,  Herault,  Bouches- 
du-Bhofie,  Var,  and  Corsica,  supply  nearly  all  the  bark  for  the  tanner’s  pur¬ 
poses.  The  last  named  departments,  especially,  supply  oak  bark,  which 
is  almost  entirely  consumed  in  the  neighborhood.  Algeria  now  furnishes 
considerable  quantities  of  tanning  bark,  which  is  exported,  and  ol  which 
France  alone  consumes  annually  about  2,500  tons.  In  1865  the  importa¬ 
tion  of  tanning  bark  into  France  amounted  to  7,678  tons,  of  the  total 


156 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


value  of  930,000  francs.  In  tlie  same  years  the  exportation  was  15,900 
tons,  valued  at  1,900,000  francs.  In  1855  the  import  was  only  2,216  tons, 
and  the  export  558  tons. 

RESINS. 

“  The  maritime  pine  tree  is  the  only  tree  in  France  from  which  resin  is 
extracted.  The  cultivation  of  this  tree  constitutes  the  principal,  if  not 
the  only,  wealth  of  the  district  lying  between  Bordeaux  and  Bayonne. 
According  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  pine  is  tapped  for  resin  between 
the  ages  of  20  and  40  years.  The  operation  consists  in  making  long  incisions 
in  the  trunk,  whence  the  resin  exudes  and  is  collected  in  various  ways. 
The  natural  results  of  bleeding  the  pine  trees,  are  :  the  soft  gum  or  resin, 
which  by  distillation  yields  turpentine ;  the  galipots,  an  almost  solid 
substance,  which,  by  means  of  evaporation,  forms  in  stalactites  all  down 
the  tree ;  the  crottas,  a  mixture  of  the  two  former  products ;  the  barras, 
which  are  the  galipots  entirely  dry  and  adhering  to  the  tree.  A  pine 
tree  60  to  70  years  old  furnishes,  on  the  average,  about  six  or  eight 
kilograms  of  raw  material,  of  which  about  one-third  is  galipots  and 
barras.  The  American  war  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  resin  trade.  The 
following  statistics  will  give  an  idea  of  the  results  in  1855.  The  exports 
of  French  resins  did  not  amount  to  more  than  4,133  tons,  of  the  total 
value  of  2,250,000  francs.  In  1865  they  had  risen  to  the  enormous  total 
of  5,250  tons,  worth  27,200,000  francs.  The  importations  amounted  in 
1865  to  2,960  tons,  of  the  value  of  2,400,000  francs. 

BASKET-MAKING. 

u  Coarse  basket-work,  which  alone  is  included  in  class  41,  includes 
bakers’  baskets,  hampers,  hottes  or  creels,  &c.  The  osier  is  the  chief  mater¬ 
ial  used  in  this  trade,  which  is  principally  exercised  in  the  valleys,  of  Yer, 
Aubeatoii  and  Hirson,  in  the  Aisne,  where  osiers  grow  in  large  quantities. 
In  the  arrondissement  of  Vervins  alone  there  are  3,000  families  engaged 
in  basket-making,  who  produce  more  than  2,500,000  francs’  worth  per 
annum,  and  of  which  two-thirds  are  exported  to  England  and  America. 
The  importations  amounted  in  1855  to  105  tons,  of  a  total  value  of  321,000 
francs,  and  in  1865  only  to  59  tons,  of  the  value  of  53,000  francs.  The 
importation  of  osiers  in  bundles,  which  in  1855  was  105  tons,  had  risen 
in  1865  to  180  tons,  of  the  value  of  22,000  francs.  The  exports  grew  in 
the  same  period  from  59  tons  to  1,700  tons,  the  value  of  the  last-named 
total  being  estimated  at  370,000  francs. 

COOPERING. 

“Class  41  includes  the  works  of  the  cooper,  but  the  dimensions  of  the 
articles  exhibited  precluded  their  admission  within  the  building,  and 
they  were  placed  beneath  a  shed  in  the  Park.  This  annexe  contained 
a  vat  and  various  specimens  of  cooperage  from  different  localities.  The 
wood  employed  in  this  manufacture  is  called  merrain ;  that  is  to  say,  oak 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 


157 


or  other  wood  split,  according  to  the  natural  grain  of  the  tree,  into  planks 
of  various  sizes,  by  means  of  a  special  tool,  called  a  coulter.  Merrains 
are  produced  of  all  dimensions,  from  8  to  117  inches  in  length,  from  3 
to  10  inches  wide,  and  from  one-eiglith  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

“The  chief  places  of  production  are  Germany,  Russia,  Turkey,  and  the 
United  States.  The  exports  of  the  last-named  country  supply  the  greater 
part  of  the  European  cooperage.  The  best  woods  for  making  merrains 
are  oak  and  chestnut.  In  Languedoc  they  also  employ  the  white  mul¬ 
berry. 

“The  importation  of  merrains  amounted  in  1855  to  15,600,000  pieces, 
estimated  at  the  value  of  10,900,000  francs.-  In  1865  it  had  grown  to 
37,000,000  pieces,  and  26,300,000  francs.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  split 
wood  imported  into  France  is  consumed  in  the  country.  The  total 
exports  in  1865  only  amounted  to  630,000  pieces,  of  the  value  of  390,000 
francs.” 

CLASS  42.— PRODUCTS  OF  THE  CHASE  AND  FISHERIES— 
UNCULTIVATED  PRODUCTS. 

(REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  ADMISSION  FOR  FRANCE.) 

“  This  class  includes  a  large  number  of  natural  products,  having  under¬ 
gone  but  slight  preparation.  It  also  comprehends  skins  and  furs,  which 
represent  a  very  complicated  trade,  and  demands,  particularly  for  the 
made-up  furs,  much  special  knowledge,  a  great  deal  of  taste,  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  that  creative  power  peculiar  to  the  Parisian  manufac¬ 
turers  in  matters  of  dress  and  furniture. 

“  The  natural  products  belonging  to  class  42,  and  which  demand  but 
slight  preparation,  are  elephant  and  hippopotamus  teeth,  sponged  tor¬ 
toise-shell,  mother-of-pearl,  horse  hair,  the  various  kinds  of  hair  employed 
in  hat-making,  fish  oils,  and  collections  of  dried  plants.  We  must  also 
mention  the  collections  of  stuffed  animals,  for  the  study  of  natural  his¬ 
tory,  the  preparation  of  which  belongs  both  to  the  domains  of  art  and 
science.  As  to  the  trade  in  and  preparation  of  skins,  and  the  making 
up  of  furs,  we  think  it  necessary  to  make  it  the  object  of  a  special 
notice ;  because  this  kind  of  a  product  represents  not  only  a  considerable 
trade,  but  also  a  very  difficult  branch  of  industry  on  account  of  the  dye¬ 
ing  and  making  up  of  the  skins. 


FURS. 

“Paris first,  and  Lyons  next,  are  the  principal  centres  of  commerce  for 
skins  and  made-up  furs.  These  articles  are  employed  both  for  dress  and 
domestic  use.  Of  furs  are  made  muffs,  cloaks,  tippets,  coat  collars,  boas, 
cuffs,  pelisses,  carpets,  cushions,  trimmings  for  dresses,  foot  muffs  for 
carriages,  &c.  The  Parisian  trade  employs  the  most  beautiful,  as  well 
as  the  most  ordinary  skins — from  the  rarest  kinds  of  sable  down  to 


158 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


glossy  rabbit  skins,  of  lowest  price.  Articles  of  fnr  are  also  made  with 
swan,  grebe,  and  goose  skins.  The  trade  of  clipping  hair  for  hat-mak¬ 
ing  also  brings  into  use  rabbit  and  hair  skins.  It  is  in  Paris  that  arti¬ 
cles  in  fur  for  dress  and  furnishing  are  most  exquisitely  made  up.  The 
various  operations  that  skins  are  submitted  to  are — firstly,  dressing, 
glossing,  and  dyeing.  These  preparations  are  done  by  special  workmen, 
who  work  by  the  piece.  When  the  skins  arrive  at  the  shops  they  have 
undergone  no  preparation  whatever.  They  are  dyed  with  the  brush  or 
in  the  vat  when  the  skin  is  to  be  dyed  also.  The  number  of  women 
employed  in  the  trade  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  men.  The  workmen 
are  divided  into  dressers,  glossers,  fullers,  cleaners,  and  cutters;  the 
women  are  seamstresses  and  mounters.  The  salaries  of  the  men  vary 
from  G  to  7  francs ;  those  of  the  women  from  3  francs  to  3  francs  50  cen¬ 
times  daily. 

“The  fur  trade  in  France  includes  three  classes  of  dealers :  1.  The  col- 
orers  of  skins;  2.  Wholesale  skin  and  fur  merchants;  3.  Furriers  or 
makers-up  of  furs. 

“The  price  of  furs  varies  to  infinity — from  the  rabbit  skin,  worth  about 
50  centimes,  to  the  Siberian  sable  skin,  the  price  of  which  rises  to  500 
francs.  The  greater  part  of  the  best  furs  are  sold  in  Paris;  the  rest  are 
bought  in  the  departments  and  abroad. 

“Paris  possesses  about  30  hair-clipping  establishments,  which  produce 
annually  material  amounting  in  value  to  20,000,000  francs.  The  horse¬ 
hair  trade  is  also  very  important,  and  gives  rise  to  a  considerable  move¬ 
ment. 

“A  large  amount  of  business  is  also  done  in  sponges.  The  dealers  who 
are  engaged  in  this  branch  of  trade  are  at  once  fishers,  importers,  and 
cleaners  of  sponges.  The  preparations  to  which  sponges  are  submitted 
increase  their  value  from  six  to  eight  per  cent. 

“It  is  difficult  to  state  precisely  the  value  of  the  furs  made  up  in 
France ;  but  it  is  very  considerable.  It  is  believed  to  attain,  in  Paris 
alone,  the  sum  of  20,000,000  francs,  including  the  sale  of  glossy  rabbit 
skins.  About  5,000,000  worth  of  the  total  is  delivered  for  exportation. 

“  Since  1855  the  fur  trade  has  developed  to  a  considerable  extent.  This 
flourishing  condition  is  due  to  the  fur  dealers  of  Paris,  who  are  inces¬ 
santly  creating  new  patterns  in  all  kinds  of  new  made-up  articles  in  fur, 
and  who  have  thus  maintained  that  supremacy  in  taste  and  design  which 
have  so  long  been  accorded  to  France  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  arti¬ 
cles  of  dress  and  fashionable  requisites. 

“There  were  about  750  exhibitors  in  this  class,  displaying  naturally  a 
vast  and  heterogeneous  mass  of  objects.  Although  many  of  these  arti¬ 
cles  were  of  the  highest  interest  in  a  philosophical,  geographical,  and 
social  point  of  view,  they  were  not  of  a  nature  to  require  much  descrip¬ 
tion.  Furs  of  all  sorts  were,  from  their  value  and  beauty,  the  principal 
attraction  of  the  class.  There  was  a  fine  collection  from  the  French 
colonial  possessions  in  Hew  Caledonia,  Guadaloupe,  Caboon,  &c.  The 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 


159 


raw  industrial  products  of  these  little-known  regions  were  shown  with 
great  taste  and  skill.  But  of  the  finest  sorts  of  furs  there  were  hardly 
any  important  specimens.  The  material  is  so  easily  damaged  by  dust 
that  manufacturers  hesitate  to  expose  their  better  classes  of  goods.  The 
French  exhibitors,  who  had  less  to  risk  in  the  way  of  transportation  than 
any  other  nation,  made  the  best  display.  The  taste  of  tlipir  work  and 
the  labor  bestowed  upon  it  left  nothing  to  be  desired.  A  grebe  mantle, 
of  extraordinary  workmanship,  was  v  exhibited  by  Mr.  Delmar,  of 
Paris.  Each  single  feather  was  sewed  in  separately  on  a  basis  of  silk,  the 
darker  feathers  being  formed  into  patterns  of  wreaths  round  the  skirt. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  novelties,  or  rather  revivals  of  a  method 
which  was  in  use  many  years  ago,  was  the  galonnement  of  furs.  Some 
of  the  finest  and  most  expensive  furs,  especially  those  from  northern 
regions,  such  as  the  sable  and  the  silver  fox,  are  almost  too  close  and 
heavy  in  the  original  state  of  the  skin.  To  obviate  this,  the  pelt  is  cut 
up  into  strips  about  a  third  of  an  inch  in  width,  and  between  tAvo  of 
these  is  inserted  a  strip  of  equal  Avidth  of  silk.  The  strips  are  carefully 
matched  in  color  and  united  with  the  greatest  dexterity,  so  that  the  fur 
completely  closes  over  the  seam.  A  fabric  is  thus  produced  more  open, 
light,  and  better  toned  than  the  original  skin,  AAdiile  the  latter  is  econo¬ 
mized  by  the  substitution  of  silk  for  a  portion  of  the  fabric.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  articles  thus  made  are  more  wholesome  and  much 
cheaper. 

“Russia  had  a  fine  assortment  of  furs;  but,  for  the  reasons  already 
given,  it  Avas,  except  perhaps  in  individual  specimens,  inferior  to  that 
exhibited  in  the  French  court. 

“Messrs.  Gunther,  of  New  York,  exhibited  some  fine  specimens  of 
North  American  furs  and  a  collection  of  fur-bearing  animals,  very  well 
prepared. 

“The  fleeces  of  rabbits  and  hares,  used  by  hatters,  made  a  large  dis¬ 
play.  They  are  shorn  and  prepared  with  great  skill.  Up  to  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  present  century  hatters  prepared  the  materials  of  their  man¬ 
ufactures,  from  the  crude  skins,  on  their  own  premises.  About  the  year 
1826,  owing  to  the  steadily-increasing  demand,  the  process  of  cutting 
and  preparing  the  fleeces  for  making  the  felt  was  separated  into  a  dis¬ 
tinct  trade.  The  material  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  soft 
hats. 

“  The  increasing  scarcity  of  whalebone  has  led  to  many  interesting 
experiments  in  the  way  of  proA7iding  a  substitute.  Buffalo’s  horn  seems 
to  answer  the  purpose  satisfactorily.  From  the  close  similarity  in  the 
structure  of  the  two  substances  there  seems  to  be  no  reasons  why  this 
substitute  should  not  answer  most  of  the  purposes  to  which  AA  halebone 
is  now  applied.  The  horns,  after  undergoing  a  special  process,  are  cut 
into  strips,  which  are  compressed  and  straightened  and  rendered  suita¬ 
ble  to  every  purpose  of  the  dress  makers’  art.  There  is  another  imita¬ 
tion  of  whalebone  in  compressed  cane,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  answer 
the  purpose  so  successfully.” 


160 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


CLASS  43.— AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS,  NOT  USED  AS  FOOD, 
EASILY  PRESERVED. 

Many,  indeed  most  of  tlie  articles  referred  to  in  the  following  and  suc¬ 
ceeding  classes  of  this  group,  have  been  or  will  be  referred  to  under  other 
heads.  We. continue  to  quote  from  the  catalogue  simply  because  the 
particulars  are  interesting  and  late : 

OLIVE  OIL. 

“The  most  important  article  in  class  43  was  the  oil  derived  from  all 
sources.  Oil,  in  some  way  or  other,  plays  a  most  important  part  in  the 
domestic  economy  of  Europe.  It  is  not  only  the  source  of  light,  but,  to 
a  great  extent,  of  life  itself.  A  large  portion  of  southern  Europe  would 
perish  were  the  olive  crop  to  fail. 

“Oils  are  obtained  from  an  immense  variety  of  nuts, grains,  fishes,  and 
minerals.  All  these  are  more  or  less  edible,  but  real  olive  oil  is  the  one 
which  most  readily  agrees  with  sensitive  stomachs,  and  which,  for  cen¬ 
turies,  has  partly  taken  the  place  of  meat  and  butter  with  large  and 
intelligent  populations. 

“The  range  within  which  the  olive  grows  corresponds  with  the  zone 
within  which  maize  and  rice  can  be  cultivated.  It  is  much  more  con¬ 
fined  than  that  of  the  cereals.  Its  northern  limit  may  be  roughly  placed 
in  the  most  southern  provinces  of  France,  and  it  does  not  extend  far 
into  the  interior  of  Africa.  Spain,  Italy,  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  and  the  Greek  archipelago,  are  the  most  civilized  places  where 
it  flourishes.  Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  and  the  whole  northern  coast  of 
Africa  from  Morocco  to  the  borders  of  Egypt,  are  covered  with  it. 

“  The  olive  requires  but  little  attention,  and  is  content  with  a  poor,  stony 
soil.  This  hardiness  is  rewarded  by  long  life.  Olive  trees  live  far  beyond 
the  memory  of  man,  and  some  indeed  pass  the  ordinary  limits  of  tradi¬ 
tion.  At  Pescio,  in  Italy,  there  is  a  tree  which  can  be  proved,  histori¬ 
cally,  to  be  more  than  700  years  old;  and  the  trees  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  if  not  those  that  witnessed  the  Passion,  are  at  least  the  sprouts 
from  their  roots.  Olive  trees  grow  hollow  as  they  grow  old,  the  trunk 
splitting  into  fantastically-shaped  masses,  which  unite  higher  up.  To 
support  them  it  is  often  found  necessary  to  fill  up  the  interstices  and 
build  up  the  trunk  with  stones. 

“The  best  olive  oil  is  that  of  Lucca  and  Tuscany.  The  province  oil, 
known  as  the  oil  of  Aix  of  commerce,  is  the  most  esteemed  for  the  table. 
It  owes  all  its  merits  to  the  admirable  manipulation  of  the  manufactur¬ 
ers,  for  the  olives  which  yield  it  are  the  poorest  of  any  country. 

SEEDS,  FLAX,  HEMP,  AND  WOOL. 

“Class  43  comprehends  an  immense  variety  of  products,  for,  with  the 
exception  of  cereals,  fruits,  cattle,  and  forest  produce,  it  represents  the 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC.  161 

whole  of  the  productions  of  the  soil.  All  these  can,  nevertheless,  be 
arranged  in  11  principal  series: 

“1.  Seeds,  which  include  the  collections  of  the  various  seeds  employed 
in  agriculture  and  horticulture.  2.  Textile  materials  of  vegetable  origin, 
and  principally  flax  and  hemp.  3.  Wool  in  the  fleece,  washed  and 
unwashed.  4.  Cocoons  of  the  various  kinds,  of  silk-worms  and  raw 
silk.  5.  Tobacco  in  the  leaf  or  prepared,  for  the  various  uses  of  consump¬ 
tion.  G.  Hops.  7.  Plants  for  forage.  8.  Oils  of  all  kinds.  9.  Honey 
and  wax.  10.  The  various  agricultural  products  employed  in  trade, 
such  as  the  dyestuffs  and  the  different  plants  which  supply  materials 
applicable  to  the  arts  and  manufactures.  11.  The  mass  of  products 
which  exhibit  the  progress  and  condition  of  the  rural  and  agricultural 
industry  of  a  district. 

“  The  trade  of  seeds  for  sowing  is  becoming  more  and  more  important 
in  France.  On  one  hand,  the  agriculturists  pay  greater  attention  to  pro¬ 
curing  varieties  remarkable  for  certain  qualities  $  and  on  the  other,  the 
taste  for  horticulture  is  increasing  every  day.  Some  houses  have 
acquired  a  European  reputation  for  the  care  given  to  the  selection  of 
seeds,  and  many  establishments  have  cultivated  largely,  exclusively 
with  a  view  to  produce  seeds  of  first-rate  quality. 

“Flax  and  hemp  are  the  two  plants  most  cultivated  in  France  for  the 
manufacture  of  stuffs.  The  cultivation  of  flax  especially,  favored  by  the 
dearness  of  cotton,  has  increased,  during  the  last  few  years,  to  a  large 
extent.  The  principal  centres  of  production  are  Flanders,  Picardy, 
Normandy,  and  Brittany.  Hemp  continues  to  be  cultivated  not  only 
wherever  flax  is  grown,  but  also  in  several  other  provinces  of  the  centre 
of  France,  and  particularly  in  Touraine.  The  process  of  retting  in  rum 
ning  water  is  almost  abandoned  for  retting  on  the  spot.  Inventors  con¬ 
tinue  to  occupy  themselves  in  discovering  new  processes  of  retting,  and 
trials  on  a  large  scale  have  shown  that  the  problem  is,  to  say  the  least, 
about  to  be  solved.  Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  cultivate  cotton. 
Various  interesting  experiments  have  given  rather  remarkable  results. 

“Wool,  in  spite  of  foreign  competition,  which,  during  the  last  10  years, 
has  lowered  the  average  prices,  continues  to  be  one  of  the  great  products 
of  agriculture.  Strenuous  endeavors  have  been  made  to  increase  the 
weight  of  the  fleeces ;  and  to  accomplish  this  object  without  deteriorating 
the  quality  of  the  meat,  or  the  abundance  of  the  wool,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  maintain  an  average  strength  and  length  of  the  staple.  The 
improved  merino  race  is  in  the  highest  repute  in  France.  Chatillonais, 
Brie,  Beauce,  and  Soissonais  have  even  supplied  breeders  for  all  parts  of 
the  world.  The  Rambouillet  type  is  in  demand  everywhere.  The  wools 
of  Naz  and  Mauchamp,  also,  still  occupy  the  attention  of  the  breeders. 
The  exhibition  of  French  wool  deserves  the  notice  of  visitors,  by  reason 
of  the  numberless  efforts  which  have  been  made  to  improve  tills  branch 
of  industry. 

Hue 


162 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“  The  silk  producers  have  suffered  terribly  in  France  during  the  last  12 
years.  In  the  principal  departments,  where  the  culture  of  the  mulberry 
was  a  source  of  considerable  wealth,  general  desolation  reigns ;  however, 
many  efforts,  some  of  which  have  been  successful,  have  been  made  to 
produce  eggs  which  will  yield  worms  capable  of  resisting  the  disease. 
The  small  establishments,  and  particularly  those  situated  in  districts 
where  the  culture  of  the  mulberry  tree  is  not  very  extensive,  have  for¬ 
tunately  not  suffered  from  the  ravages  of  the  epidemic.  Lastly,  efforts 
to  secure  the  acclimation  of  other  silk- worms  than  those  indigenous  to  the 
ordinary  mulberry  districts  have  been,  in  most  cases,  successful.” 

TOBACCO  AND  HOPS. 

“  The  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  tobacco  has  followed,  step  by  step, 
the  constantly  increasing  consumption  in  France.  The  cultivation  is  now 
pursued  in  18  departments,  as  well  as  in  Algeria.  The  directors  of  the 
state  manufactories  exhibit  specimens  of  the  material  grown  in  these 
localities;  and  they  show  also  many  varieties  of  tobacco  in  the  vari¬ 
ous  stages  of  vegetation.  Out  of  36,000  tons  used  in  the  state  manu¬ 
factories,  23,000  to  24,000  tons  are  of  indigenous  growth,  and  the  rest  is 
imported  from  abroad.  The  17  tobacco  manufactories  actually  in  work 
employ  about  17,000  work-people,  of  whom  from  14,000  to  15,000  are  women. 
Few  manufacturing  industries  supply  women  relatively  with  so  much 
work.  There  are,  besides,  up  wards  of  2,000  persons,  of  whom  more  than 
half  are  women,  employed  in  the  tobacco-growing  establishments.  There 
are  also  manufactured  in  France  snuffs  of  every  description ;  tobacco  for 
chewing;  smoking  tobacco,  called  tiscaferlate ;  tobacco  in  rolls;  cigars 
made  of  Havana  tobacco;  cigars  sold  at  10  centimes  and  called 
etr angers;  five-centime  cigars,  called  ordinaires;  and  cigarettes  of  all 
kinds.  These  establishments  also  sell  cigars  imported  from  Havana, 
Manilla  cigars,  cigarettes,  and  other  articles  in  great  demand  by  the 
trade.  The  refuse  tobacco,  which  is  applicable  to  agriculture,  consists  of 
the  waste  and  ashes.  The  directors  of  the  state  manufactories  also 
exhibit  all  the  various  products  which  can  be  extracted  from  tobacco. 

“The  cultivation  of  hops  increases  in  France,  particularly  in  the  north 
and  in  Alsace  ;  it  had  successively  spread  into  several  other  regions,  and 
has  acquired  a  certain  importance  in  Burgundy.  The  qualities  of  the 
French  hop  begin  to  be  appreciated  in  the  most  important  centres  of 
consumption. 

“The  evident  necessity  for  a  continual  increase  in  the  supply  of  animal 
food  has  led  to  a  large  extension  in  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  fodder. 
Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  new  plants,  or  at  any 
rate  better  varieties  of  plants  under  cultivation.  Instead  of  leaving  the 
meadows  to  themselves,  they  are  now  cultivated,  dressed  with  manure, 
and  sown  with  selected  seeds.  Important  improvements  have  also  been 
introduced  in  the  gathering  and  in  the  mode  of  preserving  fodder. 

“The  cultivation  of  oleaginous  plants  has  also  considerably  increased 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 


163 


during  the  last  12  years,  the  farmers  appreciating  more  and  more  the 
importance  of  cultivating  some  industrial  crops  side  by  side  with  cereal 
and  garden  crops.  The  progress  of  industry,  as  well  as  the  general 
advance  of  civilization,  tends  moreover  to  augment  the  demand  for  oils 
of  various  qualities.  A  special  exhibition  of  oils  offers  a  particular 
interest;  analogous  therewith  will  be  found  colza  oils,  linseed  oils,  red 
poppy  oils,  nut  oils,  &c.,  from  the  superfine  oils  used  in  horology  to  the 
coarsest  oils  employed  for  the  lubrication  of  machines  and  the  manufacture 
of  common  soap.” 

AGRICULTURE  IN  FRANCE. 

“The  taste  for  agriculture  is  gradually  diffusing  itself  throughout  the 
country.  Great  care  is  bestowed  on  beehives,  so  as  to  multiply  the 
swarms,  and  insure  a  much  larger  quantity  and  better  quality  of  wax  than 
formerly.  France  produces  plants  of  the  most  various  perfumes,  and 
others  which  give  most  brilliant  and  durable  colors.  Besides  the  aro¬ 
matic  and  dyeing  plants,  are  to  be  found  those  used  for  pharmaceutical 
and  tanning  purposes.  The  researches  for  plants  capable  of  yielding 
fibres  suitable  for  paper-making  occupy  the  attention  of  scientific  men ; 
and  from  this  point  of  view  these  various  agricultural  products  deserve 
attention.  Rural  cultivation  produces  almost  every  description  of  crop, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  to  properly  appreciate  a  system  of  cultivation  by 
a  single  product ;  the  whole  must  be  examined.  For  this  reason  many 
eminent  agriculturists  have  exhibited  collections  of  the  plants  which  their 
lands  yield,  as  well  as  some  products  of  their  cattle-sheds  and  poultry- 
yards.  Moreover,  in  many  cases,  rural  trades  are  so  essentially  and 
peculiarly  associated  with  the  culture  of  the  land,  that  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  special  method  of  cultivation  in 
its  various  phases ;  and  it  is  only  in  collecting  all  the  products  of  a  district 
that  its  riches,  its  fertility,  and  the  results  arising  from  the  labor  expended, 
can  be  fully  appreciated.  With  this  object  several  agricultural  societies, 
committees,  and  other  associations,  were  desirous  of  sending  collective 
exhibitions.  In  studying  these  exhibitions  it  will  be  seen  what  differences 
are  presented  by  the  various  localities  of  the  three  great  agricultural 
circles.  During  the  last  12  years  evident  progress  has  been  made  in 
every  district  of  France.  The  agricultural  produce  of  France  has  cer¬ 
tainly  increased,  on  an  average,  fully  one-tentli,  in  spite  of  the  difficulties 
which  have  resulted  from  the  advance  in  wages,  and  from  capitalists  quit¬ 
ting  rural  enterprises  and  devoting  themselves  to  industrial  and  commer¬ 
cial  speculations.  Agriculture  demands,  moreover,  a  supply  of  manure 
equivalent  to  the  amount  of  its  cultivated  produce;  in  proportion  as  its 
products  iucrease  it  needs  larger  quantities  of  fertilizing  materials.  The 
multiplication  of  rapid  and  cheap  means  of  transport  has  at  last  favored 
these  objects,  and  gives  more  activity  to  rural  occupations.” 


164 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


CLASS  44.— CHEMICAL  AND  PHARMACEUTICAL  PRODUCTS. 

“Under  tlie  general  appellation  of  chemical  products,  class  44  comprises 
almost  every  mineral  and  vegetable  matter  which  chemistry  has  been 
instrumental  in  transforming  and  adapting  to  the  use  of  the  various 
branches  of  industry.  Generally  these  products  are  manufactured  entirely 
in  the  laboratory ;  but  sometimes  they  are  simply  extracted  from  natural 
substances,  in  which  they  exist  ready  formed.  Chemical  products  fur¬ 
nish  to  a  great  number  of  other  industries  the  material  necessary  for  their 
existence  and  working ;  consequently  a  new  discovery  or  a  remarkable 
improvement  is  a  fact  of  importance  of  which  the  tributary  trades  should 
take  special  note. 

“  Chemical  works  are  distributed  in  various  departments  of  France, 
according  to  the  convenience  or  locality  of  the  proximity  of  the  mate¬ 
rials  for  manufacture.  They  form  an  important  branch  of  commerce  in 
Paris,  Lille,  Marseilles,  Lyons,  and  Rouen ;  but  St.  Gobain,  Bouxvillier, 
Dieuze,  Thann,  the  island  of  Carmargue,  and  the  coast  of  Brittany,  pos¬ 
sess  establishments  which  are  not  surpassed  in  importance  by  those  of 
any  of  the  great  towns.  The  aggregate  trade  in  these  productions  rep¬ 
resents  an  annual  value  of  1,200,000,000  francs,  (£48,000,000.)  The  man¬ 
ufacturers  of  sulphuric  acid,  soda,  soap,  and  stearine  candles  alone  give 
circulation  to  600,000,000  francs;  and  if  to  these  be  added  dyestuffs, 
products  applied  to  the  bleaching  of  tissues,  paper-making,  painting, 
glass  manufacture,  calico  and  other  printing,  to  manuring  purposes, 
electro-metallurgy,  photography,  the  gilding  and  silvering  of  metals,  &c., 
the  estimate  of  1,200,000,000  francs  will  be  a  moderate  one.  The  exports 
amounted,  in  the  year  1863,  to  53,000,000  francs. 

“The  workmen  employed  in  these  manufactures  work  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  foremen  or  superintendents.  In  order  to  carry  on  such  opera¬ 
tions  with  economy,  large  premises  are  required,  as  well  as  special  build¬ 
ings  and  costly  apparatus,  and  consequently  an  expenditure  of  capital 
which  excludes  smaR  undertakings.  Nevertheless,  some  workmen,  hav¬ 
ing  special  manipulative  powers,  have  succeeded  in  manufacturing  certain 
products  more  advantageously  than  the  large  factories ;  this,  however, 
is  the  exception  to  the  rule.  The  improvements  which  have  taken  place 
in  chemical  manufactures  since  1862  are :  The  invention  of  new  coloring 
matters,  obtained  from  toluidine  and  methylic  aniline,  and,  consequently, 
an  improvement  in  the  quality  and  the  reduction  in  the  price  of  colors  then 
exhibited  in  London ;  the  conversion  of  naphthaline  into  benzoic  acid,  a 
substance  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  :  and  the  commercial  pro¬ 
duction  of  magnesium,  now  so  usefully  employed  as  a  means  of  illumina¬ 
tion  in  photography.  But  the  fact  which  merits  the  greatest  attention 
is  the  large  increase  in  the  production  of  chemical  matters — a  certain 
sign  of  progression  in  all  other  branches  of  industry.  If  we  take  into 
consideration  the  extent  and  value  of  the  service  of  chemical  science,  it 
would  appear  advisable,  in  order  to  maintain  France  in  the  industrial 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 


165 


rank  which  she  occupies,  to  give  greater  development  to  practical  instruc¬ 
tion  in  this  science,  either  by  increasing  the  resources  of  the  laboratory 
established  by  the  initiative  of  his  excellency  Mr.  Duruy,  and  conducted 
at  the  Museum  of  Natural  Sciences  (‘Jar  din  des  Plantes’)  by  Mr.  Fremy, 
member  of  the  Institute  of  France,  or  by  the  creation  of  similar  establish¬ 
ments  in  all  the  great  industrial  centres  of  France.  In  Prussia  the  fact 
that  theoretical  teaching  is  insufficient  to  make  good  chemists  has  been 
so  thoroughly  recognized  that  immense  laboratories  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  where  pupils  are  instructed  in  those  practical 
experiments  without  which  theory  remains  fruitless.  The  interest  which 
attaches  to  pharmaceutical  products  is  somewhat  dwarfed  by  that  which 
is  created  by  commercial  chemical  products.  It  is  true  that  in  pharmacy 
progress  is  slow,  especially  under  a  system  of  excessive  restrictions, 
which  practically  sets  aside  individual  action.  When  the  apothecary 
has  once  given  a  guarantee  of  his  practical  knowledge  by  submitting  to 
the  examinations  for  his  diploma,  he  has  a  full  claim  to  liberty  of  action 
in  the  commercial  exercise  of  his  profession.  Such  a  new  state  of  things 
would  certainly  give  a  great  impulse  to  the  importation  of  French  medi¬ 
cal  preparations,  which  are  highly  esteemed  in  the  commercial  world.” 

[Signed  by  Menier  and  Forbade,  members  of  the  admission  committee.] 

CLASS  45.— SPECIMENS  OF  THE  CHEMICAL  PROCESSES  FOR 
BLEACHING,  DYEING,  PRINTING,  AND  DRESSING. 

I.  The  products  exhibited  in  this  class  and  in  the  five  classes  belong¬ 
ing  to  Group  IY — class  27,  cottons ;  28,  flax  and  hemp ;  29,  woollens ; 
30,  cloths ;  and  31,  silks — are:  1.  Wool  in  the  fleece,  washed  and  dyed, 
for  the  manufacture  of  cloths ;  2.  Combed  and  carded  woollen  yarn, 
bleached  and  dyed,  for  the  manufacture  of  shawls  and  garments,  and 
furniture  stuffs ;  3.  Cotton,  linen,  hempen,  and  other  yarns,  bleached, 
dyed,  and  dressed ;  4.  Silk  yarn,  bleached  and  dyed  ;  5.  Cotton,  linen, 
and  hempen  tissues,  plain  and  figured,  bleached  for  printing,  or  bleached 
and  dressed ;  6.  The  same  tissues,  dyed  and  dressed ;  7.  Mixed  and  un¬ 
mixed  woollen  tissues,  dyed  and  dressed ;  8.  Clothes  dyed  in  the  piece ; 
9.  Cotton,  linen,  woollen,  and  silk  tissues,  plain  and  figured,  mixed  and 
unmixed,  printed  and  dressed,  dresses  for  the  general  trade,  superior 
fancy  tissues,  furniture  stuffs,  printed  shawls  and  carpets,  and  tissues 
printed  on  the  weft;  10.  Cotton,  hempen,  and  linen  furniture  stuff's, 
glazed,  gummed,  and  waxed,  plain  and  printed ;  11.  Cotton  cloths,  waxed 
and  grained,  in  imitation  of  Morocco  leather ;  12.  Textile  fibres  of  various 
kinds,  reduced  to  pulp,  bleached  and  dyed,  of  all  colors,  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  paper-hangings. 

II.  The  principal  centres  of  production  are  Paris,  Lyons,  Rheims, 
Rouen,  Mulhouse,  Amiens,  St.  Quentin,  Roubaix,  Cambray,  Elbceuf,  St. 
Etienne,  Sedan,  Lisieux,  Mazamet,  Lodeve,  Laval,  Bisch wilier,  Ste.  Marie- 
aux-Mines,  &c. 

III.  The  raw  materials  the  most  in  use  are  the  following :  Chemical 


166 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


products,  starchy  materials,  neutral  animal  matters,  essences,  oils,  greases, 
insoluble  mineral  colors,  dyeing  stuffs,  (indigo,  cochineal,  madder,  orchilla, 
dyewoods,  extracts,  lakes,  &c.,)  and  artificial  colors  produced  from  coal 
tar,  (red,  violet,  blue,  green,  yellow,  brown,  black.) 

Among  the  improvements  introduced  since  1855  may  be  mentioned : 

1.  Improved  methods  of  engraving  the  designs. 

2.  The  application  on  an  extensive  scale  of  the  pantograph  and  electric 
pile  to  the  engraving  of  the  rollers. 

3.  The  considerable  economy  resulting  from  the  application  of  the 
galvano-plastic  process,  or  the  covering  with  copper  of  cast  iron,  steel  and 
bronze  rollers,  which  now  replace  the  solid  copper  rollers  previously 
employed. 

4.  The  restoration  of  old  engraved  rollers. 

5.  The  improved  method  of,  and  economy  in  bleaching  ;  the  improve¬ 
ments  of  the  dressing  and  washing  machines,  (economy  of  power  and  of 
water;)  the  more  advantageous  use  of  the  power' employed  in  working 
the  printing  machines. 

6.  The  improvements  made  in  the  manufacture  of  Turkey  red ;  the 
application  of  pyrogallic  acid  in  the  production  of  black  for  grounds ; 
the  discovery  of  new  colors,  principally  those  derived  from  coal  tar,  and 
their  application  on  a  vast  scale  to  dyeing  and  printing  processes ;  the 
great  extension  given  by  these  discoveries  to  the  manufacture  of  chem¬ 
ical  products;  the  novel  process,  by  means  of  annualizing  vegetable 
fibres,  to  render  them  more  susceptible  of  taking  colored  matter ;  the 
use  of  zinc  in  dyeing  with  aniline  colors.  The  most  important  fact  is 
the  decrease  of  the  net  cost,  coincident  with  the  improvement  of  the 
products  and  the  increase  of  the  wages  of  the  operatives. 

CLASS  46.— LEATHER  AND  SKINS. 

“The  products  exhibited  in  this  class  comprise  eight  divisions: 

“  1.  Tanned  leathers,  including  strong  sole  leather  and  leather  intended 
to  be  curried.  2.  Curried  leathers  for  boots,  shoes,  saddlery,  and 
machinery.  3.  Black  and  colored  varnished  leathers,  for  boots,  shoes, 
and  saddlery.  4.  Goatskin  and  imitation  morocco,  for  boots,  shoes, 
bookbinding,  furniture,  and  small  articles.  5.  Tawed  leathers  for  boots, 
shoes,  and  gloves.  6.  Chamois  leather.  7.  Tanned  Hungary  leather. 
8.  Parchment. 

“Paris  is  the  most  important  centre  of  the  trade  for  all  kinds  of 
leather.  Givet,  Chateau-Renault,  and  Strasburg  especially  manufacture 
strong  leather;  Nantes  and  Millliau,  leather  for  vamps;  Grenoble  and 
Annonay,  tawed  leather  for  glove-making;  Niort,  chamois  leather. 
The  principal  seat  of  the  morocco  manufacture  is  in  Paris,  which  also 
furnishes  strong  leathers.  The  leathers  called  La  la  Garouille 7  are  pro¬ 
duced  by  a  special  method  of  tanning,  and  come  from  the  southeast  of 
France.  The  leather  manufactured  in  the  French  tanneries  has  two 
distinct  sources  of  supply:  the  slaughtering  of  cattle  at  home,  and  the 


MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 


167 


importation  of  raw  liides  from  England,  Ireland,  Holland,  Germany,  La 
Plata,  Peru,  Brazil,  Mexico,  the  West  Indian  islands,  Madagascar,  India, 
and  Australia.  The  price  varies  with  the  locality  from  whence  it  is 
derived,  the  nature,  the  quality,  and  the  state  of  the  merchandise  on  its 
arrival.  The  leathers  exported  into  France  come  in  the  salted,  dry,  and 
dry-salted  forms.  The  imported  hides,  as  well  as  those  of  home  produce, 
include  the  skins  of  various  kinds  of  animals.  Each  year  the  import  of 
raw  hides  amounts  to  about  220,000,000  francs.  The  tanning  materi¬ 
als  are  generally  of  French  derivation.  The  export  of  tanning  bark 
increases  every  year.  Algeria  supplies  a  great  quantity  of  kerines  oak- 
root  bark,  necessary  for  the  tanning  of  leather  6  a  la  Garouille 

“  Mechanical  aid  is  being  introduced  daily  in  the  leather  factories ;  still 
manual  labor  continues  at  the  present  moment  the  base  of  the  indus¬ 
try.  Machinery  has  been  brought  into  use  in  a  great  many  large  tan¬ 
neries,  but  it  is  applied  especially  to  the  preliminary  processes  of 
tanning  and  currying.  The  greater  part  of  these  operations  have  not 
been  well  performed  by  mechanical  means,  and  recourse  has,  conse¬ 
quently,  hitherto  been  had  to  manual  labor  in  spite  of  the  promise  held 
out  by  some  machines,  and,  among  others,  by  those  intended  for  the 
fleshing  of  hides,  whether  calf  or  morocco.  As  to  the  processes  for 
rapid  tanning  they  have  not  yet  yielded  satisfactory  results.  The  work¬ 
men  are  generally  employed  in  the  tanneries.  There  exist,  however,  a 
few  small  manufacturers,  of  limited  means,  who  employ  sometimes  one 
or  two  workmen.  They  either  undertake  one  special  department  of 
manufacture,  such  as  currying  or  morocco  work,  or  only  certain  opera¬ 
tions,  such  as  flushing.  There  are,  especially  in  Paris,  many  large  estab¬ 
lishments  which  work  for  the  retail  skinners  and  curriers. 

“The  leather  trade  has  a  central  market,  France  in  each  centre ;  still, 
Paris,  where  so  many  beasts  of  the  first  quality  are  slaughtered,  is  at 
once  the  greatest  market  both  for  fresh  raw  hides  and  for  manufactured 
leathers.  Havre,  Marseilles,  Nantes,  and  Bordeaux  are  the  great  seats 
of  the  import  trade  in  raw  hides.  The  provincial  manufacturers,  who 
do  not  dispose  of  their  products  in  the  district,  send  them  to  Paris, 
either  to  the  leather  market  or  to  the  houses  of  commission  merchants. 
A  certain  number  of  manufacturers  have  depots  at  Paris,  but  sale  by 
commission  is  the  mode  most  generally  adopted  by  second-rate  manufac¬ 
turers. 

“The  consumption  of  meat  in  France  is  constantly  on  the  increase,  and 
.  the  supply  of  the  raw  material  of  the  leather  trade  augments  in  like 
manner.  Between  1850  and  1863  the  imports  have  increased  one-half. 
The  total  importation  of  raw  hides  salted,  dry,  or  salted  and  dried,  was, 
in  1865,  48,646  tons,  and  the  total  value  nearly  100,000,000  francs.  The 
exportation  amounted,  at  the  same  time,  to  6,685  tons  in  tanned,  curried, 
morocco  and  varnished  leather.  To  this  must  be  added  dressed  skins, 
which  figure  on  the  returns  of  the  Douane  for  3,168  tons,  of  the  total  value 
of  81,223,902  francs,  thus  increasing  the  gross  total  to  147,198,106  francs. 


168 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


The  committee  regrets  that  it  cannot  point  out  any  great  improvements 
in  the  trade  during  the  last  12  years;  the  leather  manufacturers  of  France 
generally  being  very  chary  of  innovations. 

“As  regards  tanning,  we  have  already  said  that  several  improvements 
have  been  introduced  to  accelerate  the  process,  though  the  results  have 
not  been  satisfactory.  A  new  tanning  substance  has  also  been  intro¬ 
duced  in  place  of  oak  bark,  namely,  the  wood  of  the  chestnut  tree 
reduced  to  shavings;  and  still  further  efforts  have  been  made  to  do  away 
with  the  use  of  tannin  entirely,  and  prepare  hides  by  means  of  turpen¬ 
tine  alone,  but  subsequently  a  certain  portion  of  tannin  extract  has  been 
used  with  the  turpentine  in  order  to  produce  a  better  result.  In  the 
currying  trade  there  is  scarcely  any  actually  new  invention  to  be  found, 
unless  we  consider  as  such  a  system  of  working  which  the  Societe 
d'Incouragement  judged  worthy  of  reward.  This  method  has  for  its 
object  the  rendering  the  leather  more  supple  by  the  improvements  in  the 
details  of  the  manufacture,  and  to  render  it  impermeable  by  means  of 
a  thick  coating  of  gutta-percha.  The  true  progress  made  in  the  trade  is 
the  increased  skill  brought  to  bear  on  the  various  operations.  As 
regards  the  morocco  trade,  we  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  attempts 
made,  with  the  view  to  a  more  general  and  ordinary  application  of  the 
magnificent  colors  produced  from  aniline  and  its  derivatives,  now  so 
numerous.  These  are  new  resources  for  the  morocco  worker,  who  is 
thus  enabled  to  assimilate  more  nearly  the  color  of  the  skin  and  that  of 
the  stuff  intended  to  be  incorporated.  In  all  the  different  branches  of 
the  leather  trade  the  committee  has  pointed  out  the  necessity  for  accel¬ 
erating  and  improving  the  manufacture  by  the  constant  introduction  of 
improved  plans  and  utensils  and  improvements  in  the  workshops  in 
which  the  various  operations  are  performed.” 


GROUP  Y 1 


APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  THE  COM¬ 
MON  ARTS. 

Class  47.  Apparatus  and  Processes  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy.— Class 
48.  Implements  and  Processes  used  in  the  Cultivation  of  Fields  and 
Forests. — Class  49.  Implements  used  in  the  Chase,  Fisheries,  and  Gathering 
Wild  Products. — Class  50.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Agricultural 
Works  and  for  the  Preparation  of  Food. — Class  51.  Apparatus  used  in 
Chemistry,  Pharmacy,  and  Tanning.— Class  52.  Prime-movers,  Boilers,  and 
Engines  specially  adapted  to  tiie  requirements  of  the  Exhibition.— Class 
53.  Machines  and  Apparatus  in  general. — Class  54.  Machines,  Tools.— Class 
55.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Spinning  and  Rope  making.— Class  56. 
Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Weaving.— Class  57.  Apparatus  and  Pro¬ 
cesses  for  Sewing  and  for  Making-up  Clothing.— Class  58.  Apparatus  and 
Processes  used  in  the  Manufacture  of  Furniture  and  other  objects  of 
Dwellings. — Class  59.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Paper-making,  Dye¬ 
ing,  and  Printing. — Class  60.  Machines,  Instruments,  and  Processes  used  in 
various  works.— Class  61.  Carriages  and  Wheelwrights’  Works. — Class  62. 
Harness  and  Saddlery. — Class  63.  Railway  Apparatus.— Class  64.  Tele¬ 
graphic  Apparatus  and  Processes.— Class  65.  Civil  Engineering,  Public 
Works  and  Architecture.— Class  66.  Navigation  and  Life-boats,  Yachts 
and  Pleasure-boats. 

The  twenty  classes  of  this  group  embraced  nearly  100  sections,  any  one 
of  which  was  sufficient  to  furnish  a  report  of  the  length  of  the  present. 
Indeed,  on  some  subjects  the  best  informed  talent  of  the  world  has 
employed  itself  for  many  years.  The  result  in  literature  is  a  library ;  in 
practice,  a  million  new  processes  whereby  the  increasing  wants  of  the 
age  are  supplied.  The  intent  of  this  report  being  general  and  not  special, 
a  few  points  of  public  interest  only  will  be  dwelt  upon.  Following  the 
remarks  thus  offered  will  be  found  the  usual  extracts  from  the  French 
official  catalogue,  containing  the  latest  local  data  on  the  special  sections. 

CLASS  47.— APPARATUS  AND  PROCESS  OF  MINING  AND 

METALLURGY. 

COAL  MINING  IN  FRANCE. 

Among  the  plans  and  models  exhibited  in  class  47  was  one  of  great 
interest  to  the  French  people.  It  represented,  in  a  map,  the  newly  discov¬ 
ered  coal  mines  of  Pas-de-Calais.  Fuel  of  all  kinds  is  expensive  in  France. 
The  country  has  been  denuded  of  its  trees,  and  coal,  until  recently,  had 
to  be  imported  from  neighboring  countries,  and  was,  in  consequence,  a 
luxury  which  the  poor  could  not  command.  It  may  safely  be  said  that 
the  scarcity  of  fuel  has  in  a  great  measure  affected  the  domestic  habits  of 


170 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ordinary  life.  It  lias  compelled  tlie  masses  to  seek  warmth  and  life  in  the 
various  cafes  7  where  these  cheering  influences  are  always  conspicuously 
displayed.  Any  prospective  cheapening  of  the  article  of  fuel  is  therefore 
an  object  of  particular  concern  to  the  French,  and  has  occupied  the  best 
attention  of  the  government. 

Another  map  of  the  Pas-de-Calais,  by  Mr.  Coince,  was  on  the  scale  of 
1  to  10,000,  and  gave  a  fair  idea  of  the  prodigious  perseverance  and 
energy  which  have  been  bestowed  on  the  opening  of  pits  which  were  at 
one  time  supposed  to  be  chimerical.  It  was  only  in  1846  that  a  boring  for 
water  at  Oignies,  not  far  from  Douay,  gave  rise  to  the  theory  that  there 
was  a  deflection  of  coal  in  that  direction.  Between  1850  and  1864  conces¬ 
sions  of  land  were  made  to  various  companies,  mostly  in  the  Pas-de-Calais, 
and  extending  in  that  department  over  a  length  of  35  miles.  Some  40 
pits  have  already  been  sunk,  averaging  in  depth  from  100  to  350  yards. 
The  amount  of  coal  produced  from  this  hidden  and  accidentally-discov¬ 
ered  source — for  it  had  no  geographical  indication — has  risen  from  5,000 
tons  in  1851  to  upwards  of  1,600,000  tons  in  1866. 

There  were  maps  of  other  coal  mines  in  France,  exhibited  by  the  French 
ministry  of  public  works.  The  best  were  those  of  the  Loire.  These  pits,  less 
than  20  years  ago,  were  on  the  point  of  being  abandoned,  the  obstacles 
in  the  way  of  their  being  worked  seeming  to  be  almost  insurmountable. 
The  government  instituted  an  inquiry  into  the  subject,  and  detailed  its 
best  engineers  to  examine  thoroughly  the  nature  of  the  ground.  Their 
reports  presented  in  a  clear  and  practical  light  the  difficulties  that  had  to 
be  encountered.  These  were  in  due  time  conquered.  At  the  present  time 
over  3,000,000  of  tons  of  coal  are  obtained  from  the  basin  of  the  Loire. 

A  large  model  of  the  ravine  of  the  Grande  Combe,  whence  the  south 
of  France  begins  to  obtain  its  supplies,  was  also  exhibited,  and  demon¬ 
strated  the  great  amount  of  exploration  done  during  the  past  few  years, 
and  the  very  minute  and  accurate  record  which  is  kept  of  all  the  phe¬ 
nomena  of  mining.  The  Grande  Combe  is  the  third  district,  in  point  of 
productiveness,  in  France.  It  now  averages  1,200,000  tons. 

These  maps  and  models,  and  others  exhibited  in  the  same  department, 
demonstrate  the  fact  that  coal  beds  in  France  diverge  from  the  pit  with 
singular  sinuosity — the  workings  in  several  places  being  far  beneath  the 
overlying  strata  of  the  Trias.  Such  mines  in  wealthy  coal  districts 
would  be  almost  disregarded,  but  skill,  even  more  than  necessity,  has 
rendered  them  valuable  and  remunerative.  When  this  is  not  the  case 
the  very  wealth  of  the  seams  presents  unusual  difficulties.  The  coal-fields 
of  central  and  southern  France,  although  individually  of  small  extent 
as  compared  with  those  of  England  and  Belgium,  are  remarkable  in  this 
respect.  The  tolerably  regular  beds  of  coal  at  Blanzy  and  Montceau  run 
to  50  feet,  and  even  to  60  feet,  in  thickness $  at  Creusot,  where  the  bed 
stands  in  a  vertical  position,  it  varies  from  a  few  feet  to  50  feet,  80  feet, 
and  ascends  to  as  much  as  130  feet ;  and  the  great  seam  of  Decazeville 
(Aveyron)  often  extends  to  100  feet  in  thickness.  The  vast  vacuities 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS 


171 


which  must  necessarily  be  produced  in  working  these  mines  lead  neces¬ 
sarily  to  very  serious  engineering  obstacles,  which  have  only  been  sur¬ 
mounted  by  an  extraordinary  display  of  skill,  and  by  the  adoption  of  a 
plan  which,  while  it  involves  labor,  almost  amounting  to  a  double  opera¬ 
tion  of  mining,  seems  at  all  events  to  insure  safety.  This  consists  of 
packing  all  excavated  places,  except  the  passage  ways,  with  rubbish  car¬ 
ried  down  from  the  surface.  A  change  of  hands  is  required  for  this  pur¬ 
pose,  the  colliers  being  absent  from  the  mine.  In  some  districts  a  par¬ 
ticular  shaft  and  line  of  roads  and  special  wagons  or  tubs  are  set  apart 
for  the  work,  and  in  certain  mines  fully  one-third  of  the  hands  employed 
are  engaged  in  the  business  of  filling  up. 

The  maps  and  models  from  Belgium  were  also  singularly  exact  and 
instructive.  France  imports,  mainly  from  Belgium,  7,100,000  tons  of  coal. 
Her  own  production  had  reached  12,000,000  tons  in  1865,  and  is  undoubt¬ 
edly  greater. 

PRESSED  COAL. 

The  progress  of  manufactures  requires  a  constantly  increasing  sup¬ 
ply,  and  the  scarcity  of  wood,  as  before  remarked,  renders  fuel  in  any 
shape  a  luxury.  The  navy,  too,  requires  inexorably  its  rations.  To 
provide  these  economically  has  been  the  study  of  many  practical  men, 
and  a  result  has  been  obtained  which  is  worthy  of  record.  The  dust  of 
coal  is  used.  It  is  pressed  into  cakes  by  a  variety  of  processes,  nearly 
all  of  which  seem  to  be  in  favor.  For  naval  use  this  kind  of  fuel  possesses 
advantages.  It  is  asserted  that  in  the  carriage  of  the  little  bricks  there  is 
a  loss  of  only  one  per  cent.,  instead  of  six  to  ten  per  cent.,  as  in  lump  coal ; 
and  when  stored  abroad  they  are  found  after  two  years’  exposure  to  be 
scarcely  at  all  injured,  while  ordinary  coal  would  have  suffered  to  the 
extent  of  50  per  cent.  It  is  claimed  for  them  also  that  they  are  free,  or 
comparatively  free,  from  ash,  and  can  be  made  from  the  refuse  of  almost 
every  kind  of  coal,  and  in  such  a  ratio  as  to  produce  the  best  effect  in 
getting  up  steam,  and  maintaining  it.  The  bricks  are  exceedingly  com¬ 
pact.  They  are  produced  by  hydraulic  pressure  and  require  but  a  small 
percentage  of  extraneous,  gummy,  or  resinous  matter  to  make  them 
stone-like  and  thoroughly  durable.  The  best  approved  process,  or  rather 
the  one  which  seems  to  give  the  best  results,  is  that  adopted  by  the 
company  of  La  Ohazotte.  The  machine  used  has  16  cylinders  disposed 
as  the  radii  of  a  circle,  in  which  the  coal  slack,  after  being  heated  by  a 
current  of  steam  and  mingled,  by  the  means  of  very  ingenious  appa¬ 
ratus,  with  x>itch,  is  pressed  by  pistons,  and  formed  either  into  cylindri¬ 
cal  or  hexagonal  blocks  of  convenient  length.  The  prices  of  compressed 
fuel  are  as  follows : 

First  quality,  containing  only  2.10  per  cent,  of  ash,  28  francs  per  ton ; 
second,  containing  5  per  cent.,  26  francs ;  the  other  sorts  range  from  23 J 
to  9J  francs.  A  single  manufacturer  produces  no  fewer  than  175,000 
tons  of  this  agglomerated  coal  per  year.  There  are  several  others  of 


172 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


almost  equal  extent.  The  slack  or  waste  of  the  coal  mines  is  thus  econ¬ 
omized,  and  an  article  produced  which,  apart  from  the  question  of  cheap¬ 
ness,  possesses  special  considerations  which  seem  to  adapt  it  for  general 
use  in  stoves  and  furnaces  of  every  kind. 

BORING  SHAFTS  AND  DRILLING  ROCKS. 

An  interesting  display  of  maps  and  models  illustrating  the  process  of 
boring  was  made  in  the  French  department.  Two  important  public 
works  are  now  in  progress  in  the  city  of  Paris,  and  the  contractors  were 
the  principal  exhibitors.  The  French  capital  obtains  its  best  and  purest 
water  from  artificial  sources,  namely,  the  artesian  wells  of  Grenelle  and 
Passy.  Two  additional  wells  are  now  in  process  of  being  sunk ;  one  in 
the  suburb  of  the  Cliapelle  in  the  extreme  north  of  Paris,  by  Messrs. ' 
Degoiisee  and  Laurent,  and  the  other  at  the  Butte  aux  Cailles  in  the 
extreme  south  of  the  city,  by  Messrs.  Dru.  These  celebrated  firms 
exhibited  the  apparatus  by  which  they  make  all  kinds  of  borings,  ranging 
from  four  inches  to  five  feet. 

Pure  water  being  an  object  of  great  concern  to  every  community,  it 
may  be  well  here  to  give  a  few  particulars  of  the  two  artesian  wells  now 
in  successful  operation.  At  Grenelle  the  surface  is  121 .3  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea ;  at  Passy  305.2  feet;  the  depth  of  bore  hole  at  Grenelle  is 
1,800.7  feet;  at  Passy  1,923.7  feet;  internal  diameter  of  tube  or  liningof  hole 
at  Grenelle  approximately  9  inches  to  0  inches  at  bottom ;  at  Passy  2.4 
feet.  The  full  diameter  of  the  Passy  bore  hole  was  1  metre,  or  3.28  feet. 
The  new  ones  are  to  be  in  one  case  above  five  feet,  and  in  the  other  about 
four  feet;  whilst  it  is  proposed  to  sink  much  deeper  than  heretofore,  in 
order  to  open  new  sources  of  supply  and  avoid  drawing  too  extensively 
on  the  old  ones. 

Examples  were  shown  of  the  application  of  boring  to  the  ordinary  pro¬ 
cess  of  mining,  such  as  the  excavation  of  shafts.  It  is  often  difficult  and 
sometimes  impossible,  owing  to  the  watery  character  of  the  soil,  for  work¬ 
men  in  the  usual  way  to  penetrate  to  the  requisite  depth  and  perfect  the 
casing  of  the  pit.  When  this  is  done  it  is  at  a  great  cost  of  labor  and  money. 
By  the  machinery  used  for  ordinary  boring  it  is  done  with  comparative 
ease,  and  the  casing  is  always  perfect,  because  it  is  a  tubing  which,  if 
necessary,  can  be  filled  in  against  the  side  of  the  pit  with  concrete  and 
other  preparations  more  or  less  impermeable.  The  expense  by  this  pro¬ 
cess  is  not  more  than  one-quarter  of  what  it  would  be  under  the  usual 
way.  Sections  of  two  pits  at  St.  Avoid,  France,  were  exhibited.  The 
first  of  these  was  sunk  through  426  feet  of  permeable  red  sandstone,  and 
coal  was  found  at  a  depth  of  1,036  feet  on  the  4th  of  April,  1867.  The 
second  had  progressed  to  the  depth  of  521  feet  on  February  3d.  The 
diameter  of  the  cutters  used  in  boring  these  pits  was  13  feet. 

Several  machines  for  working  under  ground  and  superseding  hand 
labor  in  drilling  rocks  were  displayed,  many  of  them  of  ascertained  value. 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS.  173 

One  of  these,  by  General  Haupt,  was  from  the  United  States,  and  was  char¬ 
acterized  by  simplicity  and  directness  of  action. 

The  diamond-pointed  drill  of  Mr.  Lescliot,  exhibited  in  the  French 
section,  whatever  may  be  the  original  cost,  is  claimed  to  be  the  best 
and  cheapest  in  the  end.  It  works  with  great  rapidity  and  is  utterly 
indifferent  to  the  stubbornness  of  the  material  against  which  it  is  placed. 
A  drawing  showed  the  way  in  which  it  is  proposed  to  arrange  several  of 
these  implements  moved  by  steam  power  for  boring  tunnels.  The  boring- 
tool  is  tubular  and  admits  a  jet  of  water  through  the  middle  into  the 
hole;  its  face  of  soft  iron  is  studded  with  eight  pieces  of  black  diamond 
carefully  set  in  the  iron,  and  the  incomparable  hardness  of  the  adamant 
is  so  little  affected  by  contact  with  the  hardest  granite,  that  the  engineer 
stated  the  cost  of  the  abrasion  of  diamond  for  a  hole  of  half  a  yard  deep 
to  be  less  than  four  cents. 

A  machine  for  channelling  and  quarrying  marble  and  other  stone  for 
building  or  ornamental  purposes  was  exhibited  by  the  Steam  Stone  Cutter 
Company  of  New  York,  and  is  in  use  at  the  marble  quarries  of  Rutland, 
Vermont,  and  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  War  dwell.  It  is  asserted  that  this 
machine  reduces  the  labor  cost  of  the  production  of  marble,  and  cuts  it 
from  the  quarry  with  much  greater  cleanness. 

The  safety  lamp  for  working  in  coal  mines  was  exhibited  in  many 
forms,  but  the  principle  was  always  that  of  Davy.  Intended  for  the 
preservation  of  the  workmen’s  lives  by  the  prevention  of  explosions,  it 
seems  curious  that  the  only  impediments  in  the  way  of  its  fulfilling  this 
duty  are  the  workmen  themselves.  Nearly  all  explosions  of  fire-damp 
are  caused  by  incautiously  opening  the  Davy  lamp.  There  seems  to  be 
a  fascination  about  doing  so,  for  locks  are  in  vain,  and  are  picked  or 
broken  when  the  workman  wishes  to  get  at  the  flame.  An  ingenious 
invention  possessing  strength  as  well  as  other  merits  was  exhibited  by 
Mr.  Arnould  of  Mons,  who  so  inserts  an  iron  pin  that  the  lamp  can  only 
be  unlocked  by  placing  it  in  a  proper  position  over  the  poles  of  a  pow¬ 
erful  magnet. 

The  objects  exhibited  in  this  class  form  five  principal  sections:  1. 
Plans  in  relief  and  drawings  of  mineral  deposits ;  2.  Boring  tools  and 
machines ;  3.  Mechanical  apparatus  employed  in  mines  for  extraction, 
ventilation,  &c.;  4.  Apparatus  serving  for  the  after  treatment  of  the 
materials  extracted,  such  as  apparatus  for  the  mechanical  preparation 
of  ores  and  the  agglomeration  of  combustibles,  machines  for  foundries 
and  forges,  &c.  Lastly,  numerous  drawings  of  metallurgical  establish¬ 
ments  and  special  apparatus. 


FRANCE. 

“It  is  principally  in  the  departments  of  the  Nord,  Saone,  Loire,  Seine, 
and  Seine  Inferieure  that  the  objects  contained  in  this  class  are  produced. 
The  supply  has  generally  sufficed  for  all  the  wants  of  home  consumption; 
we  may  even  say  that  small  exports  are  made  to  England,  Italy,  Spain, 


174 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Africa,  and  tlie  two  Americas.  The  French  coal  mines  recently  opened, 
especially  those  of  Pas-de-Calais,  can  be  compared,  as  regards  their 
method  of  working,  exhaustion,  and  ventilation,  to  the  great  establish¬ 
ments  of  Newcastle,  Belgium,  and  the  basin  of  the  Ruhr,  and  can  vie 
advantageously  with  all  foreign  countries. 

“As  regards  the  elaborations  of  mineral  combustibles,  no  country  is  so 
advanced  as  France,  and  there  exist  none  where  such  a  large  propor¬ 
tion  of  small  coal  extracted  is  submitted  to  purification  by  washing,  by 
means  most  varied,  and  by  more  improved  apparatus ;  none  where  the 
processes  of  agglomeration — a  branch  of  industry  which  is,  moreover,  of 
French  origin — have  been  more  studied;  none,  lastly,  where  the  making 
of  coke  is  accomplished  with  less  loss  of  combustible  materials.  The 
progress  which  the  committee  of  admission  of  class  47  can  point  out, 
sincef  1855,  is:  1.  For  the  working  of  mines,  the  improvements  in  the 
processes  of  sinking  shafts  in  loose  and  aqueous  soil;  the  general  improve¬ 
ment  of  apparatus,  with  a  view  to  increase  the  productive  power  of  the 
mines.  2.  For  the  mechanical  preparation  of  ores  and  combustibles,  the 
employment  of  a  great  number  of  new  apparatus,  with  a  view  to  render 
work  still  more  mechanical,  and  thereby  economize  hand  labor;  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  improved  methods  of  construction  to  those  apparatus  which 
have  hitherto  been  executed  in  a  rough  manner.  3.  In  the  development 
of  metallurgy  generally,  the  increase  of  the  individual  production  of  the 
blast  furnaces;  the  more  general  and  judicious  use  of  selected  fuels  and 
ores,  a  use  which  is  facilitated  by  the  increased  means  of  transport;  the 
substitution — each  day  more  marked — of  the  coal  iron  for  the  charcoal 
iron,  in  consequence  of  the  new  applications  that  coal  iron  has  found  in 
the  production  of  improved  pig  iron,  and  in  the  invention  of  improved 
or  entirely  new  methods  of  refining,  (Bessemer  process;)  and,  finally, 
the  increased  power  of  the  machinery  and  tools  used  for  hammering  and 
rolling,  augmenting  every  day  in  dimensions,  such  as  armor  plates,  large 
iron  for  buildings,  iron  plate,  &c.7‘ 

CLASS  48.— IMPLEMENTS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  THE 
CULTIVATION  OF  FIELDS  AND  FORESTS. 

The  objects  included  in  class  48  were  exceedingly  important,  compris¬ 
ing:  1.  Implements  and  machines  for  forest  cultivation;  2.  Agricul¬ 
tural  machines  and  implements;  3.  Plans  of  agricultural  works,  and 
reports  relating  to  farms  which  have  obtained  the  prize  of  honor  or  other 
prizes,  and  which  offer  incidents  worth  studying  and  good  examples  for 
imitation,  either  as  regards  rural  construction  or  other  matters,  such  as 
irrigation,  drainage,  plantation,  &c.;  4.  Commercial  manures,  which  sup¬ 
ply  agriculture  with  matters  of  great  utility  in  preserving  or  increasing 
the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

There  were  exhibitors  in  one  or  all  of  these  sections  from  almost  every 
country  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  It  was  curious  to  observe  in  the  glit¬ 
tering  courts  of  eastern  nations  the  rude  appliances  for  tilling  the  soil, 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS 


175 


appliances  which  have  barely  changed  their  form  since  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  Christian  era;  and  thence  to  go  to  the  annexe,  or  better  still 
to  the  island  of  Billancourt,  and  see  the  huge  progress  that  has  been 
made  since  the  application  of  steam,  and  the  general  knowledge  of 
mechanics  which  was  its  natural  result. 

Traction  engines  were  conspicuous  in  the  English  department.  They 
are  intended  mainly  for  drawing  hay  or  wood  over  the  ordinary  surface 
of  the  country,  but  by  the  application  of  belting  they  can  be  used  for 
any  other  purpose  connected  with  agriculture.  A  good  traction  engine 
can  draw  30  tons  at  a  mere  trifling  cost  per  mile. 

Eeapers  and  mowers  were  the  specialties  of  America.  They  came  out 
triumphant  at  the  two  trials  which  were  made  at  the  Emperor’s  farms  at 
Yincennes  and  Fouilleuse.  Several  of  these  admirable  machines  were 
ordered  by  the  Emperor. 

The  inventions  and  contrivances  in  other  branches  of  agriculture  were 
innumerable.  They  indicate  clearly  that  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when 
the  historical  plough-boy  will  disappear  from  the  field — whistle  and  all — 
and  be  replaced  by  an  intelligent  engineer. 

FRANCE. 

u Among  the  practical  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  the 
articles  included  in  this  class,  during  the  last  12  years,  may  be  cited :  First. 
The  more  general  employment  of  machines  and  implements  for  turning 
over  the  soil,  and  especially  the  invention  of  the  Valleraud  plough,  which 
serves  to  bring  the  sub-soil  to  the  surface;  the  increased  use  of  the 
threshing  machine;  the  employment  of  steam  power  as  a  motor  in  the 
more  advanced  agricultural  undertakings;  the  application  of  the  drills 
to  the  sowing  of  cereals  in  line;  and,  finally,  some  attempts  at  steam 
cultivation,  and  the  introduction  of  a  multitude  of  reaping  machines, 
which  have  but  rarely  fulfilled  the  expectation  of  those  using  them. 
Secondly.  As  regards  the  several  methods  of  cultivation,  and  the  progress 
made  of  late  years  in  rural  architecture,  there  exist  a  large  number  of 
farms  which,  by  the  general  arrangement  and  details  of  their  buildings, 
possess  commodious  and  ingenious  arrangements,  having  the  effect  of 
economizing  hand  labor  and  facilitating  the  connection  of  various  opera¬ 
tions.  In  reference  to  commercial  manures,  we  may  mention  principally 
the  fossil  sulphates,  which,  being  extracted  from  French  soil  and  sub¬ 
mitted  to  simple  and  inexpensive  processes,  supply  the  agricultural  com¬ 
munity,  at  a  low  cost,  with  valuable  means  of  increasing  their  crops. 
Thirdly.  Like  other  industries,  those  connected  with  the  forest  obey  the 
law  of  progress.  Instruments  for  cutting  wood,  such  as  axes,  billhooks, 
saws,  &c.,  have  latterly  shown  considerable  improvements.  The  use  of 
the  plough,  in  aiding  natural  reproduction  in  coppices,  produces  marvel¬ 
lous  results,  and  its  einifloyment  cannot  be  too  much  recommended. 
The  pruning  of  the  trees,  practiced  for  a  long  time  by  most  faulty 
methods,  is  now  carried  on  in  a  superior  and  efficacious  manner,  the 


176 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


value  and  importance  of  which  have  been  placed  beyond  all  question  by 
numerous  and  conclusive  experiments.  Interesting  experiments  are  being 
carried  on  relative  to  the  barking  of  oak,  a  matter  of  the  greatest  interest 
to  the  tanning  trade.  Lastly,  strenuous  efforts  have  been  made,  during 
the  last  few  years,  principally  by  the  forest  administrations,  to  effect  the 
entire  rewooding  of  the  denuded  mountains  of  France.” 

CLASS  49.— IMPLEMENTS  USED  IN  THE  CHASE,  FISHERIES, 
AND  GATHERING  WILD  PRODUCTS. 

The  objects  exhibited  in  this  class  form  five  principal  series  : 

1.  The  implements  and  engines  of  the  chase  include,  except  fire-arms, 
all  the  other  apparatus  used  for  the  capture  of  game,  such  as  nets,  snares, 
decoys,  &c.,  equipments  for  sportsmen,  such  as  game-bags,  powder-horns, 
shot-pouches,  and  cartouche-boxes.  2.  Fishing  implements  and  tackle, 
including  lines,  hooks,  fishing-rods,  harpoons,  nets,  bait,  and  the  mate¬ 
rials  used  in  the  manufacture  of  these  articles.  3.  Implements  used  in 
collecting  natural  and  uncultivated  material.  4.  Apparatus  of  piscicul¬ 
ture  :  arrangements  for  hatching  spawn,  for  raising  the  fry,  and  trans¬ 
porting  fish  ]  aquariums,  apparatus  intended  to  stock  rivers  with  fish, 
such  as  salmon  ladders ;  lastly,  plans  of  piscicultural  establishments,  and 
scientific  works  treating  on  such  subjects.  5.  Apparatus  for  diving  or 
for  submarine  industry,  such  as  the  collection  of  sponges,  coral,  and 
pearls,  for  submarine  construction,  the  closing  of  water  sources,  the  rais¬ 
ing  of  sunken  vessels,  &c. 

The  whole  machinery  of  fishing  was  exhibited  in  class  49,  even  to 
human  fishing  in  the  shape  of  divers,  and  their  complicated  accoutre¬ 
ments.  France  possesses  several  establishments  for  the  artificial  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  fish,  and  the  subject  of  pisciculture  has  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  government.  Large  quantities  of  fish  are  now  bred  artificially, 
and  with  the  best  pecuniary  result.  Streams  that  have  been  emptied  of 
salmon  have  been  repopulated  with  that  delicacy,  by  means  of  the  pisci¬ 
culturists,  and  oysters  which  were  in  a  fair  way  of  dying  out  on  the  coast 
are  now  submitting  to  the  same  quiet  mode  of  increase.  Experiments 
leave  no  doubt  that  fish  can  be  cultivated  as  profitably  as  any  other  arti¬ 
cle  of  food.  With  the  smallest  amount  of  state  protection,  the  salmon 
fisheries  could  again  be  established  on  the  principal  rivers  of  America. 

u  Sporting  implements  are  mostly  manufactured  in  Paris  and  exported 
to  all  the  world.  The  leather  of  French  origin  is  worked  by  mechanical 
processes.  Stamping  presses  and  sewing  machines  are  used  for  making 
shot-bags,  cartouche-boxes,  game-bags,  &c.  The  nets  are  made  by  hand. 
The  trade  in  sporting  necessaries  in  France  is  estimated  at  from  3,000,000 
to  4,000,000  francs.  No  very  striking  innovation  has  been  noticed  in 
this  branch  of  industry  since  1855 ;  but  the  methods  of  manufacture  have 
been  so  much  improved  that  French  productions  now  leave  nothing  to 
be  desired  as  regards  the  excellence  and  finish  of  the  work.  Fishing- 
tackle  and  implements  are  made  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  principal 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS. 


177 


fisheries — Angers,  Bordeaux,  Boulogne,  Dieppe,  Dunkirk,  and  Nantes ; 
the  hooks  were  formerly  obtained  entirely  from  abroad,  but  are  now  pro¬ 
duced  partly  in  France,  and  particularly  in  the  departments  of  the  Bouches 
du  Rhone  and  the  Cotes  du  Nord.  Fresh  water  fishing-tackle  is  made 
in  Paris  and  its  environs.  The  raw  materials  employed  in  the  trade  are 
very  various  and  are  derived  from  almost  all  countries  on  the  face  of  the 
globe.  Hempen  yarns  are  obtained  from  Angers,  and  those  of  flax  from 
Lille.  Rushes  and  reeds  are  obtained  from  Frejus.  China,  Japan,  and 
India  send  us  bamboos  and  silk.  The  so-called  Florentine  horse-liair 
comes  from  Spain  and  Italy,  and  we  borrow  from  innumerable  birds  the 
feathers  with  which  to  form  artificial  flies.  All  the  delicate  articles  are 
made  by  hand ;  nets  alone  are  in  part  produced  by  looms.  The  products 
of  this  industry  amount  in  number  to  about  1,000,000  a  year,  and  are 
exported  to  all  countries.  The  trade  now  obtains  at  home  that  supply 
which,  before  1855,  it  used  to  obtain  from  foreign  market  s.  The  apparatus 
employed  in  gathering  wild  products  has  no  special  characteristic  that 
demands  notice. 

“The  trade  in  piscicultural  apparatus  has  extended,  since  1855,  in  a 
very  marked  manner.  From  500,000  to  600,000  francs7  worth  of  such 
apparatus  is  annually  sold  for  home  consumption  and  export.  The  slate 
of  Angers  and  the  plate-glass  of  St.  Gobain  are  laid  under  contribution 
for  the  construction  of  aquariums.  The  apparatus  for  restocking  rivers 
with  fish,  such  as  salmon  ladders,  constructed  at  the  instance  and  under 
the  superintendence  of  government,  have  produced  great  improvements 
in  the  productiveness  of  our  streams. 

1 L  Diving  apparatus  is  also  manufactured  in  Paris.  Copper,  lead,  leather, 
India-rubber,  with  Laval  thread  and  Rouen  cottons,  are  the  chief  materials 
used  in  the  manufacture.  These  apparatus,  which  are  in  increasing 
demand  in  every  part  of  the  civilized  world  for  fisheries  and  hydraulic 
works,  amount  in  value  to  about  400,000  francs  or  500,000  francs  per 
annum.  Since  the  Exhibition  of  1855  the  apparatus  have  undergone 
great  improvements  which  fit  them  for  submarine  exploration  at  great 
depths.77 

CLASS  50  TO  CLASS  54.— MACHINES  AND  APPARATUS  IN 

GENERAL. 

The  classes  50  and  51  contained :  1.  Apparatus  and  processes  used  in 
agricultural  works,  and  for  the  preparation  of  food,  such  as  making  pipes 
for  drainage,  making  manure,  making  sugar,  brewing,  &c. ;  and  2.  Appa¬ 
ratus  used  in  chemistry,  farming,  and  tanning,  such  as  apparatus  and 
utensils  for  laboratories  $  instruments  for  making  tests,  &c.  Both  classes 
were  interesting  to  experts. 

Class  52  included  the  machinery,  &c.,  used  for  the  purposes  of  the 
Exhibition.  It  is  fully  described  elsewhere  in  an  extract  from  the  French 
report.  There  were  seven  American  exhibitors  in  this  class. 

Class  53,  machines  and  apparatus  in  general,  contained  detached  pieces 
12  UE 


178 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


of  machinery,  supports,  rollers,  slides,  eccentrics,  cog-wheels,  &c.  There 
were  six  American  exhibitors. 

CLASS  54.— MACHINE  TOOLS. 

Class  54  embraced  all  the  articles  comprised  under  the  head  of  machine 
tools,  such  as  lathes,  planing  machines,  and  other  instruments  used  in 
the  working  of  wood  and  metals.  No  more  important  class  was  to  be 
found  in  the  Exposition ;  indeed  without  this,  many  other  classes  could 
not  have  existed.  The  principal  nations  exhibiting  were  France,  Eng¬ 
land,  Prussia,  and  America.  At  the  former  exhibitions  of  1851,  1855, 
and  1862,  the  English  were  almost  without  rivals.  On  the  present  occa¬ 
sion  they  made  but  a  small  display,  and  were  vastly  outnumbered  by 
France  and  Prussia,  while  in  point  of  novelty  of  form  and  excellence  of 
workmanship  America  was  admitted  to  be  on  a  par  with  any  nation. 
In  the  French  section  were  tools  of  every  possible  description,  many 
possessing  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  and  some  of  extraordinary  size. 
Prussia  was  represented  in  the  fullest  manner,  and  her  progress  in  this 
branch  of  manufacture  excited  general  remark. 

In  the  American  department  the  display  made  by  Sellers,  of  Philadel¬ 
phia,  was  highly  commended.  Among  other  articles  was  a  machine  for 
cutting  the  teeth  of  wheels,  which  when  once  set  in  motion,  is  completely 
automatic  until  it  has  gone  completely  round,  when  it  stops  of  itself  and 
calls  for  the  attendant.  The  Sellers  planing  machines  were  equal  to  the 
best  in  the  Exposition,  and  were  remarkable  also  for  many  novelties. 
So,  also,  the  steam  hammer  with  its  new  mode  of  manipulating  the  steam 
valve.  The  same  firm,  says  Mr.  J.  Anderson,  civil  engineer,  in  his  report 
to  the  board  of  council,  has  a  fine  display  of  screwing  apparatus  entirely 
of  a  new  character,  and  all  constructed  on  a  sound  principle.  By  this 
system  screws  of  all  sizes  are  the  same  in  the  form  of  the  thread,  namely, 
an  angle  of  60  degrees ;  six  cutting  tools  for  any  size  of  screws,  if  placed 
together,  will  form  a  complete  circle.  The  depth  of  the  thread,  the 
amount  to  be  taken  off  the  sharp  point  of  the  cutting-tool,  are  all  derived 
from  the  diameter,  or  the  pitch,  or  from  each  other,  on  a  well  defined 
principle.  These  screws,  when  complete,  are  what  is  technically  termed 
“flat-top  and  bottom,”  and  although  this  system  may  be  objected  to  by 
those  who  are  accustomed  to  and  prefer  “  the  round- top  and  bottom,” 
yet  it  is  very  evident  the  flat  gives  greater  facility  for  measuring  the 
diameter  with  extreme  accuracy.  Altogether,  adds  the  same  writer,  the 
collection  (of  tools  generally)  exhibited  by  Sellers  probably  contained 
more  originality  than  that  of  any  other  exhibitor  in  class  54. 

The  lathes  of  Harris,  and  of  the  American  Tool  Company,  possessed 
several  novelties  which  were  interesting  to  the  experienced  eye.  Brown 
&  Sharp  exhibited  a  machine  for  making  any  description  of  screws  out 
of  the  rough  bar.  When  the  screw  to  be  made  is  once  determined  upon, 
every  instrument  necessary  to  its  production  is  placed  in  suitable  hold¬ 
ers  therein  provided ;  the  wire  or  bar  passes  through  the  centre  of  the 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS. 


179 


revolving  spindle,  when  tool  after  tool  is  successively  brought  into  opera¬ 
tion,  and  screws  of  perfect  identity  are  thereby  produced  with  facility. 
Bement  &  Dougherty’s  machine  tools  displayed  many  points  of  excel¬ 
lence.  The  American  exhibit  in  all  respects^  although  not  large,  was 
extremely  praiseworthy,  and  was  a  matter  of  surprise  to  many  tool- 
makers  who  heretofore  have  had  a  sort  of  monopoly  in  this  business. 

FRANCE. 

The  machines  exhibited  in  class  54  may  be  divided  into  four  principal 
sections : 

“1.  Machine  tools  for  working  metal,  such  as  simple  lathes,  mechanical 
lathes,  parallel  lathes,  spherical  lathes,  facing  lathes,  and  lathes  with 
four  points,  axle  turning  lathes,  lathes  of  precision,  counter-sinking  lathes 
and  rose  engines,  lathes  for  cutting  screws  and  forming  heads  of  bolts, 
&c.,  for  turning  the  wheels  of  carriages  and  the  driving-wheels  of  loco¬ 
motives,  planing  machines  of  all  kinds,  filing  machines,  mortising  and 
drilling  machines,  whether  horizontal  or  vertical,  machines  for  shaping 
the  heads  of  bolts  and  nuts  for  boring  cylinders,  forging,  rivet  making, 
punching,  shearing,  chamfering,  centering,  riveting  and  pipe-drawing, 
and  lastly,  machines  for  pounding  and  for  polishing. 

u2.  The  machine  tools  employed  in  working  wood,  such  as  reciprocat¬ 
ing,  continuous  and  circular  sawing  machines,  planing,  moulding,  turning, 
and  mortising  machines. 

u  3.  The  various  tools  used  in  machine  construction  shops,  such  as  rules, 
squares,  trusses,  bevels,  chisels,  glass  and  sand  paper  and  cloths,  &c. ; 
blocks  and  tackle,  and  other  apparatus  used  in  mounting  machines. 

“4.  Machines  for  pressing,  crushing,  mixing,  sawing,  and  polishing,  are 
comprised  under  the  general  denomination  of  machine  tools,  although 
they  are,  in  fact,  manufacturing  machines.  Such  are  also  rolls  for  flat¬ 
tening  the  precious  metals,  cutting  and  stamping  presses,  nailing  machines, 
brick  and  tile  making  machines,  stone-breaking  machines,  machines  for 
grinding  plaster  and  colors,  for  bending  and  welding  the  tires  of  wheels, 
for  cutting  paper,  for  piercing  hard  and  precious  stones,  and  for  diamond 
cutting. 

u  Machine  tools  used  for  working  iron  and  wood,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  machines  comprised  in  this  class,  are  manufactured  principally  in 
the  departments  of  the  Seine,  Seine  Inferieure,  Nord,  Haut  Rliin,  Bas-Rhin, 
Bouches  du  Rhone,  and  Somme.  Paris,  Rouen,  Mulhouse,  Graftenstaden 
and  Havre,  are  the  chief  places  of  production  of  tools  and  machine  tools. 
Fecamp  manufactures  wood-working  machinery.  The  small  machine 
tools  used  for  metal- ware  manufacture  form  the  object  of  an  important 
trade  at  Albert  and  Maubeuge.  Machine  tools,  properly  so-called,  are 
constructed  of  metal ;  cast-iron  is  generally  employed  for  the  purpose. 
The  pr  eference  is  given  to  Scotch  iron,  at  the  price  of  about  15  francs  the 
100  kilograms,  as  presenting  a  uniform  quality  and  not  being  too  hard. 
Castings  of  moderate  size  cost  about  35  francs,  and  large  castings  only 


180 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


about  25  francs.  The  other  metals  used  are  mostly  of  French  origin. 
Rough  iron  costs  24  to  25  francs  the  100  kilograms,  and  forgings  from 
70  to  80  francs ;  pieces  of  small  dimensions  submitted  to  great  strain, 
and  therefore  requiring  superior  power  of  resistance,  are  made  of  special 
iron,  costing  from  50  to  60  francs ;  but  its  production  diminishes  daily. 
The  Bessemer  steel  does  not  yet  offer  sufficient  guarantee  to  allow  of  its 
being  used  for  these  parts.  Until  this  is  the  case,  the  manufacturers  are 
compelled  to  employ  steel  which  costs  them  from  90  to  150  francs  the  100 
kilograms.  Case-hardened  iron  is  substituted  for  the  former  in  the 
case  of  small  pieces  of  machinery,  and  for  very  small  pieces  malleable 
cast-iron  is  preferred.  The  parts  of  machine  tools  are  nearly  all  produced 
by  machinery,  in  large  workshops  abundantly  supplied  with  all  the  means 
of  giving  with  rapidity  the  form  required  before  the  parts  are  put  together, 
and  with  the  view  of  increasing  production  without  adding  to  the  extent 
of  their  establishments.  Many  constructors  now  produce  the  castings 
and  large  forged  pieces  on  the  very  spot  where  the  iron  is  produced. 
This  principle  of  the  division  of  labor  and  of  the  setting  apart  of  certain 
workshops  for  special  purposes  is  being  adopted  more  and  more  every 
day  in  our  large  towns. 

u  The  cost  of  hand  work  varies  greatly  according  to  the  locality  and  the 
ability  of  the  workmen.  In  Paris  the  average  wages  of  the  operatives 
who  work  by  hand  or  direct  machine  tools  is  five  francs  a  day.  In  other 
central  towns  more  favorably  situated,  such  as  Mulhouse,  for  example,  the 
average  is  not  more  than  three  francs.  First-class  hands,  however,  earn 
much  higher  wages,  sometimes  as  high  as  nine  francs  per  day.  The  con¬ 
stant  increase  in  the  machinery  of  construction  shops  tends  incessantly  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  workman  by  diminishing  his  bodily  labor 
and  giving  him  time  and  opportunity  for  making  numerous  arrange¬ 
ments  which  have  the  effect  of  increasing  his  earnings,  especially  when 
he  is  engaged  on  piece-work.  The  machinists  generally  construct  the 
machines  which  they  produce  after  their  own  models,  but  they  are  often 
obliged  to  modify  them  according  to  the  demands  of  the  purchaser. 
For  several  years  the  great  houses  have  established  depots  at  Paris  for 
the  machines  in  most  general  use,  such  as  lathes,  drilling,  planing, 
punching,  and  shearing  machines.  These  depots  render  great  services  to 
the  manufacturers,  who  are  often  obliged  to  increase  their  machinery  at 
a  moment’s  notice.  Even  public  establishments  often  take  advantage  of 
this  arrangement.  The  greater  part  of  the  products  of  this  trade  are  for 
home  use,  but  of  late  important  business  has  been  done  with  Italy, 
Spain,  South  America,  Russia,  Turkey,  and  even  Japan. 

“The  productions  of  France,  which  a  few  years  since  were  very  limited 
in  extent,  may  be  valued  at  about  12,000,000  francs.  Although  the 
prices  of  the  raw  materials  have  submitted  to  considerable  diminution 
since  the  treaty  of  commerce  came  into  effect,  the  selling  price  of  the 
machinery  has  remained  almost  stationary,  in  consequence  of  the  increas¬ 
ing  dearness  of  labor  and  the  constant  augmentation  of  the  weight  of 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS.  181 

the  machines,  in  order  to  diminish  vibration  and  to  simplify  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  foundations.” 

RECENT  IMPROVEMENTS. 

“The  committee  deem  it  their  duty  to  point  out  the  following  improve¬ 
ments  as  having  taken  place  within  the  last  12  years: 

“1.  More  solidity  of  construction,  simplicity  and  perfection,  and  more 
frequent  adoption  of  automatic  motions. 

“2.  Forms  better  adapted  to  the  materials  employed. 

“3.  Constantly  increasing  tendency  towards  mechanical  production, 
and  the  completion  of  parts  by  the  use  of  machinery  alone. 

“4.  As  regards  metal  working  machines,  the  introduction  of  machines 
which  allow  of  several  operations  being  performed  on  the  same  piece 
without  dismounting  it;  as,  for  example,  universal  drilling  and  planing 
machines,  working  horizontally  and  vertically;  lathes  upon  which  parts 
having  a  different  axis  to  the  principal  piece  are  worked  by  means  of 
cutters  having  a  compound  rotating  and  traversing  movement ;  bolt  cut¬ 
ting  machines;  mortising  machines  with  revolving  tools,  and  counter¬ 
sinking  machines. 

“5.  As ’regards  wood- working  machines,  the  construction  of  portable 
and  locomotive  machinery  for  sawing  wood  in  the  forest,  the  application 
of  the  endless  handsaw  to  the  cutting  up  of  round  timber;  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  helicoidal  blades  in  planing;  the  modification  of  the  tools  used 
in  boring  and  planing,  and  the  increase  in  the  rapidity  of  rotation  given 
to  these  tools. 

“  6.  As  regards  the  tools  themselves,  a  general  improvement  in  the  exe¬ 
cution  of  small  tools  used  in  connection  with  the  machines,  and  the 
differential  pully,  which  causes  the  load  to  remain  in  the  same  place 
when  left  to  itself. 

“  7.  Generally,  as  regards  machines  of  all  kinds,  we  may  point  to  many 
simplifications  in  the  means  of  transmitting  motion,  and  specially  the 
mechanical  imitation  of  proceeding  by  hand;  the  employment  of  mechan¬ 
ical  means  in  the  working  of  fly-presses;  an  increase  in  the  production 
of  brickmaking  machines,  and,  lastly,  a  tendency  towards  the  suppres¬ 
sion  or  diminution  of  previous  working  of  the  clay  by  the  augmenta¬ 
tion  of  the  pressure  employed  and  by  the  greater  dryness  of  the  clay 
employed.” 

CLASS  55.— APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  SPIN¬ 
NING  AND  ROPE-MAKING. 

In  class  55  were  comprised  all  the  machinery  and  apparatus  used  in  the 
preparation  and  specimens  of  textile  materials,  of  which  cotton,  wool, 
flax,  hemp,  and  silk  are  the  most  important.  The  materials  and  machin¬ 
ery  used  for  rope-making  were  also  included  in  this  class,  together  with 
ropes  and  cordages  of  all  kinds.  It  may  be  here  mentioned  that  some 
excellent  specimens  of  cordage  were  exhibited,  made  from  the  fibre  of 
the  aloe. 


182 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


America  liad  four  exhibitors  of  machinery  for  preparing  cotton  and 
wool.  There  was  a  considerable  display  from  other  countries,  but  with¬ 
out  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  technology  of  the  trade  it  would  be 
impossible  to  describe  the  peculiarities  of  the  various  machines.  The 
subject  belongs  to  the  specialist.  The  following,  from  the  introduction 
to  this  class  in  the  official  catalogue,  will  prove  interesting : 

PRANCE. 

“This  class  includes  the  machines  and  apparatus  destined  to  manufac¬ 
ture  textile  fabrics,  of  which  cotton,  flax,  hemp  and  silk  are  the  most 
important. 

The  machines  for  spinning,  twisting,  and  weaving  are  constructed  in 
different  industrial  centres  of  France.  The  machines  employed  in  the 
silk  trade  are  principally  made  at  Lyons  ;  Alsace  manufactures  for  the 
cotton,  woollen,  worsted  and  spun  silk  trades ;  Lille  is  principally 
engaged  with  flax  and  hemp  machinery ;  Bouen  furnishes  the  cotton 
trade  especially;  Louviers,  Elbeuf,  and  Sedan  the  machines  used  in  the 
cloth  trade;  Troyes  and  its  environs  produce  hosiery  looms.  Paris  com¬ 
bines  all  these  branches,  but  particularly  those  appertaining  to  the  class 
noAv  under  notice. 

“In  consequence  of  the  multiplicity  of  their  forms  and  of  their  masses, 
textile  materials  require  several  series  of  spinning  machinery  or, arrange¬ 
ments.  Cotton  is,  at  the  present  time,  worked  upon  two  systems  very 
distinct  from  each  other,  and  according  to  whether  the  yarns  are  to  be 
carded  or  combed.  For  wool,  four  series  of  machines,  corresponding 
with  the  denominations,  carded  yarns,  combed  merino  yarns,  long 
combed  yarn,  and  mixed  or  combed  carded  yarns ;  lastly,  a  new  appara¬ 
tus,  recently  introduced,  gives  woollen  yarns  by  felting  ihstead  of  spin¬ 
ning.  Hemp,  flax,  and  jute  are  prepared  by  two  principal  descriptions 
of  machines — one  for  long  fibres  upon  the  combing  principle,  the  other 
for  short  fibres  or  tow  prepared  by  carding.  Each  of  the  two  branches 
of  the  flax  and  hemp  manufacture  lias  other  modifications  in  its 
machinery,  according  to  the  special  character  of  the  raw  material 
employed  and  the  strength  of  its  fibres.  Nor  are  the  means  the  same 
for  producing  fine  and  coarse  yarns.  The  former  requires  not  only  a 
special  machine,  but  the  application  of  water  at  various  temperatures. 
Of  all  spinning  machinery  employed,  that  which  is  used  for  the  most 
costly  material  is  the  most  simple  in  its  construction;  but  the  winding 
of  silk  from  the  cocoon,  although  apparently  so  extremely  simple  an 
operation,  is  in  reality  so  delicate  that  with  cocoons  of  the  same  qual¬ 
ity  the  value  of  the  silk  may  be  doubled  by  the  ability  of  the  “durder” 
or  winder.  The  manufacture  of  spun  silk,  which  increases  daily  with 
the  cost  of  the  raw  material,  also  requires  a  variety  of  combs  as  well  as 
cards.  The  spinning  machinery  for  cashmere,  alpaca,  and  goat’s  hair 
is  identical,  with  a  trifling  exception,  with  that  employed  for  wool. 

“  This  class  includes,  also,  the  machinery  and  products  of  the  rope  and 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS. 


183 


twine  manufacture.  The  machines  of  class  56  act  upon  yarns  as  upon  a 
raw  material  of  common  origin  to  transform  them  into  fabrics.  The 
loom  changes  with  the  nature  of  the  tissue  to  be  produced.  The  same 
parts  apply  to  the  weaving  of  cotton,  wool,  flax,  silk,  &c.,  but  are  modified 
according  as  the  tissue  to  be  produced  is  plain  or  figured.  Knitted 
articles,  tulle,  bobinet,  net,  and  lace  have  each  a  machine  specially  con¬ 
structed  for  it,  and  which  changes  according  to  the  form  of  the  mesh. 
The  looms  of  class  56  are  divided,  then,  into : 

ul.  Looms  to  make  plain  fabrics  with  close  threads.  2.  Looms  to 
weave  fancy  stuffs,  plain,  napped,  or  with  velvet  pile.  3.  Frames  for 
knitting  tulle,  nets,  lace,  &c. 

u  The  apparatus  employed  in  the  preparation  of  yarns  for  weaving,  and 
also  for  the  dressing  of  tissues,  are  included  in  this  class.  Some,  such 
as  calenders,  presses,  clipping  machines,  &c.,  indispensable  in  all  textile 
manufactures,  are  applied,  with  certain  modifications,  to  each  of  the 
branches ;  others,  such  as  fulliug  mills,  are  used  only  in  one  branch  of 
this  vast  group.  The  purification  of  wools  has  been  greatly  improved 
as  regards  not  only  the  economy  but  the  perfection  of  the  process  since 
the  general  adoption  of  machinery  for  washing,  scraping,  and  other 
operations. 

“  Special  modifications  introduced  in  the  apparatus  for  the  preparation 
of  cotton  have  produced  unhoped-for  results  with  the  common  produc¬ 
tions  of  India  and  China.  The  fine  cottons  of  Georgia,  Egypt,  and 
Algeria  are  largely  indebted  for  their  present  position  in  the  market  to 
the  application  of  combing  machines.  The  same  principle  has  produced 
greater  results  still  in  the  woollen  manufacture.  Spinning  machinery, 
mill-jennies,*  and  their  contingents  receive  constant  improvements,  which 
allow  increased  speed  to  be  given  to  the  spindles,  and  consequently  an 
acceleration  of  their  productive  power.  The  spinning  of  silk  itself,  in 
spite  of  its  simplicity,  is  the  object  of  many  experiments,  with  a  view  to 
the  preservation  and  preparation  of  cocoons,  as  well  as  the  improvements 
of  the  mills  for  twisting  and  organzine.  The  machines  for  milling,  dress¬ 
ing,  and  preparing  the  yarns  for  warps,  and  the  wefting  machines,  have 
been  modified  with  great  success,  and  have  thus  contributed  to  the 
extension  of  power-loom  weaving  in  those  special  articles  where  a  sub¬ 
stitution  for  hand- weaving  seemed  very  difficult.  The  several  parts  of 
power  looms  have  been  the  object  of  careful  study,  which  has  brought 
about  many  improvements,  such  as  governors,  instantaneous  stopping 
on  the  breaking  of  a  thread,  either  warp  or  weft ;  cages  with  a  number 
of  shuttles,  &c.  Licreased  care  in  construction  has  produced  improve¬ 
ments  in  the  movements,  and  a  proportional  increase  in  the  production. 
In  the  weaving  of  figured  stuffs  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute 
paper  for  card  in  the  Jacquard  machine.  This  idea,  which  is  far  from 
new,  has  no  chance  of  success  until  the  various  organs  of  this  ingenious 
mechanism  can  be  made  to  work  with  absolute  precision.  Another 
important  fact  consists  in  the  happy  combination  of  a  Jacquard  loom  in 


184 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


which  the  same  part  produces  various  effects  in  succession,  so  as  to  sim¬ 
plify  the  machine  and  produce  an  important  economy  in  the  results. 
Straight  looms  for  hosiery  which  work  by  hand  produce  no  more  than 
5,000  meshes  a  minute,  while  machinery  produces  nearly  50,000  in  the 
same  period.  In  circular  knitting  machines  the  number  of  meshes  is 
raised  from  50,000  to  about  500,000.  Dressing  machines  do  not  seem  to 
call  for  similar  remarks,  and  present  but  few  special  modifications.  Im¬ 
provement  in  this  direction  depends,  in  fact,  more  upon  the  ability  of 
the  workmen  than  upon  the  principle  of  the  machine. 

“  France  employs  annually  from  80,000  to  85,000  tons  of  cotton,  the 
necessary  machinery  and  material  for  spinning,  weaving,  and  dressing 
amounting  in  value  to  about  400,000,000  francs.  The  woollen  manufac¬ 
tures  involve  about  the  same  aggregate  expenditure $  the  mechanical 
spinning  of  hemp  and  flax  and  the  weaving  of  linen  about  100,000,000 
francs ;  lastly,  the  silk  trade  furnishes  an  amount  very  nearly  approach¬ 
ing  to  200,000,000  francs,  giving  the  total  value  of  the  material  employed 
in  these  several  industries  as  1,100,000,000  francs. 

“  It  may  be  calculated  that  the  amount  spent  annually  for  construction 
represents  one-twentieth  of  the  above  total — that  is  to  say,  a  sum  of 
58,000,000  francs,  without  taking  into  account  exportation,  which  greatly 
exceeds  the  importation. 

“The  character  of  the  improvements  now  in  course  of  realization  may 
be  thus  summed  up : 

“  1.  A  more  precise  acquaintance  with  the  special  constitution  of  the 
raw  materials,  and,  consequently,  a  better  arrangement  of  the  means  by 
which  they  are  transformed. 

“  2.  A  more  rigorous  application  of  the  mechanical  laws  in  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  all  the  parts  of  the  machines.” 

• 

CLASS  57.— APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  FOR  SEWING  AND 
FOR  MAKING  UP  CLOTHING. 

“The  machines  and  tools  exhibited  in  this  class  form  three  distinct 
series : 

“1.  Sewing  machines  applied  to  the  different  works  of  sewing  and 
embroidery.  2.  Machines  employed  in  shoe-making.  3.  Machines  and 
apparatus  used  in  felt-hat  making. 

“  The  articles  exhibited  in  this  class  show  the  advance  made  in  the  trade. 
The  first  sewing  machine  which  was  worked  for  trade  purposes  was 
invented  by  a  Frenchman  named  Thimonier,  a  tailor  at  Amplepuis, 
(Rhone,)  the  invention  being  patented  17th  April,  1830,  and  improve¬ 
ments  therein  registered  21st  July,  1845.  Until  the  year  1855  the  use  of 
these  machines  was  very  restricted.  They  were  only  applied  in  a  few 
special  ways,  and  it  is  since  that  time,  and  particularly  since  1862,  that 
they  have  come  into  general  use  in  France.” 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS 


185 


MACHINES  USED  IN  SHOE-MAKING. 

“Machines  have  long  been  used  in  shoe-making,  and  the  principal  aim 
of  the  experiments  latterly  has  been  to  replace  sewing  by  screw  pegs. 
The  exhibition  in  this  class  shows  the  mechanical  apparatus  for  this  kind 
of  work  in  movement,  such  as  cutting  presses,  mounting  and  screwing 
machines,  shears,  grindstones,  piercers,  &c.  The  mounting  and  screw¬ 
ing  machines,  worked  by  steam  and  guided  by  women,  admit  of  a  rapidity 
of  execution  and  an  economy  of  hand  work  which  enables  the  makers  to 
deliver  the  products  for  consumption  at  a  much  lower  price  and  of  an 
equally  good  quality.  We  must  also  mention  the  special  apparatus 
called  dressing  machines,  intended  for  the  mountings  of  the  upper  leath¬ 
ers,  which  was  done  hitherto  by  hand.” 

APPARATUS  FOR  FELT-HAT  MAKING. 

“The  machines  serving  for  the  manufacture  of  felt  hats  have  accom¬ 
plished  a  complete  transformation  in  the  trade  during  the  last  few  years. 
Previously  the  workman  shaped,  fulled,  pounced,  and  pressed  by  hand. 
This  system  produced  much  inequality  in  the  work,  and,  above  all,  great 
slowness  in  the  production.  At  the  present  time  machinery  replaces 
hand  work  in  general.  The  several  machines  working  in  class  57  serve 
for  forming,  fulling,  and  pouncing  felt  hats,  and  for  shaping  straw  hats. 
They  show  a  considerable  progress  as  regards  the  regularity  of  the  work, 
and,  by  rendering  the  manufacture  more  easy,  admit  of  the  productions 
being  sold  at  a  lower  price,  and  thus  meeting  in  a  much  better  degree 
the  demands  of  the  home  consumption  and  the  extended  sales  for  exporta¬ 
tion.” 


CLASS  58.— APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  THE 
MANUFACTURE  OF  FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS 
FOR  DWELLINGS. 

“The  productions  exhibited  in  class  58  form  four  principal  sections: 

“1.  Tools  for  wood- work,  including  ribbon  saws,  reciprocating  treadle 
saws,  vertical  moulding  machines,  planing  machines  with  lielicoidal 
blades  and  with  disks,  mortising,  engine-turning,  and  carving  machines, 
and  collections  of  tools  for  hand  work.  2.  The  worked  produce  of  these 
machines.  3.  Engraving  machines  and  portrait  lathes.  4.  Saw  blades 
and  collection  of  wood- working  tools.” 

It  embraced  the  apparatus  and  processes  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
furniture,  and  other  objects  for  dwellings — familiar  machinery  for  the 
most  part  that  had  very  little  interest  for  the  general  public.  America 
exhibited  several  ingenious  contrivances,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
a  gauge  lathe  for  turning  the  legs  of  chairs,  &c.  It  is  a  lathe  with  a 
slide-rest  traversed  by  a  screw.  This  rest  carries  two  tools;  one,  a 
chisel,  is  fixed  and  roughs  off  the  work ;  the  second,  a  Y-shaped  cutter, 
cuts  out  the  pattern  and  is  guided  by  a  template  fixed  to  the  bed  of  the 


186 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


latlie.  A  knife  wliose  edge  is  molded  to  the  form  to  he  produced,  moves 
vertically  in  a  frame  behind  the  lathe ;  as  the  slide-rest  passes  along,  this 
knife  descends  and  smooths  off  the  pattern  produced  by  the  first  two 
cutters.  In  this  manner  chair  legs  are  produced  from  a  rough  square 
log  with  an  accuracy  equal  to  that  attained  by  hand,  and  with  immense 
rapidity  and  cheapness. 

FRANCE. 

“  In  the  French  section  a  lathe  for  copying  medals  was  shown  by  Messrs 
Barrere  &  Caussande.  The  work  and  the  original  revolve  slowly  at  the 
same  speed.  A  tracing-point  moves  from  the  circumference  of  the  model, 
so  as  to  describe  a  spiral  track  over  the  surface  to  be  copied,  and  rises 
and  falls  as  it  meets  with  elevations  and  depressions.  The  vertical 
motion  of  this  point  is  communicated  to  a  drill  which  moves  in  a  similar 
manner  over  the  work.  Reduction  or  enlargement  is  produced  by  caus¬ 
ing  the  horizontal  movement  of  the  drill  to  be  slower  or  faster  than  that 
of  the  tracing  point  by  means  of  change  wheels. 

“The  principal  centres  of  manufacture  are  in  the  department  of  the 
Seine,  but  a  certain  number  of  machines  are  furnished  by  other  depart¬ 
ments.  The  raw  materials,  such  as  cast  and  wrought  iron  and  steel,  are 
derived  almost  entirely  from  French  sources.  The  price  of  cast  iron 
varies  from  24  francs  to  26  francs  the  100  kilograms,  and  that  of  iron 
castings  from  30  to  35  francs  the  100  kilograms ;  charcoal  iron,  plate, 
and  cast  iron  of  the  second  fusion  are  preferred. 

“Mechanical  labor  has  taken  the  place  of  manual  for  sawing  up  and 
shaping  the  wood;  and  in  the  forest,  when  it  is  impossible  to  bring  out 
the  rough  timber,  saw  mills  are  used,  which  cut  up  the  timber  on  the  spot, 
and  convert  it  into  pieces  for  parquetry,  staves,  &c.  It  took  some  years 
to  break  through  the  old  routine,  but  the  perseverance  of  constructors 
has  triumphed  at  last,  and  now  almost  all  the  works  are  provided  with 
machines  of  all  kinds.  Even  carving  by  machinery  has  come  into  prac¬ 
tice.  The  engraving  machines  and  portrait  engines  have  made  sensible 
progress.  Lathes  are  used,  which  reproduce,  with  the  utmost  fidelity, 
and  on  steel,  all  kinds  of  models,  without  the  slightest  alteration  of  form. 
Saw  blades  and  cutting  tools  have  undergone  considerable  modifications, 
and  complete  the  machinery  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  The  blades  of 
ribbon  saws  have  now  arrived  at  great  perfection.  Hand-tools  for  wood¬ 
work  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  in  any  respect.  The  number  of  wood¬ 
working  machines  in  actual  operation  may  be  estimated  at  10,000. 

“  The  employment  of  machine  tools  has  not  had  the  effect,  as  might  have 
been  expected,  of  superseding  manual  labor,  the  production  having  con¬ 
siderably  increased.  Simple  laborers  have  become  directors  of  machines, 
and  workmen  of  the  first  class,  following  the  same  profession,  have  given 
to  this  kind  of  work  the  impulse  that  it  required.  Wages  have  increased 
in  large  proportion.  The  workmen  who  formerly  earned  three  francs  a 
day  now  obtain  five  francs.  Good  workmen  have  become  masters,  and 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS 


187 


established  saw-mills,  which  now  form  a  very  important  branch  of  com¬ 
merce.  Machine  tools  are  sold  principally,  in  France,  for  cabinet-making, 
inlaid  work,  furniture-making,  cutting-out  stuffs,  bones  and  ivory.  They 
are  also  sent  abroad  for  forest  works.  The  number  of  machines  work¬ 
ing  since  1855  is  estimated  at  10,000,  and  the  average  cost  of  each,  2,000 
francs,  making  a  total  of  20,000,000  francs.  Each  machine  represents 
the  power  of  four  workmen,  from  which  has  to  be  deducted  the  conductor 
of  the  machine.  The  saving  effected  is  therefore  equal  to  three-fourths  of 
the  whole. 

u  The  committee  of  admission  has  to  point  out  the  following  instances  of 
progress  made  during  the  last  twelve  years :  Ribbon  saws,  with  moulded 
or  cast-iron  frames  and  columns,  which  may  be  placed  on  a  simple  slab  of 
stone,  and  worked  without  the  slightest  trepidation,  the  diameter  of  the 
pulley  so  much  enlarged  that  wood  of  a  metre  in  diameter  may  be  cut  up ; 
moulding  and  mortising  machines,  worked  with  greatly  increased  rapidity; 
machines  with  helicoidal  blades,  for  working  wood  across  the  grain  and 
for  planing  knotty  wood  in  all  directions ;  planing  machines,  with  disks 
working  vertically,  by  which  wood  may  be  worked  square  or  obliquely, 
according  to  circumstances ;  the  improvement  of  hand  tools,  reciprocating 
saws,  worked  by  treadle  at  the  rate  of  250  cuts  per  minute,  and  which 
move  so  easily  that  the  workman  is  in  no  way  occupied  with  the  action 
of  his  foot;  the  arris  handsaw,  especially  useful  for  cutting  tenons,  for 
square  cuts,  and  mitreing.  Saw-blades  and  cutting  tools  are  manufac¬ 
tured  in  Paris;  the  largest  articles  are  circular  saws,  and  the  smallest 
ribbon  saws.  The  products  of  these,  exhibited  in  specimens  of  cutting, 
which  are  models  of  precision  and  patience,  show  the  perfection  of  the 
ribbon  saw;  the  specimens  of  carving  and  ornamental  cutting  and  of 
carton  work  also  exhibit  a  high  degree  of  perfection.” 

CLASS  59.— APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  PAPER¬ 
MAKING,  DYEING,  AND  PRINTING. 

The  exhibits  included  in  this  class  are  manufacturing  machines 
employed  especially  in  the  making  of  paper,  in  dyeing  and  printing  of  all 
descriptions.  They  form  six  principal  series  :  1.  Printing  machines  and 
presses,  apparatus  for  stereotype  and  type-founding,  and  for  composing  by 
machinery;  2.  Lithographic  printing  presses;  3.  Machines  for  various 
kinds  of  printing  and  decoration  on  paper,  roller  and  scraper  machines 
for  copperplate  and  other  incised  engraving,  and  for  the  cheap  printing 
of  children’s  copy  books;  machines  for  the  rapid  printing  of  railway- 
tickets;  self-cutting,  stamping  and  registering  machines.  Among  the 
many  tools  used  for  paper  work,  folding  machines  and  powerful  paper- 
cutting  machines  ought  to  be  mentioned:  4.  Machines  for  paper-making; 
5.  Apparatus  for  printing  paper-hangings ;  G.  Accessories  of  calico  and 
other  printings;  pricking  machines;  singeing  mchaines;  stretcher  for 
dyeing  dyed  fabrics,  &c.;  accessories  of  printing  on  paper;  processes  of 
engraving  with  the  aid  of  galvanic  deposits;  seal  engraving,  &c.,  &c. 


188 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


u  Paris  and  Mulhouse  are  the  two  principal  centres  of  production  for 
machinery  and  apparatus  belonging  to  this  class.  Some  of  them,  and 
particularly  those  used  in  stereotype  work  and  type-founding,  are  modi¬ 
fications  of  American  models.  The  precision  of  the  machines  for  fine 
printing,  for  printing  from  wood-blocks,  and  the  rapidity  of  production 
for  ordinary  works,  and  especially  for  newspapers,  are  the  principal  objects 
of  the  labors  of  the  constructors.  The  problem  of  lithographic  printing 
by  machinery,  at  prices,  similar  to  those  of  typographical  printing,  has, 
within  the  last  few  years,  been  practically  solved.  The  Exhibition  con¬ 
tains  many  specimens  of  machines  which  have  been  adopted  by  the  trade. 
The  annual  value  of  machines  belonging  to  the  first  series  amounts  to 
1,500,000  or  2,000,000  francs,  and  their  success  is  attested  by  the  expor¬ 
tation  of  nearly  one-half  the  amount. 

“We  have  to  draw  attention  to  the  improvements  made  in  the  machines 
for  reducing  pulp,  with  regard  to  form,  dimensions,  and  mode  of  con¬ 
struction,  which  are  shown  in  the  Exhibition.  The  machines  exhibited 
consist  of  pulp-engines  of  large  dimensions,  of  one  of  new  construction, 
and  lastly,  of  the  accessories  of  the  paper  machine,  dryers,  wire-cloth, 
felt,  &c.  The  machines  for  engraving,  rollers  for  printing  by  means  of 
circular  cutters,  engine-turning,  electricity,  and  the  employment  of  the 
pantograph,  &c.,  are  valuable  auxiliaries  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
roller-engravers.  The  printing  machine  figures  in  the  Exhibition  with 
its  last  improvements,  and  a  special  motor,  adopted  on  account  of  its 
simple  action.” 

Class  60  was  devoted  to  machines,  instruments,  and  processes  used  in 
various  works.  It  included  among  the  objects  from  the  United  States  a 
machine  for  dressing  printing  types,  and  machines  for  cutting  files.  In 
the  French  section  there  were  watch-makers*  and  jewellers’  tools,  and 
machines  for  making  envelopes.  Many  of  the  machines  in  this  class  are 
described  elsewhere. 

CLASS  61.— CAEEIAGES  ANTD  WHEELWEIGHTS’  WOEK. 

Class  61  was  devoted  to  carriages  and  wheelwrights’  work,  comprising 
carriages  entire  and  in  parts.  The  display  of  the  former  was  exceed¬ 
ingly  good,  especially  in  the  English  and  French  departments.  There 
were  a  few  light  wagons  from  America,  but  neither  in  style  nor  variety 
of  style  was  the  exhibit  worthy  of  this  important  industry.  Eussia  dis¬ 
played  several  specimens  of  her  carriage  work,  which,  in  the  lighter  sort 
of  road  vehicles,  is  obviously  borrowed  from  American  models.  There 
were  fine  specimens  also  in  the  Austrian,  Prussian,  and  Spanish  sec¬ 
tions.  The  English  exhibit  was  characterized  by  elegance  of  form,  bril¬ 
liance  of  varnish,  and  graceful  poise.  There  were  but  few  novelties. 
The  most  important  had  in  view  the  better  and  quicker  opening  and 
shutting  of  barouches,  so  as  to  afford  immediate  protection  in  case  of 
rain.  This  is  done  very  rapidly  from  the  driver’s  seat  by  means  of  a 
crank,  which  winds  it  up  without  requiring  to  stop,  or  any  derangement 


MACHINES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS. 


189 


to  the  occupants.  A  similar  contrivance,  but  worked  by  springs,  and 
balanced  to  the  greatest  nicety,  is  operated  from  the  interior.  A  touch 
of  the  strap  raises  the  cover. 

FRANCE. 

u  The  productions  exhibited  in  this  class  comprise:  1.  Carriages  of  vari¬ 
ous  kinds  and  forms,  such  as  landaus,  calashes,  broughams,  victorias,  phae¬ 
tons,  omnibuses,  American  trotting  carriages,  fancy  vehicles  of  all  sorts, 
and  children’s  carriages;  2.  Detached  parts  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  carriages  of  all  kinds,  such  as  wheels,  axles,  springs,  boxes,  shafts, 
specimens  of  forging,  &c.  The  principal  manufactories  for  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  dress  carriages  are  in  Paris,  but  there  are  some  also  at  Lille, 
Lyons,  Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  Caen,  Abbeville,  Colmar,  Boulogne-sur-mer, 
&c.  Each  district,  as  a  rule,  builds  carriages  in  ordinary  use  in  its  own 
part  of  the  country.  The  dimensions,  form,  mounting,  and  the  acces¬ 
sories  of  these  vehicles  are  necessarily  modified  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  ground,  the  state  of  the  roads,  and  the  quality  of  the  horses  of  the 
country.  As  to  the  detached  parts  of  carriages,  carts,  and  other  vehicles, 
their  production  is  spread  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  country;  they 
exhibit,  however,  a  tendency  to  concentrate  themselves  round  certain 
centres,  where,  with  the  aid  of  machinery,  they  are  produced  in  large 
workshops  amply  provided  with  means,  with  great  rapidity  and  economy. 
The  materials  used  by  the  coachmaker  and  wheelwright  are  principally 
wood,  iron,  steel,  leather,  cloth,  galloons  or  coach  lace,  silk  and  woollen 
fabrics,  horse  hair,  morocco,  colors,  varnish,  &c.  For  a  long  period 
French  industry  depended  on  foreigners  for  many  of  these  items,  espe¬ 
cially  springs  and  varnish,  which  came  from  England;  but  for  some  time 
the  French  makers  have  found  nearly  all  they  required  at  home.  In  con¬ 
sequence  of  the  great  variety  of  forms,  coach-building  cannot  be  effected 
by  mechanical  means.  Such  processes  are  only  used  in  the  case  of  certain 
detached  parts,  such  as  springs,  axles,  and  wheels.  The  work  is  divided 
amongst  a  large  number  of  workmen ;  one  class  of  workmen  make  the 
wheels  and  the  carriages;  a  second,  the  bodies;  smiths  and  fitters  make 
the  springs,  the  axles,  and  all  the  iron-work;  saddlers  and  stuffers  pro¬ 
vide  the  furniture  of  the  interior,  the  seats,  and  also  the  exterior  parts 
in  which  leather  is  employed ;  and  to  those  must  be  added  the  platers, 
the  painters,  the  lamp-makers,  the  lace-makers,  the  carvers,  &c.  Besides 
the  great  establishments  in  which  the  carriages  are  produced  complete, 
and  in  which  all  the  classes  of  workmen  are  employed,  there  are  shops 
which  confine  themselves  to  the  fitting  and  mounting,  of  coach  bodies 
purchased  in  the  rough  state;  others  are  specially  organized  for  painting 
only;  and,  lastly,  certain  persons  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  designs  and  models.  The  products  of  the  French  carriage 
trade  are  not  oidy  sold  all  over  France,  but  exported  to  other  countries. 
The  number  built  in  France  may  be  estimated  approximately  at  about 
5,000  annually,  and  of  the  value  of  about  15,000,000  francs.  But  this 
does  not  include  the  work  of  repairing  and  keeping  in  order,  which  sur- 


190 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


passes  considerably  in  amount  the  cost  of  the  new  work.  The  inquiry 
instituted  in  I860,  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Paris,  proved  that, 
including  the  whole  of  the  coach,  carriage,  and  wheelwright’s  works, 
lamp-making,  iron- work,  painting,  &c.,  the  trade  of  Paris  alone  amounted 
to  36,000,000  francs.  Although  the  treaty  of  commerce  has  offered  great 
facilities,  this  is  at  present  almost  nil,  The  exportation,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  on  the  increase  5  this  scarcely  exceeded  1,000,000  francs  from 
1847  to  1856,  but  it  amounts,  at  the  present  time,  to  four  times  that  sum. 
French  carriages  are  exported  mostly  to  Spain,  Russia,  Egypt,  Portugal, 
America,  Turkey,  and  the  colonies  5  a  certain  number  are  even  sent  to 
England. 

“  The  principal  improvements  to  be  noted  in  the  trade  maybe  summed 
up :  1.  The  carriages,  being  manufactured  of  the  very  best  materials,  are 
more  solid  than  formerly  ;  2.  The  models  are  more  varied,  both  as  regards 
elegance,  and  also  to  suit  the  many  different  employments  for  which  they 
are  destined  5  3.  The  manufacture  is  more  rapid,  in  consequence  of 
improvements  introduced  in  the  tools  employed,  and  of  a  better  distri¬ 
bution  of  the  work  in  factories.” 

CLASS  62.— HARNESS  AND  SADDLERY. 

The  productions  exhibited  in  class  62  comprise :  1.  Harness  of  all  kinds, 
coarse  and  fine 5  2.  Collars  on  different  systems;  3.  Saddlery  work;  4. 
Driving  and  riding  whips  and  sticks ;  5.  Detached  parts  which  enter  into 
the  structure  of  the  preceding  articles,  and  which  furnish  employment  to 
special  workmen. 

The  display  was  by  no  means  remarkable,  and  the  contest  was  mainly 
between  France  and  England.  The  latter  country,  some  few  years  since, 
had  almost  a  monopoly  of  this  business,  but  French  ingenuity  and  skill 
have  made  such  rapid  progress  that  she  can  no  longer  boast  of  occupying 
the  same  position.  Both  nations,  however,  manufacture  superb  articles 
in  this  branch.  In  the  Spanish  department  was  exhibited  a  magnificent 
set  of  state  harness,  in  which  material  workmanship,  taste,  plating,  &c., 
seemed  perfect.  It  was  for  eight  horses  and  took  many  years  to  make. 
Spanish  leather  is  famous. 


FRANCE. 

“Paris  is  the  centre  of  production  for  dress  harness,  saddles,  whips, 
riding  whips  and  sticks.  Common  harness,  such  as  that  used  in  trade 
and  agriculture,  is  made  in  all  parts  ot  France;  its  forms,  which  are  very 
various,  adapt  themselves  to  the  wants  of  the  several  localities  where  it 
is  employed.  Formerly  the  makers  of  harness  in  France  obtained  their 
burnished  leather  and  polished  steel  spurs  from  England ;  a  few  houses 
have  still  retained  this  habit,  as  regards  certain  articles,  but  the  tanneries 
of  Paris  and  Pont  Audemer  now  produce  leathers  which  will  bear  com¬ 
parison  in  all  respects  with  those  of  the  best  English  houses.  As  to  spur 
and  harness-making,  the  makers  of  Paris  and  those  of  the  departments 


RAILROADS  AND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


191 


of  the  Aisne,  Eure,  and  Ardennes,  are  now  able  to  produce  all  the  fine 
articles.  The  materials  employed  are  tanned  leather,  (bullock,  cow,  calf, 
pig,  and  horse.)  Varnished  leather  is  only  used  for  the  finer  kinds  of 
harness ;  the  white,  or  Hungarian  leather,  is  now  only  employed  in  agri¬ 
cultural  harness ;  the  ox  and  cow  hides  are  employed  for  common  and 
ordinary  harness  ;  pig  skins  are  used  for  the  making  of  saddlery. 

u  The  articles  composing  this  class  are  made  in  workshops  under  the  eye 
of  the  manufacturer.  Hand  labor  is  still  most  in  demand.  The  use  of 
sewing  machines  has  introduced  great  regularity  in  the  manufacture  of 
many  parts  of  the  saddles  and  collars,  but  hand  work  is  preferable  for  the 
pieces  which  require  great  solidity.  Some  houses  which  employ  them¬ 
selves  upon  military  equipments,  and  others  who  work  for  exportation 
and  the  omnibus  and  other  great  companies,  possess  large  workshops, 
directed  by  foremen,  and  including  cutters  and  preparers,  as  well  as 
special  workmen  for  each  branch  of  the  trade.  French  saddlery  is 
exported  all  over  the  world,  the  principal  markets  being  Egypt,  Spain, 
Turkey,  Belgium,  and  especially  South  America,  which  sends  us  the  raw 
hides  and  receives  back  the  finished  manufactured  articles. 

uIt  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  trade.  It  appears,  from  a 
report  made  to  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Paris,  in  I860,'  that  the 
amount  of  the  harness  manufacture  in  Paris  alone  wras  12,276,000  francs  5 
and  that  of  saddlery,  spur-making,  and  saddlebow-making,  to  2,992,000 
francs,  giving  a  total  of  15,000,000  francs  and  upwards,  which  must  at 
least  be  doubled  to  represent  all  France,  and  that  without  including  mili¬ 
tary  harness.  The  exportation  of  French  saddlery  exceeds  5,000,000 
francs  per  year.  The  improvements  which  have  been  introduced  into  the 
trade  during  the  past  12  years  are  of  two  kinds ;  on  the  one  hand,  the 
forms  have  been  modified  so  as  to  render  them  more  simple  than  those 
formerly  in  use,  and  to  get  rid  of  heavy  and  ungraceful  pieces;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  hand  labor  has  been  replaced  with  advantage  in  several 
branches  of  the  trade,  by  mechanical  means.” 

CLASS  63.— BAILWAY  APPARATUS. 

The  objects  ranged  under  this  class  comprise  the  material  of  railways: 

Locomotives,  designs,  and  models  of  locomotives,  railway  carriages, 
goods  wagons,  signals,  turn-tables,  specimens  of  permanent  way,  weigh¬ 
bridges,  models  of  various  systems  of  brakes  and  modes  of  communica¬ 
tion  between  passengers  and  guards;  specimens  of  wheels  and  axles  and 
other  iron- work  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  railroad  rolling  stock. 
Nearly  all  the  continental  countries,  Great  Britain,  and  America,  con¬ 
tributed  to  this  highly  important  and  interesting  division. 

LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  locomotives  exhibited  were  32  in  number.  Of  these,  France  con¬ 
tributed  11  passenger  and  goods  engines,  and  twro  small  tank-engines  for 
tramways;  Belgium  sent  five;  Prussia,  two;  Baden,  one;  Wurtemberg, 


192 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


one;  Bavaria,  one;  Austria,  three;  the  United  States,  one,  and  Great 
Britain,  three  passenger  engines  and  two  contractors’  tank  engines. 
Some  of  these  were  of  enormous  proportions.  The  Paris  and  Orleans 
railway  exhibited  a  ten-wheeled  tank-engine,  weighing  60  tons,  on  a 
wheel  base  of  14  feet  10J  inches.  English  engines  seldom  have  more 
than  six  wheels,  and  in  England  the  inside  cylinder  is  largely  adopted. 
On  the  continent  the  cylinders  are  generally  outside.  The  workman¬ 
ship  of  the  French  engine-makers  is  fully  equal  to  the  best.  In  this 
industry,  indeed,  France  lias  made  immense  strides.  Only  a  few  years 
have  elapsed  since  the  time  when  she  used  to  import  her  locomotives 
from  England.  The  shoe  is  now  on  the  other  foot.  The  Creusot  Iron 
Works  exhibited  a  remarkably  well-finished  express  engine,  made  from 
English  drawings,  indeed,  but  intended  for  an  English  railroad,  the  Great 
Eastern.  It  was  the  16th  out  of  an  order  for  40 ;  the  first  15  having  been 
already  delivered  over  to  the  railway  company,  and  accepted  by  them, 
the  period  of  warranty  for  them  having  expired.  Another  singular 
instance  of  the  way  in  which  this  manufacture  is  passing  into  new  hands 
was  furnished  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Kessler,  of  Esslingen,  who  exhibited  a 
locomotive  built  by  him,  also  on  English  designs,  for  an  English  colony, 
it  being  part  of  an  order  from  the  East  India  Bailway  Company  for  20 
engines.  The  workmanship  was  thoroughly  good.  These  two  engines, 
says  Sir  D.  Campbell,  afford  incontrovertible  proof  of  the  possibility  of 
getting  English  designs  carried  out  in  France,  or  on  the  continent,  quite 
as  well  as  in  England,  and  at  a  cheaper  rate. 

The  Grant  locomotive  of  Paterson,  Kew  Jersey,  attracted  much  atten¬ 
tion,  and  was  universally  regarded  as  the  handsomest  piece  of  work  in 
the  Exhibition.  The  handles  of  the  various  cocks  were  made  of  ivory, 
and  the  covering  of  the  boiler,  cylinder,  and  chimney,  were  of  polished 
brass  and  German  silver.  The  engine-driver’s  house  was  of  inlaid  wood, 
and  every  particular  of  fine  workmanship  was  carefully  and  beautifully 
wrought  out. 

In  the  Bussian  department  of  the  Park  was  a  model  illustrating  the 
working  of  the  Mahovos  system  of  locomotion  on  steep  inclines  from 
mines.  The  apparatus  consisted  of  a  truck  fitted  with  a  pair  of  15-ton 
fly-wheels  on  an  axle  carried  on  friction  rollers,  which  themselves  rest  on 
the  wheels  of  the  truck.  Each  train  of  loaded  wagons  has  one  of  these 
trucks  attached,  and  is  impelled  down  the  incline  by  its  own  weight,  and 
the  truck  wheels,  in  revolving,  transmit  a  rotary  motion  to  the  fly-wheels 
by  means  of  the  friction  rollers.  On  reaching  the  bottom  of  the  descent 
the  rollers  are  lifted  by  means  of  levers,  clear  of  the  truck  wheels,  and  then 
revolve  freely,  opposing  hardly  any  resistance  to  the  action  of  the  fly¬ 
wheels.  The  truck  is  then  detached,  turned  round  on  a  turn-table,  and 
attached  to  the  head  of  a  train  of  empty  wagons.  The  friction  rollers  are 
then  let  down  upon  the  truck  wheels,  transmitting  to  them  the  rotatory 
power  stored  up  in  the  fly-wheels,  which,  it  is  claimed,  suffices  to  draw  the 


RAILWAYS  AND  RAILWAY  APPARATUS.  193 

empty  wagons  up  to  the  top  of  the  incline.  It  certainly  accomplished 
this  object  in  the  working  model. 

SIGNALS  TO  GUARDS. 

Many  devices  were  exhibited  in  this  section  for  enabling  passengers  to 
communicate  with  the  guards.  They  were  curious  to  Americans,  inas¬ 
much  as  they  show  how  much  thought  has  been  bestowed  on  a  subject 
which  has  already  in  the  United  States  found  a  very  ready  solution. 
With  us,  however,  the  conditions  are  somewhat  different.  The  cars  are 
open  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  the  guard  is  constantly  passing 
through  them.  In  Europe  there  are  three  and  sometimes  four  different 
classes  to  each  train,  and  the  subdivisions  extend  to  carriages  of  the  same 
denomination,  so  that  the  guard  is  compelled  to  pass  from  coach  to  coach 
by  means  of  the  steps  outside.  This,  however,  would  not  prevent  a  simple 
rope  passing  along  the  entire  length  of  the  train,  as  with  us.  It  would 
be  sure  to  be  within  the  reach  of  every  one,  while  it  seems  that  it  is  only 
desired  to  afford  succor  to  the  occupants  of  first-class  carriages.  This 
circumstance  is  the  occasion  of  all  the  difficulties  which  European  engi¬ 
neers  have  had  to  meet.  Their  effort  has  been  to  provide  in  first-class 
carriages  a  means  by  which  the  train  could  be  arrested,  and  then  to  sur¬ 
round  it  with  such  difficulties  and  complications  that  no  one,  unless  in 
extremity,  would  think  of  using  it.  And  it  may  be  added  that  a  person 
in  extremity,  attacked  by  a  maniac  or  a  murderer,  would  be  utterly  unable 
to  command  the  resources,  within  his  reach  technically,  but  practically 
out  of  his  power.  We  will  briefly  refer  to  one  or  two  of  these  methods. 
They  consist  of  signals  communicated  by  acoustic,  pneumatic,  or  electrical 
agency.  The  latter  form  the  large  majority,  especially  in  France,  but  it 
has  been  found  so  difficult  to  obtain  an  undisturbed  connection  that  one- 
third  of  the  signals  fail.  The  way  in  which  this  scientific  security  is  prof- 
ferred  to  the  traveller  is  curious.  A  small  triangular  piece  is  taken  out 
from  the  partition  which  divides  two  compartments  of  a  carriage,  and 
which  otherwise  are  strictly  separate  and  private.  This  triangle  is  glazed 
with  two  panes  of  glass,  one  in  each  carriage.  Dangling  between  the  two 
is  a  ring  attached  to  a  wire,  and  beneath  it  an  intimation  that,  in  case  of 
accident  or  dire  necessity,  the  passenger  may  break  the  glass  with  his 
elbow,  pull  the  wire,  then  open  a  window  and  wave  his  arms  in  the  air, 
by  which  means  the  guard  or  engineer  will  be  duly  warned.  Heavy 
penalties  are  demanded  from  those  who  should  wantonly  indulge  in  this 
luxury,  but  the  difficulties  in  the  case  are  sufficient  to  deter  people  from 
risking  their  elbows  and  fingers  in  such  an  exploit.  In  cases  of  real 
danger  a  powerful  ruffian  could  accomplish  his  purpose  long  before  his 
victim  had  mounted  to  the  seat,  crooked  his  elbow,  broken  the  wrindow, 
pulled  the  bell,  opened  the  window,  and  called  for  help  in  the  open  air. 
A  better  arrangement  than  the  one  we  have  described  is  that  where  the 
suppliant  pulls  a  peg  like  an  organ  stop.  The  lever  thus  pulled  from  its 
place  cannot  be  put  back.  The  guard  knows  w  ho  has  summoned  him,  and 
13  u  E 


194 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


can  either  succor  or  prosecute,  according  to  tlie  merits  of  the  case.  The 
good  Samaritan  always  comes  with  a  club  in  his  hand. 

The  pneumatic  method  of  Chevalier ,  Oheilus  &  Co.  is  by  far  too  com¬ 
plicated  for  description  in  these  pages,  and  its  merits,  we  believe,  have 
yet  to  be  ascertained.  Practically  it  is  a  bell  rung  by  means  of  weights, 
which  are  kept  in  their  place  until  otherwise  disposed  of  by  pneumatic 
means. 


RAILWAY  POST  OFFICES. 

In  the  English  department  the  post  office  authorities  exhibited  an 
excellent  working  model  of  the  carriages  and  system  adopted  in  England 
for  depositing  and  taking  up  the  mail-bags  at  stations  where  the  main 
train  does  not  stop.  The  bags  are  suspended  on  poles,  secured  with  a 
suitable  catch.  A  net  sweeps  past  them,  and  from  its  velocity  opens  the 
catch  and  sweeps  off  the  bag,  which  is  then  put  in  the  travelling  post 
office,  opened  and  arranged  en  route.  This  is  the  process  on  the  cars. 
The  same  naturally  holds  good  at  the  stations — the  train  holds  out  the 
bag,  and  the  station  pole  seizes  it.  Thus,  whilst  travelling  at  a  high  rate 
of  speed,  letters  are  both  delivered  and  received  without  a  moment’s 
detention. 

The  travelling  post  office  consists  of  three  carriages  with  a  continuous 
communication  throughout.  Two  of  them  are  used  for  sorting  the  Lon¬ 
don  and  the  country  correspondence  respectively  5  the  third  being  devoted 
to  the  delivery  and  reception  of  the  mail-bags.  All  projections  in  the 
interior,  which  are  as  few  as  possible,  are  covered  with  stuffed  cushions 
in  order  to  lessen  the  effect  of  collision  on  the  officials.  In  these  car¬ 
riages  the  post  office  clerks  perform  their  duties.  There  is  a  post  box  in 
the  car,  so  that  when  a  stoppage  takes  place  letters  may  be  forwarded  up 
to  the  last  moment.  The  latter  convenience  is  well  known  and  appreci¬ 
ated  in  various  central  parts  of  the  United  States. 

On  account  of  the  special  nature  of  this  exhibition,  the  committee  of 
admission  to  this  class  thought  itself  bound  to  study  the  statistics  of  the 
subject,  and  reviewed  successively  the  phases  of  this  important  branch 
of  French  industry  as  follows : 

RAILWAY  CONSTRUCTION  IN  FRANCE. 

u  On  the  1st  day  of  January,  1866,  the  whole  system  of  railways  con¬ 
ceded  to  companies  amounted  to  21,000  kilometres,  of  which  the  part  in 
working  was  13,570  kilometres  j  remaining  unfinished  7,430  kilometres. 
The  total  cost  of  the  whole  of  the  lines  in  work  amounted  to  6,824,000,000 
francs,  of  which  5,840,000,000  francs  was  paid  by  the  companies  and 
984,000,000  francs  by  the  state;  the  expenditure  remaining  to  be  made 
by  the  companies  amounting  to  about  1,900,000,000  francs.  The  cost 
per  kilometre1  of  the  completed  portion  was  500,000  francs,  (£20,000,) 
and  that  of  the  remainder  is  estimated  at  255,000  francs  for  the  com- 

1  The  kilometre  is  equal  to  about  five-eighths  of  a  mile. 


RAILWAYS  AND  RAILWAY  APPARATUS 


195 


panies’  share.  With  the  exception  of  some  special  railways  and  some 
lines  of  secondary  importance,  the  whole  system  of  French  railways  is 
divided  between  six  great  companies.  The  following  statement  will  show 
their  importance: 

“  The  Northern  Railway  Company,  1,613  kilometres  conceded,  1,197 
kilometres  completed,  549  locomotives,  1,032  carriages,  and  13,123  vans 
and  trucks,  at  a  total  expense  of  92,172,022  francs  for  rolling  stock  and 
repairing  sheds. 

“  The  Eastern  Railway  Company,  3,088  kilometres  conceded,  2,512  kilo¬ 
metres  completed,  762  locomotives,  1,962  carriages,  and  16,316  vans  and 
trucks,  at  an  expense  of  115,832,561  francs  for  rolling  stock  and  repairing 
sheds. 

“  The  Western  Railway  Company,  2,520  kilometres  conceded,  1,857  kil¬ 
ometres  completed,  514  locomotives,  1,770  carriages,  and  10,160  vans  and 
trucks,  at  an  expense  of  85,734,342  francs  for  rolling  stock  and  repairing 
sheds. 

“  The  Orleans  Railway  Company,  4,199  kilometres  conceded,  3,067  kilo¬ 
metres  completed,  690  locomotives,  1,945  carriages,  and  12,299  vans  and 
trucks,  at  an  expense  of  223,770,000  francs  for  rolling  stock  and  repairing 
sheds. 

“  The  Paris  and  Mediterranean  Railway  Company,  5,817  kilometres 
conceded,  3,198  kilometres  completed,  1,262  locomotives,  2,108  carriages, 
and  35,  659  vans  and  trucks,  at  an  expense  of  223,770,000  francs  for  roll¬ 
ing  stock  and  repairing  sheds. 

“  The  Midi  Railway  Company,  2,252  kilometres  conceded,  1,496  kilo¬ 
metres  completed,  287  locomotives,  878  carriages,  and  9,092  vans  and 
trucks,  at  an  expense  of  70,827,885  francs  for  rolling  stock  and  repairing 
sheds. 

“Various  smaller  undertakings,  1,511  kilometres  conceded,  243  kilo¬ 
metres  completed  j  giving  a  grand  total  of  21,000  kilometres,  conceded, 
13,570  kilometres  completed,  4,064  locomotives,  9,695  carriages,  and 
96,649  vans'  and  trucks,  at  an  expense  of  690,476,810  francs  for  rolling- 
stock  and  repairing  sheds,  and  655,649,400  francs  for  permanent  way. 

“The  cost  of  maintenance  during  the  year  1865  was  about  36,650,000 
francs  for  the  rolling  stock,  or  2,800  francs  per  kilometre  ;  and  about 
15,000,000  francs  or  1,150  francs  per  kilometre  for  the  permanent  way, 
&c.,  together  51,650,000  francs  or  3,950  francs  per  kilometre. 

“The  work  done  during  the  year  1865  gave  for  the  whole  of  the  lines 
the  folio  wing  results :  Number  of  kilometres  in  work,  13,239  ;  number  of 
persons  carried,  84,025,546;  average  number  of  railway  travellers,  40; 
total  number  of  travellers  to  one  railway,  3,330,639,807 ;  total  number  of 
tons  of  merchandise  carried,  34,049,435 ;  average  distance  carried  per 
ton,  152  kilometres;  total  number  of  tons  to  one  railway,  5,172,847,825; 
receipts  from  passengers,  184,245,213  francs;  receipts  from  merchandise, 
314,609,184  francs;  receipts  from  parcels,  &c.,  80,032,447  francs;  total 
gross  receipts,  578,856,874  francs;  average  cost  to  passengers  per  railway 


196 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


0/.0553;  average  cost  per  ton,  0/.0608;  total  cost  of  working,  266,202,095 
francs  ;  ratio  of  expenses  to  gross  receipts  (general  average)  45.98  per 
cent. 

“The  employes  on  the  French  lines  are  divided  (like  those  elsewhere) 
into  the  permanent  staff  and  workmen  and  laborers.  On  the  1st  of  Jan¬ 
uary,  1866,  the  former  numbered  60,160,  and  the  latter  51,300,  or,  in  all, 
111,460  persons.” 

REPAIRING  SHOPS  OF  THE  RAILAVAY  COMPANIES. 

“The  companies,  in  general,  do  all  that  is  required  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  rolling  stock  in  their  own  factories.  The  number  of  workmen  and 
others  employed  for  this  service  amounts  to  about  20,000  for  the  whole 
of  the  lines,  and  the  salaries  and  wages  paid  amount  to  about  23,350,000 
francs,  or  an  average  of  1,167  francs  per  head.  Some  companies  also 
construct  their  own  carriages  and  locomotives.  Such  construction 
amounted,  in  1865,  to  32  locomotives,  37  tenders,  32  carriages,  and  2,570 
trucks,  and  cost  9,180,000  francs.  The  railway  companies  have  intro¬ 
duced  the  system  of  job  work  to  a  great  extent  in  their  machine  shops, 
with  division  of  profits  amongst  the  members  of  each  association  of  work¬ 
men,  or  pro  rata  wages.  This  organization  has  produced  the  best  pos¬ 
sible  effects,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  starting  point  of  co-operative 
associations. 

“The number  of  private  construction  shops,  inclusive  of  the  companies, 
is,  for  locomotives,  six  in  number;  two  in  Paris,  two  in  Alsace,  one  at  Creu- 
zot,  and  one  at  Fives-Lille.  These  six  establishments  can  turn  out  annually 
at  least  450  locomotives  and  tenders.  The  factories  for  carriages  and 
trucks  are  nine  in  number,  namely,  six  in  Paris,  two  in  Alsace,  and  one 
at  Lyons,  and  they  are  able  to  build  at  least  1,500  carriages  and  12,000 
trucks.  The  total  amount  of  the  business  of  these  establishments  was, 
in  1865,  in  round  numbers,  54,500,000  francs,  made  up  as  follows :  436 
locomotives  and  374  tenders,  26,700,000 francs;  1,439  carriages,  8,000,050 
francs;  and  31,056  trucks,  19,800,000  francs.  These  figures  include  loco¬ 
motives  and  carriages  exported.  The  total  number  of  workmen  employed 
in  these  factories  amounts  to  about  10,000.” 

WORKSHOPS  AND  FORGES. 

“  The  works  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  material  for  the  perma¬ 
nent  way,  not  including  rails;  they  are  scattered  over  the  whole  country 
and  their  number  is  considerable.  Some  of  these  are  established  on  a 
large  scale,  but  they  are  not  special,  and  therefore  no  statistics  of  any 
utility  can  be  presented  as  applying  to  railways  in  particular.  As  to 
rails,  their  production  is  nearly  confined  to  the  thirteen  great  furnaces 
situated  on  coal  basins  of  France.  Of  these  two  are  in  the  department 
of  the  NTord,  two  in  the  Eastern,  three  on  the  basin  of  the  Loire,  two  in 
that  of  Alais,  two  in  Aubin,  one  in  Commentry,  and,  finally,  one  at 
Creuzot.  The  whole  of  these  works  produced  together,  in  1862,  the 


RAILWAYS  AND  RAILWAY  APPARATUS.  197 

period  of  the  largest  production,  205,000  tons  of  rails,  of  the  total  value 
of  about  40,000,000  francs ;  in  1865  the  produce  was  184,131  tons. 

“The  iron  works  and  construction  shops  exported  in  the  year  1865, 193 
locomotives  and  174  tenders,  for  the  sum  of  11,900,000  francs,  420  car¬ 
riages  at  2,700,000  francs,  1,868  trucks  at  3,200,000  francs.  Total 
19,800,000  francs.  These  figures,  compared  with  those  given  as  the  result 
of  the  total  manufacture  in  France,  show  that  the  reports  equalled  one- 
third  of  the  whole  amount  produced.  As  regards  rails,  the  statistics  of 
1865  show  an  export  of  32,860  tons,  or,  in  value,  about  6,200,000  francs.” 

PROGRESS  MADE  IN  THE  MATERIAL. 

“The  progress  made  during  the  last  ten  years  in  the  construction  of 
railway  material  consists  in  the  constantly  augmenting  power  given  to 
the  locomotives,  either  with  the  view  of  overcoming  the  inclines  of  25  to 
30  in  the  thousand,  or  of  running  trains  of  600  to  700  tons  over  inclines 
of  four  to  five  in  the  thousand  feet.  Thus  the  power  of  traction  has  been 
carried  to  7,000  kilogrammes.  The  use  of  coal  has  almost  entirely  super¬ 
seded  that  of  coke  by  the  employment  of  smoke  consuming  furnaces,  or 
of  well  selected  coal  for  the  locomotives.  The  passenger  carriages  have 
been  made  more  spacious  and  comfortable,  the  trucks  have  been  increased 
in  strength,  and  their  tonnage  has  remained  fixed  at  from  eight  to  ten 
tons,  with  a  few  exceptions,  in  which  it  has  been  carried  to  fifteen  tons. 
The  construction  of  safety  apparatus  has  been  studied  and  its  applica¬ 
tion  persevered  in.  We  may  cite: 

“1.  The  methods  of  communication  by  means  of  electricity  between  the 
guards  and  drivers  of  the  train,  and  also  between  them  and  the  passen¬ 
gers,  the  practicability  of  which  are  now  being  tested  on  all  the  trunk 
lines. 

“2.  The  improvements  introduced  in  the  signal  disks,  their  connection 
with  the  points  of  the  branch  lines,  in  order  to  connect  the  movements 
of  the  whole.  The  breaks  have  been  improved,  but  they  still  act  as 
gradual  moderators  of  the  speed,  the  instantaneous  arrest  of  the  train 
being  in  all  cases  carefully  avoided.  Besides  possessing  very  powerful 
locomotives,  engineers  are  giving  great  attention  to  the  construction  of 
small  engines,  employed  on  railways  connected  with  mines,  and  which 
\  are  intended  in  future  to  be  employed  in  working  agricultural  and  other 
local  lines.  As  regards  materials,  we  may  mention  the  use  of  cast  steel 
instead  of  iron  plate  in  the  construction  of  boilers.  Attempts  are  being 
made  also  to  substitute  iron  for  wood  in  the  frame- work  of  carriages  and 
trucks,  as  well  as  for  sleepers.  Lastly,  as  regards  the  cost  of  manufac¬ 
ture,  the  following  facts  deserve  special  notice.  In  1855,  locomotives 
were  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  2  francs  10  centimes  the  kilogram ;  in  1866, 
the  pftce  was  1  franc  75  centimes ;  for  tenders,  the  price  was  1  franc  20 
centimes  and  is  now  90  centimes.  The  price  of  rails  at  the  works  was 
320  francs  per  ton,  to-day  it  is  about  185  francs.  These  reductions  will 
give  an  idea  of  the  economy  exercised  in  the  provision  of  the  material 
and  general  expenditure  in  the  maintenance  of  railways.” 


198 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


PROVIDENT  AND  BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTIONS. 

“All  tlie  great  railway  companies  have  organized  for  their  numerous 
employes  funds  for  assistance  in  time  of  sickness  and  superannuation,  and 
nearly  all  the  companies  vote  to  those  funds  an  amount  equal  to  that 
subcribed  by  their  servants.  Besides  this,  depots  for  the  sale  of  articles 
of  food  and  clothing  have  been  established  on  several  lines,  which  ena¬ 
ble  the  employes  to  supply  themselves  with  the  necessaries  of  life  at 
prices  varying  from  10  to  50  per  centum  lower  than  the  ordinary  rate. 
At  the  principal  centres  of  railway  traffic,  places  of  refreshment,  per¬ 
fectly  organized,  have  been  established,  where  the  employes,  laborers, 
and  their  families  may  obtain  food  ready  prepared  for  them  at  extremely 
low  prices.  The  people  are  charged  for  what  they  consume,  the  amount 
of  credit  allowed  being  in  proportion  to  that  which  is  due  to  each  per¬ 
son  from  the  company.  During  the  whole  period  of  the  high  price  of 
bread,  the  companies  added  to  the  wages  of  the  workmen  and  laborers, 
and  to  the  salaries  of  others  whose  income  was  below  60  pounds  a  year, 
a  sum  equal  to  the  increase  in  the  price  of  bread,  not  only  for  the  officer 
or  workman  himself,  but  also  for  such  members  of  his  family  supported 
by  him.  Lastly,  the  inauguration  of  courses  of  instruction  for  the  work¬ 
men,  and  of  schools  for  the  children,  and  for  all  who  need  instruction, 
completes  the  organization  of  the  institutions  destined  to  improve  the 
moral,  intellectual,  and  material  condition  of  those  who  are  employed  on 
the  several  railway  establishments.” 

CLASS  64.— TELEGBAPHIC  APPAEATUS  AND  PEOCESSES. 

In  class  64,  American  ingenuity  and  invention  were  conspicuously  dis¬ 
played.  Every  telegraphic  instrument  exhibited  was  more  or  less  on 
the  American  principle,  as  indeed  every  telegraphic  instrument  must  be. 
The  practical  value  of  telegraphy,  at  this  day,  is  known  in  America, 
where  it  is  not  merely  a  political  instrument  of  intercommunication,  but 
a  medium  for  the  commonest  expressions  of  domestic  wish  or  want.  In 
whatever  country  or  whatever  way  a  message  be  sent  or  received, 
instruments  and  methods  of  American  origin  are  most  in  use.  The  fact 
was  recognized  by  the  imperial  commission,  who  awarded  the  highest 
honor  in  their  gift  to  Mr.  Morse  and  to  Mr.  Hughes. 

In  the  general  application  of  electricity  to  mechanical  purposes  the 
French  have  advanced  far  beyond  any  other  nation.  The  bell  which  you 
pull  at  the  doctor’s  door,  tingles  so  long  as  you  keep  your  hand  on  the  pull. 
It  is  a  part  of  an  electrical  system  which  costs  a  trifle  and  acts  posi¬ 
tively,  inasmuch  as  the  bell  will  continue  to  ring  so  long  as  you  keep 
your  hand  on  the  pull.  This  is  the  simple  form.  At  the  hotels  they 
have  an  improvement  on  it.  At  the  side  of  your  bed  there  is  a  small 
dial,  rather  larger  than  an  old  fashioned- watch.  Except  that  it  is  perpen¬ 
dicular,  you  might  suppose  that  it  was  a  compass.  It  is  indeed  supplied 
with  a  needle  precisely  like  a  compass.  This  needle  has  a  limited  ser- 


TELEGRAPHIC  APPARATUS. 


199 


vice  to  perform,  but  it  does  it  thoroughly.  You  press  a  button  on  the 
rim,  and  the  needle  moving  on  the  surface  of  the  dial  tells  you  that  the 
bell  is  ringing  in  the  room  of  service.  It  continues  to  ring  there  until 
one  of  the  domestics  disconnects  the  wire.  At  that  moment  the  finger 
of  the  dial  returns  to  its  place  in  the  room  whence  the  first  communica¬ 
tion  was  made,  and  the  visitor  knows  that  the  servant  ought  to  come.  He 
has  the  basis,  at  all  events,  of  a  complaint  against  the  management,  if 
the  servant  does  not  come. 

For  railroad  purposes,  also,  electricity  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of 
human  watchfulness.  On  many  lines  there  are  contrivances  where  the 
passing  of  a  train  is  automatically  announced  to  neighboring  stations. 
The  carriages  pass  over  connecting  wires  and  the  train  records  itself 
before  and  behind,  so  that  its  progress  and  appearance  are  alike  indicated. 

It  has  been  proposed,  but  not  successfully  carried  into  effect,  to  supply 
individuals  and  towns  with  the  correct  time  by  electricity ;  in  other 
w  ords,  to  lay  it  on  like  water.  It  stands  to  reason  that  if  a  perfect  con¬ 
nection  can  be  obtained,  it  is  as  easy  to  lay  on  or  supply  electricity  as 
either  water  or  gas.  But  so  far  practice  has  not  come  up  to  theory. 
The  clocks  regulated  by  electricity  are  the  most  unreliable  in  the  world, 
and  indeed  the  clocks  of  the  Grand  Hotel,  Paris,  regulated  in  this  way 
have  been  the  subject  of  common  ridicule.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  how¬ 
ever,  that  one  of  these  days,  companies  will  supply  the  time  just  as 
exactly  and  correctly  as  companies  now  supply  the  wants  of  lighting. 

The  American  Commission  was  fortunate  in  having  Professor  Morse  to 
report  on  the  many  interesting  topics  connected  directly  or  indirectly 
with  telegraphy. 

FRANCE. 

u  The  several  processes  applied  to  telegraphic  purposes,  and  forming 
class  G4,  have  occupied  but  a  small  space  in  preceding  exhibitions;  their 
importance,  in  fact,  in  spite  of  the  services  they  have  rendered,  only 
dates  from  the  time  when  the  telegraph  called  the  resources  of  electricity 
to  its  aid.  Scientific  men  then  entered  upon  a  numerous  series  of  experi¬ 
ments;  and  enlisting  in  their  service  a  number  of  skilful  constructors, 
they  have  arrived  at  resvdts  as  important  as  they  were  unlooked  for. 
The  aerial  telegraph  of  brothers  Chappe  has  been  made  the  subject  of 
many  improvements  by  the  French  telegraphic  administration,  but  it 
could  not  attract  the  attention  of  scientific  men,  which  was  fixed  on  the 
discoveries  and  labors  of  Galvani,  Yolta,  Oersted,  Ampere,  and  Arago. 
The  first  electric  telegraph  apparatus  was  based  on  the  action  of  current 
upon  the  magnetized  needle,  and  the  magnetization  of  soft  iron  under 
the  influence  of  the  same  current.  Wheatstone  in  England,  and  Morse 
in  America,  were  the  first  to  make  (about  the  year  1839)  experiments 
on  lines  of  any  length.  The  French  administration  adopted,  in  1804,  an 
apparatus  founded  on  the  property  which  soft  iron  possesses  of  becom¬ 
ing  magnetized  under  the  influence  of  an  electric  current ;  and  this  French 


200 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


apparatus,  as  it  is  called,  reproduced  the  signals  of  the  Chappe  tele¬ 
graph.  It  was  a  useful  connecting  link  between  the  old  system  and 
those  which  were  at  once  more  simple  and  more  complete.  At  the  same 
time,  the  railway  companies  felt  the  necessity  of  connecting  together 
by  means  of  telegraphs  the  principal  stations  on  their  lines,  and  placed 
simple  apparatus  for  that  purpose  in  the  hands  of  their  agent.  Since 
1855,  the  Morse  system  has  been  adopted  in  France,  where,  with  the  aid 
of  able  manufacturers,  it  advantageously  replaced  the  old  apparatus. 
From  this  period  the  labors  of  men  of  science  and  engineers  have  become 
more  and  more  numerous,  and  a  great  number  of  new  systems  have 
been  attempted  within  a  short  time.  Subsequently  a  telegraphic  printing 
apparatus  was  introduced,  more  rapid  in  its  action  than  those  with  arbi¬ 
trary  signals,  and  electro-chemical  apparatus  reproducing  with  great 
facility  the  exact  image  of  the  despatch  or  drawing  confided  to  it  for 
transmission.  The  telegraphic  stations  are  connected  with  each  other 
by  metallic  conductors  insulated  from  the  ground  and  fixed  to  supports, 
the  elevation,  form  and  dimensions  of  which  vary  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  weight  they  have  to  support.  Experiments  with  underground 
lines  have  been  made  from  the  very  commencement  of  electric  telegraphy, 
and  have  since  greatly  increased;  and  the  results  already  obtained  hold 
out  a  legitimate  hope  that  the  engineers  who  are  persevering  in  these 
interesting  labors  will  attain  the  object  for  which  they  are  employing 
their  time  and  talents.  The  submarine  lines  have  been  brought  into 
successful  action  since  the  year  1850;  their  number  has  increased  con¬ 
currently  with  the  improvements  which  have  been  introduced  into  tele¬ 
graphic  industry,  and  have  resulted  in  the  recent  successful  laying  of 
the  transatlantic  cable. 

u  This  special  exhibition  shows  the  immense  resources  which  may  be 
looked  for  in  the  very  varied  applications  of  electricity  to  telegraphy; 
they  include  not  only  apparatus  for  writing  or  transmitting  thoughts, 
but  also  the  piles  or  sources  of  electricity;  and  the  conductors,  aerial, 
underground,  and  submarine,  which  are  their  indispensable  auxiliaries.” 

CLASS  65.— CIVIL  ENGINEEEING,  PUBLIC  WORKS,  AND 

ARCHITECTURE. 

The  objects  exhibited  in  class  65,  under  the  general  head  of  civil  engi¬ 
neering,  public  works  and  architecture,  comprised  four  series  of  groups, 
which  with  much  interesting  matter  relating  to  France  will  be  found 
described  at  length  beyond.  No  nation  is  more  occupied  with  public 
works  involving  the  highest  engineering  skill,  or  possesses  a  better 
method  of  tabulating  all  that  has  been  accomplished  or  is  yet  in  progress. 
The  French  display  was  superb.  It  consisted  of  models,  admirably  got 
up,  of  bridges,  viaducts,  reservoirs,  docks,  tunnels,  &c.,  with  plans  and 
particulars  of  unquestionable  accuracy  and  minuteness.  Among  these 
were  two  models  of  the  swing  bridge  of  Brest,  which  has  a  larger  span 
than  any  bridge  of  similar  construction  in  the  world,  being  571  feet, 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING  AND  PUBLIC  WORKS. 


201 


spanned  by  two  wrought-iron  lattice  frames,  revolving  upon  turn-tables. 
The  foundations  of  the  piers  are  on  the  solid  rock.  There  were  models 
and  drawings,  of  several  other  important  engineering  works  which  have 
recently  been  completed  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris. 

LIGHTHOUSES. 

One  of  the  most  conspicuous  objects  in  the  Park  was  the  iron  light¬ 
house  constructed  by  Mr.  Bigolet,  and  intended  for  practical  use  on  the 
rocks  called  Les  Douvres ,  situated  midway  between  the  islands  of 
Guernsey  and  Brehat,  off  the  coast  of  Brittany.  The  rock  on  which 
this  light  house  is  to  be  built  is  in  the  middle  of  the  south  edge  of  the 
shoal ;  its  summit  is  washed  at  high  tide.  The  masonry  foundations  are 
6  feet  10  inches  high;  the  height  of  the  iron  column  is  from  base  to 
floored  gallery,  158  feet  6  inches;  to  top  of  lantern  184  feet  2  inches. 
In  plan  it  is  a  sixteen-sided  polygon,  36  feet  6  inches  at  the  base  and 
13  feet  2  inches  at  the  top;  the  light  being  174  feet  above  high  water. 
Bound  the  base  of  the  column  are  the  store-rooms  and  living  rooms  of 
the  light  house  keepers ;  above  these  are  rooms  for  the  accommodation 
of  persons  rescued  from  shipwreck.  The  staircase  is  in  the  centre.  The 
chief  peculiarity  of  this  fine  piece  of  work  was  that  the  structure 
depended  for  its  strength  wholly  upon  its  skeleton ;  the  external  iron 
plates  being  merely  a  shell  upon  which  no  reliance  is  placed  for  strength. 
In  wrought-iron  light  houses  of  ordinary  construction,  strength  is  ob¬ 
tained  by  riveting  together  the  plates  by  which  it  is  composed.  The 
light  is  dioptric,  revolving  upon  10  steel  friction  rollers ;  the  supply  of  oil 
is  regulated  by  clockwork. 

In  the  English  section  was  an  important  exhibit  of  the  dioptric  sys¬ 
tem  of  August  Fresnel,  the  one  now  most  generally  in  use.  It  consists 
of  a  structure  of  segments  of  glass  enveloping  a  central  flame,  whose 
focal  rays  are  parallelized  in  a  horizontal  direction  and  deflected,  in  the 
case  of  fixed  lights,  in  meridian  planes  only,  while  in  revolving  lights 
the  rays  are  gathered  into  a  number  of  cylindrical  beams,  which  are 
made  to  pass  successively  before  the  observer  by  the  rotation  of  the 
apparatus. 

The  Trinity  House  corporation  exhibited  the  application  of  the  mag¬ 
neto-electric  light.  The  machine  is  complicated,  but  it  answers  its  pur¬ 
pose,  and  is  being  generally  adopted. 

MOUNT  CENIS  TUNNEL. 

In  the  Italian  quarter  were  plans  and  sections  of  the  famous  Mount 
Cenis  tunnel,  which,  when  finished,  will  connect  France  with  Italy  by  an 
unbroken  line  of  railroad  communication  going  through  the  Alps.  The 
works,  which  were  commenced  in  1857,  were  first  carried  on  by  manual 
labor,  a  slow  and  difficult  process.  They  are  now  carried  on  by  machinery 
driven  by  compressed  air,  and  the  progress  is  much  more  rapid.  The 
present  rate  is  about  one  yard  a  day  on  the  French  side.  The  excava- 


202 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tion  proceeds  from  both  ends,  and  it  is  now  stated  that  the  probable 
time  when  the  workmen  will  meet  and  shake  hands  in  the  middle  of  the 
Alps  will  be  some  time  in  1873. 

A  series  of  plans  illustrated  the  principal  public  buildings  and  restora¬ 
tions  executed  in  Paris  during  the  last  12  years.  The  importance  of 
these  works  may  be  estimated  by  their  cost,  which  exceeded  150,000,000 
francs. 

SUEZ  CANAL. 

One  of  the  fullest,  and  at  the  same  time  most  interesting,  exhibits  in 
the  way  of  civil  engineering  was  that  made  by  the  company  now  engaged 
in  constructing  a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  by  which  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  will  be  connected  with  the  Eed  sea.  The  distance  is  72  miles, 
as  the  crow  flies,  and  the  levels  of  the  two  seas  only  differ  to  the  extent 
of  6J  inches.  The  canal  will  be  about  100  miles  in  length,  of  which  37 
miles  are  in  cutting,  while  63  miles  are  at  or  beneath  sea-level.  In  order 
to  obtain  a  sufficient  supply  of  fresh  water,  an  additional  canal  had  to 
be  constructed,  bringing  its  supply  from  the  Nile,  a  distance  of  44  miles. 
The  general  dimensions  of  the  maritime  canal  are :  Width  of  water-level 
in  embankment,  328  feet 5  ditto  in  cutting,  190  feet 5  width  at  bottom,  72 
feet ;  depth,  26  feet  3  inches. 

In  the  American  department  was  exhibited  a  plan  of  the  engineering 
scheme  recently  adopted  for  supplying  the  city  of  Chicago  with  water, 
by  which  the  lake  is  tapped  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  shore  to 
insure  purity  of  supply.  It  attracted  much  attention,  as  a  bold  and  suc¬ 
cessful  scheme  of  engineering. 


FRANCE. 

u  The  products  exhibited  in  class  65  form  four  principal  series : 

“1.  Materials,  including  natural  and  artificial  stone,  bricks,  tiles,  pot¬ 
tery,  lime,  cement,  plaster,  asphalt,  and  slate.  2.  Productions  of  various 
trades,  occupying  a  position  of  greater  or  less  importance  in  the  art  of 
building,  such  as  works  in  zinc,  lead,  and  copper,  sanitary  apparatus, 
joiners’  work,  and  parquetry.  3.  Blacksmiths’  and  whitesmiths’  work 
for  building  and  furniture.  4.  Apparatus,  machines,  and  processes  used 
in  the  execution  of  architectural  and  civil  engineering  works,  as  well  as 
the  models  and  samples  of  those  works. 

“Amongst  the  trades  of  this  class  some  are  of  the  very  highest  neces¬ 
sity,  and  are  represented  in  every  department  of  France ;  for  instance, 
the  contractor  for  public  and  private  works,  the  mason,  the  carpenter, 
and  the  smith;  the  others,  and  especially  those  Avhose  productions  are 
executed  in  metal,  are  situated  in  those  localities  which  are  most  favor¬ 
able  to  their  system  of  manufacture  and  to  the  nature  of  their  particu¬ 
lar  occupation.  Around  the  principal  industrial  and  metallurgical  cen¬ 
tres  are  congregated  the  construction  factories  for  extensive  works  in 
metal,  such  as  that  of  Creuzot,  Fourchambeault,  and  the  great  estab- 


CIVIL  ENGINEERING  AND  PUBLIC  WORKS. 


203 


lishments  in  Paris  and  its  environs.  Iron-work,  such  as  bolts,  latclies, 
window  fastenings,  screw,  and  other  ironmongery  and  metal- work  used 
in  buildings,  is  principally  manufactured  in  large  works  at  Ckarleville, 
jn  the  Ardennes  ;  Aigle,  in  the  Orne;  Rugle,  in  the  Eure;  St.  Etienne, 
in  the  Loire;  Beauconrt,  in  the  Haut  Rhin;  and  in  the  department  of 
the  Somme.  Black  and  whitesmiths7  work,  including  locks,  railings, 
gates,  &c.,  is  concentrated  in  the  department  of  the  Somme,  Fouquieres, 
Bourg-Dault,  Escarbotin,  Bettancourt,  in  the  department  of  Orne,  Jura, 
Loire,  St.  Etienne,  St.  Bonnet-le-Chateau,  of  the  Haut  Rhin,  and  of  the 
Haut  Saone.  The  manufacturers  of  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  of  Paris, 
are  famous  for  locks  for  furniture.  The  manufacture  of  objects  in  cop¬ 
per,  lead,  and  zinc,  cast  or  stamped,  is  also  practiced  on  a  large  scale  in 
Paris. 

“  The  principal  centres  for  the  trade  in  cutting  and  other  tools  are  Mols- 
lieim,  Zornhoff,  in  the  Haut  Rhin;  Pont-de-Roide  and  Yalensigney,  in 
the  Doubs;  St.  Etienne,  in  the  Loire;  and  Paris.  Until  a  short  time  ago, 
the  difficulty  of  transport  obliged  the  contractors  to  supply  themselves 
with  stone  within  a  relatively  small  radius.  The  exhaustion  of  the  good 
quarries,  especially  at  Paris,  the  impetus  given  everywhere  to  contrac¬ 
tors,  and,  above  all,  the  development  of  the  means  of  communication, 
have  greatly  modified  the  old  habits.  Thus  the  circle  of  supply  of  the 
capital  extends,  at  the  present  moment,  to  the  mountains  of  the  Yosges, 
the  Jura,  and  the  Alps.  For  the  purpose  of  trying  the  materials,  which 
are  offered  daily,  and  are  often  little  known,  the  administration  has 
opened  special  laboratories,  where  the  materials  of  all  kinds  presented 
by  the  public  are  analyzed  and  tried  gratuitously. 

“The  methods  of  manufacture  peculiar  to  the  numerous  trades  which 
contribute  to  the  execution  of  architectural  and  civil  engineering  works 
cannot  be  set  forth  in  a  description  at  once  general  and  abridged.  All 
that  can  be  affirmed  is,  that  in  no  specialty  has  the  simultaneous  concur¬ 
rence  of  science  and  practice,  and  the  intelligent  use  of  machinery,  pro¬ 
duced  results  more  favorable  to  the  welfare  of  all  and  the  progress  of 
public  prosperity. 

“The  condition  of  the  work  people  is  as  diversified  as  the  nature  of 
the  occupations  to  which  they  apply  themselves,  whether  sedentary  or 
nomad.  The  workmen  present  the  greatest  variety  of  character,  habits, 
and  natural  disposition.  The  inhabitants  of  certain  districts  seem  more 
particularly  suited  to  certain  lines  of  business.  The  skilled  operatives 
of  the  centre  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Creuze  and  Correze,  pos¬ 
sess  a  special  attribute  for  the  masonry  works  called  limousinage ;  the 
workmen  from  Piedmont  and  the  neighboring  mountains  for  mining  and 
quarrying.  The  habits  of  periodical  emigration,  and  the  traditional  and, 
it  may  be  said,  inherent  skill  with  which  the  men  of  St.  Etienne  and  of 
some  other  localities  handle  the  file  and  the  chisel,  are  well-known  facts, 
and  numerous  similar  examples  might  be  quoted. 

“  The  immense  enterprises  carried  out  lately  have  occasioned  great 


204 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


changes  in  the  old  usages.  The  modifications  which  have  resulted 
therefrom  in  the  habits  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  give  rise  to 
the  gravest  social  and  political  questions.  The  trade  in  building  mate¬ 
rials  is  generally  local;  nevertheless,  there  are  those  exceptions,  already 
noticed,  occasioned  by  the  necessity  of  supplying  Paris  and  some  other 
great  towns.  On  the  other  hand,  certain  materials,  on  account  of  their 
special  qualities  or  particular  circumstances,  are  sought  after  far  from 
the  places  of  production.  Of  these  are  the  granites  of  Brittany  and 
Normandy,  the  calcareous  stones  of  Caen,  the  marbles  of  the  Pyrenees, 
the  serpentines  of  the  Vosges  and  the  Alps,  and  similar  stones,  more  or 
less  precious,  which  the  soil  of  France  yields  in  such  abundance ;  the 
slates  of  Angers  and  Ardennes;  the  various  products  in  terra-cotta;  the 
plasters  of  Paris,  used  for  light  objects  and  in-door  work;  the  limes  of 
Teil,  in  the  Ardeche,  particularly  adapted  to  sea  works ;  the  cements  of 
Passy,  Boulogne,  and  Grenoble;  the  asphalts  of  Seyssel,  &c. 

u  In  the  large  workshops  are  constructed  edifices,  metallic  bridges, 
cranes,  dredging  machines,  lighters,  &c.,  which  are  exported  to  Bussia, 
Spain,  Egypt,  America,  &c.  The  trade  of  black  and  white  smiths’  work 
has  its  principal  entrepot  in  Paris,  and  the  amount  of  its  exports  is  very 
considerable. 

u  To  give  an  idea  of  the  activity,  during  the  last  12  years,  of  the  branch 
of  national  work  represented  in  class  65,  it  is  sufficient  to  state,  that  in 
that  time  9,000  kilometres  of  railway  have  been  made  in  France;  that 
the  works  in  ports  for  the  lighting  and  erection  of  beacons  on  the  coasts? 
for  the  salubrity  of  towns,  the  sewers  and  the  distribution  of  water,  have 
received  a  proportionate  impulse,  and  that  the  greater  part  of  the  large 
towns  of  France  have  been  completely  transformed  by  their  application. 

u  The  committee  of  admission  of  class  65  point  out,  among  the  princi¬ 
pal  technical  improvements  realized  since  1855 — 

“1.  The  progress  made  in  the  trades  of  hydraulic  limes,  cements,  arti¬ 
ficial  stones,  potteries,  slates,  and  asphalts;  and  in  that  of  hammered 
metal,  applied  to  the  preservation  and  decoration  of  roofs.  2.  The 
increase  of  the  use  of  metal  structures,  which  are  more  and  more  appre¬ 
ciated  every  day.  3.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  machines  employed 
in  working  wood  for  joiners’  and  other  work.  4.  The  constantly  increas¬ 
ing  application  of  compressed  air  in  places  deep  and  difficult  of  access. 
5.  The  ingenious  methods  of  lifting  heavy  bridges,  viaducts,  and  other 
metallic  works.  6.  The  new  system  of  movable  dams.  7.  The  recently- 
invented  and  powerful  dredging  apparatus.  8.  The  application  of  elec¬ 
tricity  to  light-houses  and  the  new  combinations  made  with  a  view  to 
assist  navigation,  among  which  may  be  reckoned  the  creation  of  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  coast  semaphores.” 

CLASS  66. — NAVIGATION  AND  LIFE-BOATS— YACHTS  AND 

PLEASUBE  BOATS. 

The  governments  of  France  and  England  were  the  principal  contributors 
to  class  66.  The  English  admiralty  contributed  a  complete  series  of  models 


NAVIGATION  AND  BOATS. 


205 


of  all  the  types  of  ships  introduced  into  the  royal  navy  since  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  screw  propeller,  and  a  French  firm  exhibited  a  very  valuable 
historical  series  of  models  of  merchant  ships,  indicating  the  many  and 
varied  changes  which  have  taken  place  since  1735. 

In  the  English  collection  of  models  was  the  armor-plated  steam  gun¬ 
boat  Waterwitch,  remarkable  for  having  a  hydraulic  or  jet  propeller.  By 
this  plan  she  draws  in  the  water  from  the  sea  through  a  sort  of  sieve  in 
her  bottom.  The  water  is  then  taken  up  by  a  turbine  wheel,  or  centrifu¬ 
gal  pump,  driven  by  steam,  and  thrown  out  aft  with  considerable  force, 
the  action  of  the  water  thrusting  the  boat  forward.  The  Waterwitch  is 
a  double-ender,  with  a  rudder  at  each  end,  and  has  attained  the  not  very 
remarkable  speed  of  8.8  knots. 

Fishing  boats  were  largely  exhibited  by  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  life¬ 
boats  by  England  and  France. 

Benoit-Champy,  the  president  of  the  admission  committee  for  class  G6, 
makes  the  following  observations  upon  boats  for  river  navigation: 

“The  number  of  boats  registered  at  the  office  of  the  superintendence 
of  the  Seine  navigation  is  about  2,000.  The  continued  extension  of  boat 
racing,  by  directing  the  efforts  of  the  maker  toward  one  special  object,  has 
almost  suppressed  the  pleasure-boat  of  former  days.  The  river  sail  navi- 
tion  makes  use  solely  of  boats  of  American  construction,  which  are  called 
centre-boards.  The  Margot,  the  first  American  clipper  known  in  France, 
was  inrported  in  1847,  and  brought  about  a  complete  change  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  vessels  for  river  navigation.  The  plans  and  models  have  been 
improved  from  time  to  time  since  that  period,  and  can  now  artistically 
compete  with  the  American  builder.  During  the  last  few  years  a  great 
taste  for  yachting  has  sprung  up  among  French  amateurs,  and  the 
Parisians  have  endeavored  to  make  their  clippers  of  such  a  size  as  to 
reproduce  the  real  yacht  models.  These  large  clippers  are  remarkably 
swift,  and  take  a  most  successful  part  every  year  in  their  ocean  regattas. 
Paris  and  ltouen  are  the  two  principal  manufacturing  centres  for  the 
construction  of  clippers.  The  manufacturers  of  Marseilles,  Toulon,  and 
Bordeaux  produce  more  especially  sea  yachts.  France  has  in  its  several 
ports  4, GOG  pleasure  boats  of  all  sizes,  mounted  by  5,776  amateurs,  or  reg¬ 
istered,  marines.  The  boats  which  took  part  in  the  races  of  the  Society 
of  the  Regates  Parisiennes  during  the  years  1865  and  1866  represent 
alone  a  capital  of  500,000  francs. 

“The  steam  yachts,  used  for  races  properly  speaking,  are  gradually  dis¬ 
appearing,  and  are  replaced  by  boats  more  especially  designed  for  trav¬ 
elling.  Their  number  increases  daily,  and  the  Parisian  yachting  pos¬ 
sesses  already  three  steam  yachts.  The  use  of  new  engines,  the  elegance 
and  comfort  of  internal  arrangements,  the  application  of  well-studied 
forms  combined  to  swiftness  and  safety,  the  realization  of  great  speed, 
with  a  reduction  in  the  expenditure  of  strength,  are  the  improvements 
exhibited  in  the  recent  constructions.  One  of  the  most  difficult  prob- 


206 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


lems  would  be  to  create  mixed  models  of  steam  yachts  for  the  sea  and 
river,  enabling  amateurs  to  undertake  all  kinds  of  excursions.  Steam¬ 
boats  seem  to  be  best  adapted  for  both  travelling  and  pleasure  excur¬ 
sions.  The  tour  through  France  by  means  of  rivers  and  canals  is  the 
aim  and  ambition  of  the  leading  yachtmen.  Paris,  Rouen,  and  Angers 
have  produced  interesting  specimens,  but  the  most  important  have  come 
from  Havre.” 

In  the  United  States  section  the  model  of  the  American  yacht  Fleet¬ 
wing  received  the  recognition  of  a  bronze  medel,  and  the  same  award 
was  made  to  the  model  of  the  tackle  for  disengaging  ship’s  boats,  exhib¬ 
ited  by  Messrs.  Brown  &  Level.  There  were  several  other  exhibits  inclu 
ding  models  of  life-boats,  life-saving  rafts,  fishing  smacks,  rudders  and 
oars. 


GROUP  Y II. 

* 

FOOD,  FRESH  OR  PRESERVED,  IN  VARIOUS  STATES 
OF  PRESERVATION, 

Class  67.  Cereals  and  other  Farinaceous  Products,  with  their  derivation.— 

Class  68.  Bread  and  Pastry.  —  Class  69.  Fatty  Substances  used  as  food  ; 

Milk  and  Eggs.  —  Class  70.  Meat  and  Fish.  —  Class  71.  Vegetables  and 

Fruit.— Class  72.  Condiments  and  stimulants;  Sugar  and  Confectionery. — 

Class  73.  Fermented  Drinks. 

The  objects  embraced  in  these  classes,  especially  the  first  six,  although 
of  the  highest  importance  and  even  interesting  when  on  the  spot,  cannot 
be  sufficiently  preserved  or  kept  fresh  for  the  purposes  of  a  report,  save 
by  a  professional  pen,  wielded  for  professional  criticism.  The  display 
was  a  large  one,  but  the  specimens  were  rarely  well  arranged.  People 
constantly  imagine  that  the  common  products  of  their  country  are  not 
worth  taking  pains  with,  when  in  reality  it  is  precisely  these  common 
products  that  are  of  vital  and  national  worth.  It  may  be  added  here 
that,  in  almost  every  important  instance,  there  was  a  restaurant  con¬ 
nected  with  each  country,  where  the  various  foods,  &c.,  could  be  practi¬ 
cally  tested. 

In  the  Algerian  section  were  several  good  specimens  of  the  fruit  of  the 
Carica  papaya,  or  papaw.  This,  when  young,  is  used  for  sauce,  and  water 
impregnated  with  the  juice  acquires  the  property  of  rendering  all  sorts 
of  meat  steeped  in  it  tender.  Chickens  of  excessive  maturity  can  be 
mollified  by  feeding  them  on  the  leaves  and  fruit,  and  joints  of  exceed¬ 
ing  toughness  are  prepared  by  hanging  them  for  a  sufficient  time  in  the 
branches  of  the  tree. 

There  was  an  excellent  collection  from  the  United  States,  consisting  of 
all  kinds  of  fruits  preserved  in  spirits. 

CLASS  67.— CEREALS  AND  OTHER  EATABLE  FARINACEOUS 
PRODUCTS,  WITH  THEIR  DERIVATIVES. 

The  products  which  are  included  in  this  class  comprise — 

1.  Cereals,  including  different  kinds  of  wheat,  rye,  rice,  maize,  millet, 
buckwheat,  and  the  productions  these  grains  yield  for  making  flour.  2. 
Vegetable  flour.  3.  Potato  feculse,  tapioca,  sago,  arrow-root,  salep,  and 
other  English  productions.  4.  Grain,  ground  and  packed.  5.  Semolinas 
and  groats.  6.  Macaroni,  vermicelli,  nouilles,  and  pates  of  all  kinds  of 
wkeaten  flour,  pure  and  mixed.  7.  Gluten  and  starch.  8.  Alimentary 
preparations,  produced  either  from  meals,  fecidas,  or  vegetables. 


208 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


CEREALS  OF  FRANCE. 

The  various  kinds  of  corn  and  wheat,  with  their  productions,  form,  in 
the  French  exhibition,  11  divisions,  corresponding  to  the  11  territorial 
divisions : 

“1.  Paris  and  its  radii,  comprehending  Isle  of  France,  Brie,  Bauce, 
Gatinais,  Champagne,  Hurepoix,  and  French* Yexin.  2.  The  Normandy 
region,  embracing  Bessin,  Avranchin,  Caux,  and  Normandy  Yexin.  3. 
The  Brittany  region,  which  includes  upper  and  lower  Brittany,  Yendee, 
Poitou,  and  Anjou.  4.  The  Bordeaux  region,  containing  Saintonge, 
Angoumais,  Perigord,  Bordeaux,  Bazadais,  and  les  Landes.  5.  The  Lan¬ 
guedoc  region,  comprising  the  Basque  provinces,  the  Small  Landes, 
Chalosse,  Condomais,  Bearn,  Armagnac,  Foix,  Boussillon,  Lauragnais, 
Albigeois,  and  Narbonne.  6.  The  Provencal  region,  comprehending 
lower  and  upper  Provence,  Nice,  Avignon,  and  Corsica.  7.  The  Lyons 
region,  including  Dauphine,  Beaujolais,  Savoie,  Lyons,  Bresse,  Franche- 
Comte,  Bourgogne,  and  Niverne.  8.  The  Auvergne  region,  comprising 
upper  and  lower  Auvergne,  Limousinr  Boulonnais,  Forey,  and  Yivarais. 
9.  The  Maine  region,  including  Maine,  Blaisois,  Touraine,  Berry,  and 
Orleans.  10.  The  Lorraine  region,  comprehending  Lorraine,  Yosges, 
Alsace,  Barrois,  Messin,  and  Berthelois.  11.  The  Flanders  region,  in 
which  is  included  Picardy,  Hainault,  Flanders,  Boulonnais,  and  Artois. 

“In  1820  the  number  of  hectares  covered  with  corn  in  France  was 
4,683,788,  which  have  produced  54,347,720  hectolitres.  In  1857, 6,543,530 
hectares  produced  110,462,000  hectolitres.  So,  from  1820  to  1857,  the 
number  of  hectares  sown  with  corn  has  augmented  50  per  cent.,  and  the 
production  has  nearly  doubled.  At  the  present  time  the  number  of  hec¬ 
tares  cultivated  is  7,000,000 ;  but  the  production  has  not  increased  since 
1857.  France  exports  much  more  flour  than  wheat.  In  1864  the  exporta¬ 
tion  of  wheat  amounted  to  1,308,480  hectolitres  unground,  and  to  more 
than  2,000,000  hectolitres  of  flour.  Bye  is  divided  into  two  classes — 
March  rye  and  winter  rye.  France  yields  yearly  20,000,000  to  22,000,000 
hectolitres  of  rye,  of  which  1,000,000  is  employed  in  the  distilleries  of 
northern  France,  Belgium,  and  Holland.  The  growth  of  rye  is  dimin¬ 
ishing,  and  is  being  replaced  with  advantage  by  wheat,  wherever  the 
nature  of  the  soil  admits  of  it.  Barley  is  divided  into  two  classes :  1. 
Bearded  barley,  common  barley,  &c. ;  2.  Bare-eared  barley,  Celeste  bar¬ 
ley,  &c.  The  barley  harvests  yield  16,000,000  hectolitres  per  year,  of 
which  2,000,000  are  used  in  distilleries  and  breweries.  Of  these  2,000,000 
hectolitres  more  than  one-fourth  is  sent  to  England.  Oats  are  divided 
into  two  classes :  1.  Winter  oats ;  2.  Spring  oats.  Nearly  as  much  oats 
as  corn  are  grown  in  France.  The  harvest  is  valued  at  90,000,000  hec¬ 
tolitres.  Oats  are  rarely  exported;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  often 
imported  from  Odessa,  Sweden,  and  Ireland. 

“Buckwheat  is  divided  into  two  classes — common  buckwheat  and  Tar¬ 
tary  buckwheat.  Buckwheat  is  grown  to  an  amount  of  from  6,500,000 
to  7,000,000  hectolitres  yearly,  which  is  consumed  entirely  in  France. 


FOOD,  FRESH  OR  PRESERVED. 


209 


“The  production  of  maize  is  confined  to  three  regions :  the  southwest 
region,  comprehending  Guyenne,  Poitou,  &c. ;  the  southern  region,  com¬ 
prising  Languedoc,  Provence,  &c. ;  and  the  eastern  region,  including 
Bresse,  Dijonnais,  Alsace,  &c. 

“  Millet  is  divided  into  two  classes — millet  in  ears  and  millet  in  pani¬ 
cles.  The  production  of  maize  and  millet  amounts  to  at  least  6,000,000 
hectolitres. 

“The  sorghos  form  only  one  class.  The  feculas  are  divided  into  two 
classes — that  which  comes  from  seed  and  that  which  is  made  from  roots. 

“The  French  production  of  potatoes  amounted  to  100,000,000  hecto¬ 
litres  per  year  before  the  outbreak  of  the  potato  disease,  15  years  since. 
It  is  difficult  now  to  estimate  the  exact  product  of  this  plant.  About 
10,000,000  hectolitres  are  planted ;  13,000,000  or  14,000,000  are  made  into 
fecula ;  the  rest  is  employed,  one  moiety  for  human  food  and  the  other 
for  animals.  A  great  part  of  the  fecula  is  used  for  making  sugar  and 
certain  kinds  of  syrups.  It  is  estimated  that  for  this  manufacture  alone 
the  produce  of  more  than  7,000,000  hectolitres  of  potatoes  was  employed 
during  the  year  1865.  Since  the  disease  the  average  yield  per  hectare 
has  been  77  hectolitres;  before  that  time  it  amounted  to  110  hectolitres. 

“  The  manufacture  of  pates  yiay  be  divided  into  classes :  1.  The  northern 
regions — Paris,  Versailles,  Meaux,  &c. ;  2.  The  midland  regions — Cler¬ 
mont,  Auvergne,  Lyons,  &c. ;  3.  Southern  regions — Marseilles,  Mce,  &c. 
The  amount  of  pates  consumed  in  France  has  much  increased.  The  addi¬ 
tion  of  fresh  gluten  is  derived  from  the  manufacturers  of  starch  by  the 
washing  process,  which  allows  of  the  richness  of  the  pates  being  aug¬ 
mented  at  will,  and  has  therefore  tended  to  diminish  in  great  part  the 
difference  of  quality  that  existed  between  the  French  and  Italian  pates. 
The  latter  owe  their  superiority  merely  to  the  nature  of  the  grain,  which 
is  richer  and  more  glutinous  than  the  French  grain. 

“France  exported,  in  1855,  1,100,000  kilograms  of  pates,  of  which  a 
quarter  was  for  Switzerland,  and  the  rest  for  America,  the  Antilitos, 
Guyane,  the  United  States,  England,  and  Belgium.  The  price  of  the 
pates  varies  according  to  the  price  of  wheat. 

“  The  committee  of  class  67  point  out  as  an  evidence  of  the  progress 
realized  since  the  exhibition  of  1865,  in  addition  to  the  general  improve¬ 
ment  of  cultivation : 

“1.  The  extended  cultivation  of  the  best  white  and  red  corn,  [wheat,] 
which  have  less  bran  and  possess  more  elasticity  and  extensibility  of  glu¬ 
ten,  and  therefore  produce  flour  whiter  and  of  better  flavor. 

“2.  The  almost  total  change  in  the  mode  of  obtaining  starch,  which, 
instead  of  being  procured  by  fermentation,  which  causes  the  decomposi¬ 
tion  of  the  gluten,  is  obtained  by  the  means  of  washing,  a  process  which 
produces  starch  in  greater  quantities,  and  much  whiter,  without  dete¬ 
riorating  the  gluten;  the  preservation  of  grain  by  means  of  vacuums  $ 
the  drying  of  the  flour  by  mechanical  apparatus,  working  in  the  open 
air,  w  hich  produces  flour  well  dried  that  can  be  kept  a  long  time.” 

14  U  E 


210 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


CLASS  69.— FATTY  SUBSTANCES  USED  AS  FOOD  5  MILK  AND 

EGGS. 

Class  69  includes :  1.  Conserved  milk  and  the  different  varieties  of 
cheese ;  2.  Alimentary  fatty  substances,  such  as  butter,  olive  oil,  and 
animal  grease ;  3.  Hens’  and  other  birds’  eggs. 

The  folio  wing  review  of  the  production  in  this  class  is  from  the  report 
of  the  committee  of  admission : 

MILK  AND  CHEESE. 

u  The  production  of  cow’s  milk  is  by  far  the  most  considerable,  the  num¬ 
ber  of  coVs  in  France  amounting  to  more  than  5,000,000.  The  depart¬ 
ments  of  Calvados,  Orne,  Manche,  Seine  Inferieure,  Loiret,  Nord,  and 
the  Yosges,  are  those  which  supply  the  largest  quantity  of  milk.  For 
Paris  alone  the  consumption  amounts  to  about  500,000  litres  a  day.  Milk 
is  sold  at  from  10  to  40  centimes  a  litre,  according  to  the  localities  and 
the  quality 5  from  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  water  is  often  added.  The  frauds 
practiced  in  the  trade  are  easily  discovered  by  means  of  the  cremometer 
and  butyrometer,  and  by  the  amount  of  sugar  in  the  milk.  The  preser¬ 
vation  of  milk  is  obtained  by  the  original  process  of  M.  Appert,  and  by 
new  improved  systems. 

a  The  production  of  cheese  in  France  is  considerable,  particularly  in  the 
departments  of  Aveyron,  Seine  Inferieure,  Calvados,  Loiret,  Marne, 
Seine  d’Oise,  Creuse,  Cantal,  Yosges,  &c.  Cheese  is  generally  made  by 
coagulating  the  caseine  of  the  milk  by  means  of  pressure,  in  a  tempera¬ 
ture  of  68  to  77  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  straining  it  on  a  cloth  or  in  tin 
molds.  The  caseine  holds  the  globules  of  butter,  and  constitutes  the 
commercial  products  known  under  the  name  of  fresh  cheeses,  such  as 
those  of  Neufchatel.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  strong  cheeses  are  required 
of  more  decided  flavors,  and  intended  for  preservation,  they  are  packed 
in  sea  salt,  and  exposed  to  currents  of  air  in  a  cool  place,  and  care  is 
taken  to  turn  them  often.  Under  the  influence  of  cryptogamious  growths 
the  caseine  becomes  separated,  and  gives  rise  to  various  products, 
which  communicate  new  properties  to  the  cheese.  The  conditions  of 
this  manufacture  differ  according  to  the  varieties  of  the  cheese,  thus : 
Boquefort  cheese  is  made  with  sheep  and  goat’s  milk,  in  specially  con¬ 
structed  cellars,  at  a  constant  temperature  of  about  53  degrees  Fahren¬ 
heit  5  Neufchatel  cheese  is  prepared  with  milk  and  cream  5  that  of  Cam- 
embert  with  milk  skimmed  slightly,  and  with  particular  care ;  that  of 
Brie  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  soft  paste ;  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
double-cream  cheese  cream  alone  is  employed.  The  importations  of  for¬ 
eign  cheeses  rose  in  1862  as  high  as  5,262  tons,  and  the  exports  to  5,027 
tons,  1,660  tons  of  which  were  of  our  own  production.  The  annual  con¬ 
sumption  of  cheese  is  very  considerable,  Paris  alone  consuming  5,422 
tons,  and  it  would  not  be  far  from  the  truth  to  state  that,  for  the  whole 
of  France,  this  consumption  surpasses  100,000  tons.  The  Boquefort 


FOOD,  FRESH  OR  PRESERVED. 


211 


cellars  deliver  annually  to  tlie  trade  2,750  tons;  the  sale  of  Camemhert 
cheese  amounts  to  500,000  francs ;  and  the  quantity  of  Brie  cheeses  that 
is  sold  annually  in  Paris  represents  a  sum  of  1,400,000  francs.” 

ALIMENTARY  FATTY  SUBSTANCES. 

“The  departments  of  Calvados,  Orne,  Manche,  Seine  Inferieure,  Indre 
and  Loire,  Loiret,  Nord,  Pas-de-Calais,  and  Brittany,  are  the  principal 
places  of  production  for  butter.  These  fatty  substances  are  much  used  in 
France,  and  are  extracted  from  the  cream  of  the  milk  by  means  of  vio¬ 
lent  agitation  at  a  moderate  temperature  in  a  cylindrical  vessel  of  wood 
or  tin.  Steam  engines  and  horse  mills  are  rarely  used.  The  quality  of 
the  milk  has  a  great  influence  on  that  of  the  butter.  The  pleasant  odor 
pervading  certain  butters,  such  as  those  of  Isigny,  is  produced  by  the 
plants  of  the  natural  meadow  lands.  The  fine  butters  are  generally  of 
an  orange  color,  and  possess  a  delicate  flavor;  the  butter  of  inferior 
qualities  being  of  a  lighter  color.  To  insure  the  preservation  of  butter, 
it  is  placed  in  stone  jars,  after  having  been  washed  several  times,  and 
mixed  with  five  or  six  per  cent,  of  sea  salt.  This  is  salt  butter.  In 
some  localities  the  butter  is  warmed,  either  simply  over  the  fire  or  in  a 
vessel  placed  in  boiling  water  on  the  fire.  The  scum  is  then  taken  off, 
and  when  the  liquid  butter  is  clear  it  is  poured  into  stone  jars.  ~No 
fatty  substance  used  for  food  is  so  much  in  demand  throughout  France 
as  butter.  The  quantity  of  this  product  exported  in  1862  represented  a 
sum  of  28,962,142  francs,  while  the  quantity  consumed  in  Paris  alone 
amounted  to  24,595,850  francs  in  value.  If  it  be  calculated  that,  for  the 
89  departments  of  France,  the  consumption  is  six  or  seven  times  as 
large,  it  may  be  estimated  that  the  total  production  exceeds  200,000,000 
francs.  The  market  price  of  the  various  descriptions  of  butter  varies 
from  2  francs  20  centimes  to  8  francs  the  kilogram.  The  exportation  of 
butter  and  cheese  has  reached,  during  the  first  nine  months  of  the  year 
1866,  the  sum  of  58,100,000  francs,  and  the  importation  to  16,600,000 
francs. 

“Olive  oil,  the  best  of  the  alimentary  oils,  is  extracted  from  the  fruit  of 
the  olive  tree,  which  is  grown  in  some  of  the  departments  of  the  south 
of  France,  in  Corsica,  and  in  Algeria.  The  oil  obtained  by  the  first 
expression,  or  cold  drawn,  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  virgin  oil. 
The  second  extraction,  which  is  effected  by  heat,  produces  a  condiment 
much  less  agreeable  to  the  taste.  (Eillete  oil,  and  oil  from  some  animal 
greases,  are  also  used  as  articles  of  consumption.” 

hens’  and  other  birds’  eggs. 

“Hens’  eggs,  of  which  the  consumption  is  so  immense,  are  principally 
supplied  by  the  departments  of  Calvados,  Orne,  Somme,  Seine  Infe¬ 
rieure,  Oise,  Aisne,  Eure  et  Loir,  Indre  et  Loir,  Seine  et  Marne,  and  Pas- 
de-Calais.  In  1853  the  quantity  of  eggs  received  in  Paris  amounted  to 
174,000,000;  but  the  consumption  of  this  article  is  much  more  consider- 


212 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


able  at  tlie  present  time.  Ducks,  Guinea  fowls,  geese,  and  turkey  eggs 
are  occasionally  used.” 

CLASS  70.— MEAT,  FISH,  AND  VEGETABLES. 

Taking  into  consideration  tlie  close  connection  existing  between  tlie 
products  ranged  under  the  classes  70  and  71,  which,  in  many  cases,  are 
shown  by  the  same  exhibitors,  it  was  decided  that  these  two  classes 
should  be  united  and  submitted  to  the  consideration  of  one  jury,  which 
accordingly  undertook  the  control  of  the  united  classes  and  drew  up  the 
subjoined  report: 

“The  products  included  in  class  70  are  meat,  fish,  and  fresh  fruit  and 
vegetables.  In  the  study  of  the  organs  which  accomplish  the  digestive 
process  in  the  human  system,  such  as  the  active  principles  (diastasis, 
pepsin  or  gasterasis,  pancreatic  juice,  &c.)  which  divide  and  dissolve 
the  food,  it  is  evident  that  man  must  depend  for  his  nutriment  upon 
animal  and  vegetable  products.  Besides  the  soil  and  the  water,  which 
promote  the  digestive  and  assimilative  processes,  it  is  certain  that  for 
complete  nutrition  the  concurrence  is  needed  of  substances  taken  from 
the  three  natural  kingdoms,  and  which  comprehend  four  distinct  classes 
of  food,  viz :  azotic,  fat,  feculent  or  sweet,  and  saline.  The  chief  charac¬ 
teristic  of  meat  and  fish  in  this  respect  is  the  abundance  of  azotized 
matter  assimilated  to  our  own  tissues,  and  which  supply  the  fortifying 
quality  in  our  food.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  at  the  present 
moment  that  we  should  encourage  the  reproduction  of  these  elements, 
and  it  is  the  insufficient  supply  of  them  which  most  materially  affects 
the  strength  and  health  of  populations,  particularly  of  those  whose 
daily  labor  renders  a  reparative  nutrition  absolutely  necessary  to  life. 
On  investigating  the  average  consumption  of  the  alimentary  products 
taken  from  the  bovine,  ovine,  and  porcine  species,  and  those  supplied  by 
poultry,  game,  fish,  eggs,  and  cheese,  we  find  that  each  individual  in  the 
peculation  of  the  eighty-nine  departments  of  France  consumes  only  57 
grams  of  these  azotized  alimentary  products,  while  the  average  ration  of 
an  inhabitant  of  Paris  amounts  to  273  grams  daily.1 

“The  flesh  of  slaughtered  horses  is  being  .brought  into  use  in  France, 
when,  after  having  been  submitted  to  the  inspection  of  the  proper  oflfi- 

1  On  the  basis  of  the  statistical  data  furnished  to  the  president  of  these  classes  by  the  min¬ 
ister  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  public  works,  it  is  estimated  that  the  consumption  of 
butcher’s  and  pork  butcher’s  meat  during  the  year  1862,  in  the  chief  towns  of  departments 
and  arrondissements,  and  in  those  towns  where  the  population  reaches  10,000,  averages 
for  each  individual  53  kilograms  600c.  per  annum,  or  146  grams  a  day,  a  fact  which  is 
still  further  corroborated  by  the  following  quinquennial  return:  Aggregate  consumption: 
beef,  131,140,910  kilograms  ;  cow  meat,  57,994,541  kilograms  ;  veal,  61,304,468  kilograms  ; 
mutton,  62,147,482  kilograms;  lamb  or  kid,  5,268,614  kilograms;  pork,  6,110,744  kilo¬ 
grams;  imported  meats,  43,324,711  kilograms;  at  an  average  price  of  1  franc  18  centimes 
per  kilogram  for  beef,  1  franc  4  centimes  for  cow,  1  franc  25  centimes  for  veal,  1  franc  27 
centimes  for  mutton,  and  1  franc  8  centimes  for  lamb  and  kid.  The  total  weight  of  animal 
food  consumed  amounted  to  422,288,187  kilograms  among  a  population  of  7,878,329,  giving 
an  average  for  each  individual  of  53  kilograms  60c. 


FOOD,  FRESH  OR  PRESERVED. 


213 


cers,  it  is  declared  wholesome.  This  meat  makes  good  soup,  and  when 
boiled  has  an  agreeable  flavor,  although  rather  hard.  Certain  parts, 
above  all  the  fillet,  furnish  excellent  roasts.  For  some  time  past  horse¬ 
flesh  has  been  advantageously  employed  as  food  by  the  inhabitants  of 
tlie  north  of  Germany. 

u  By  consulting  the  report  of  the  committee  of  class  82,  and  of  the 
committee  charged  with  organizing  the  arrangement  of  live  fish,  Crus¬ 
tacea,  molluscs,  &c.,  it  will  be  seen  what  means  are  used  for  the  mainte¬ 
nance  and  multiplication  of  marine  and  fresh  water  species,  which 
furnish  such  abundant  siqyplies  of  animal  food  for  our  subsistence. 

“Ripe  fruit  exercises  a  favorable  influence  on  the  nutrition  and  health 
of  mankind  by  introducing  sweet,  aromatic,  azotized,  acidulated,  and 
saline  principles  into  their  alimentary  rations,  but  it  does  much  real 
harm  when  it  is  wrongly  used  in  too  large  a  proportion,  or  forms,  as  it 
does  in  some  cases,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  habitual  food. 

“  These  alimentary  substances,  which  help  to  vary  and  render  our  food 
more  varied  and  wholesome,  have  increased  to  a  very  large  extent  in 
France  since  the  cultivation  of  kitchen  gardens  on  a  large  scale  has  so 
much  developed  on  the  coasts  of  Brittany,  favored  by  the  gentle  and 
temperate  climate  of  those  maritime  districts. 

u  A  large  quantity  of  the  jiroduce  of  this  special  culture  has  been  lately 
exported  to  England  ;  above  all,  since,  thanks  to  the  increased  and 
rapid  means  of  communication,  the  early  vegetables  of  the  southern  dis¬ 
tricts  of  France,  as  well  as  the  oranges,  lemons,  and  various  other  -pro¬ 
ductions,  of  the  Algerian  orchards,  have  appeared  in  the  markets  of  the 
metropolis.1 

“  It  is  well  known  that  the  cultivation  of  mushrooms  in  the  vast  quarries 
of  Paris  affords  an  abundant  source  of  alimentary  production,  and  a 
means  of  varying  the  appetizing  flavor  of  our  best  culinary  prepara¬ 
tions.  In  this  respect  France  is  the  most  favored  country  for  the  growth 
of  the  delieioms  and  nutritious  mushroom,  which  grows  naturally  in 
propitious  ground  under  the  shadow  of  oaks  and  beeches,  but  which,  up 
to  the  present  'time,  has  bid  defiance  to  every  system  of  artificial  culture. 

u  The  extremely  favorable  influence  of  fresh  vegetables  has  particularly 
manifested  itself  in  the  alimentary  regime  011  board  ship.  It  has  been 
shown  that  sailors  could  maintain  themselves  in  good  health  by  making 
use  of  these  productions  to  vary  their  diet,  which  is  thus  made  more 
agreeable;  and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  ships’  crews  deprived  during 
long  voyages  of  these  precious  sanitary  resources  suffered  from  special 
affections  and  particularly  from  scurvy.” 

PRESERVED  MEATS  AND  VEGETABLES. 

“  Class  71  includes  meat,  fish,  fruit,  and  vegetables  preserved  by  various 
industrial  processes.  Preserved  meat,  fish,  fruit,  and  vegetables  are  pre- 

1  In  1865  there  were  imported  into  France  from  Algeria :  table  fruits,  2,485,288  kilograms  ; 
vegetables,  dried,  1,866,958  kilograms;  green,  743,386  kilograms;  total,  5,095,602  kilo¬ 
grams. 


214 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


pared  in  four  principal  sections  of  the  country.  The  first  group  has  its 
centre  in  the  town  of  Nantes,  and  furnishes  pickled  and  preserved  meat 
and  fish  and  preserved  vegetables.  The  second  group  has  for  its  centre 
Bordeaux,  and  provides  preserved  fruit,  vegetables,  meat,  and  some  fish. 
Excellent  conserves  of  whole  green  olives  are  made  in  the  department  of 
Herault  and  Bouches-du-Rlione.  The  collection  and  preservation  of  truf¬ 
fles  have  extended  over  ten  departments  of  France.  The  third  group  has 
its  centre  in  Mans,  and  specially  treats  vegetables  and  some  few  meats. 
Paris  is  the  centre  of  the  fourth  group,  and  prepares  preserved  vegeta¬ 
bles,  mushrooms,  and  some  meats. 

u  The  preparation  of  certain  special  products,  composed  of  truffles  and 
fatted  goose  liver,  has  its  principal  seat  in  Strasbourg,  though  the  trade 
extends  all  over  the  southern  part  of  the  empire.  All  the  materials 
employed  in  these  preparations  are  produced  on  the  soil  of  France  or  are 
supplied  by  the  coast  fisheries.  Their  nomenclature  is  very  extensive, 
and  their  prices  vary  considerably  from  year  to  year.  Mechanical  labor 
is  very  seldom  required  in  the  preparation,  which  simply  consists  in  a 
series  of  processes,  nearly  all  of  which  are  accomplished  by  manipulation. 
The  methods  of  preservation  are  numerous.  The  only  one  which  has 
been  applied  recently  by  the  trade,  besides  pickling  and  concentration, 
is  founded  on  the  remarkable  invention  of  Mr.  Appert.  It  consists  of: 
1.  Washing  in  boiling  water  the  substances  to  be  preserved ;  2.  Putting 
the  ingredients  into  vessels  soldered  or  hermetically  fastened ;  3.  Expel¬ 
ling  the  air  remaining  in  the  closed  vessel  by  boiling  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  period,  and  at  a  degree  varying  according  to  the  substance  to  be 
preserved.  This  unique  system  is  diversified  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  products. 

u  The  theory  of  preserving  substances  by  the  French  method,  which  has 
been  propagated  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe  and  America,  appears  to 
be  founded,  according  to  the  observations  of  M.  Pasteur,  on  the  destruc¬ 
tion,  by  exposure  to  a  temperature  of  about  212°  Fahrenheit,  of  the 
vitality  of  microphytic  and  microcosmic  germs,  which  in  a  living  state 
engender  alcoholic,  acid,  putrid,  and  other  fermentations.  A  new  descrip¬ 
tion  of  preserved  food  has  latterly  been  introduced  into  France  from 
South  America;  it  is  a  concentrated  extract  of  the  meat  of  slaughtered 
animals,  of  which  the  grease  and  skins  alone  were  previously  used  in 
these  countries.  This  extract  can  be  preserved  in  boxes  which  are  not 
hermetically  sealed,  on  the  condition  that  they  contain  no  fat,  which 
would  cause  rancidity,  nor  gelatine,  which  would  occasion  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  mould.  It  represents  an  amount  of  solid  substance  equal  to 
30  times  its  weight  in  fresh  meat.  It  is  already  largely  consumed  in  Ger¬ 
many,  and  is  largely  supplied  to  armies  on  service,  and  completes  the 
quota  of  cereals  and  vegetables. 

u  The  manual  labor,  the  general  expenses,  and  the  price  of  the  vessel 
are  equal,  on  an  average,  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  preparation 
when  ready  for  use.  The  workmen  employed  in  these  various  works  are 


SUGAR  AND  CONFECTIONERY. 


215 


all  employed  in  workshops  belonging  to  manufacturers.  Some  of  them — 
for  instance,  those  engaged  in  cooking  and  preserving — are  paid  monthly, 
and  are  occupied  permanently  during  the  whole  year  5  the  others,  such 
as  the  tinmen,  work  by  the  piece.  The  last  category  includes  the  peelers 
and  others,  who  are  paid  by  the  day  and  hired  by  the  week  or  the  month, 
according  to  the  wants  or  the  seasons  of  production.  The  preparations 
produced  in  France  are  sold  in  the  great  centres  of  population,  to  the 
navy,  and,  above  all,  in  foreign  countries.  The  makers  in  the  provinces 
sell  directly  to  the  retail  dealers,  and  in  Paris  either  directly  or  by  the 
medium  of  small  wholesale  dealers,  but  to  foreign  countries  directly  or 
through  agents. 

u  The  production  of  preserved  food  has  greatly  developed  since  1855, 
and  this  development  is  due  to  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  the  best 
processes,  on  Avliich  depend  the  preservation  of  the  alimentary  sub¬ 
stances,  to  their  better  application,  and,  consequently,  to  greater  confi¬ 
dence  on  the  part  of  the  consumer,  leading  to  the  increased  sale  of  those 
articles  which  presented  before  but  a  doubtful  chance  of  success.” 

CLASS  72.— CONDIMENTS  AND  STIMULANTS;  SUGAR  AND 

CONFECTIONERY. 

The  exhibits  in  class  72  include  sugar,  confectionery,  chocolate,  liqueurs, 
condiments,  and  stimulants. 

SUGAR. 

France,  Prussia,  Belgium,  Brazil,  Austria,  and  the  United  States  were 
the  chief  exhibitors  of  sugar.  Beet  root  sugar  was  conspicuous  from  the 
central  European  countries.  The  production  of  this  sugar  is  increasing. 
In  Belgium  it  is  now  equal  to  three-quarters  of  the  whole  consumption  of 
sugar.  In  1850  and  1851  there  were  only  28  establishments  for  the  manu¬ 
facture.  In  1855-756  there  were  45,  and  in  18G5-’GG  the  number  had 
reached  100,  and  the  production  was  41,551,834  kilograms. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  official  catalogue  show  in  detail  the 
condition  of  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  other  articles  in  this  class  in 
France. : 

u  Sugars  include  raw  and  refined  sugar  and  molasses.  Raw  cane  sugar 
comes  from  the  French  and  other  colonies.  The  beet-root  sugar  is  prin¬ 
cipally  made  in  the  department  s  of  the  north  of  France.  The  price  of  raw 
sugar  is  about  G1  francs  to  70  francs  the  100  kilograms,  (2  hundred  weight,) 
to  which  must  be  added  the  customs  duty,  namely,  42  francs  per  100  kilo 
grams  for  beet  root  and  foreign  sugar,  and  37  francs  50  centimes  for  French 
colonial  sugar.  After  the  juice  is  extracted  from  the  cane  or  from  the 
beet  root  it  is  defecated,  clarified,  filtered,  and  bleached;  it  is  afterwards 
evaporated  in  various  apparatus,  to  cause  it  to  crystallize,  and  after  that 
xt  is  purified  more  or  less,  according  to  the  quality  that  is  desired,  and 
raw  sugar  and  molasses  are  obtained.  The  raw  sugar  passes  afterwards 
to  the  refinery,  where  it  is  converted  into  loaf  or  powdered  white  sugar. 


216 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


It  is  first  dissolved  in  water,  so  as  to  form  a  rather  thin  syrup,  which  is 
afterwards  clarified,  filtered,  bleached,  evaporated,  crystallized,  placed 
in  moulds,  and  dried  in  stoves,  to  be  delivered  for  consumption.  It  then 
sells  for  about  125  francs  the  100  kilograms,  duty  included. 

“Sugar-making  is  conducted  in  works  directed  by  superintendents  and 
foremen.  The  refiners  buy  the  raw  sugar  either  of  the  shippers,  of  the 
beet  root  sugar  makers,  or  of  commission  agents.  The  loaf  sugar  is 
sold  to  wholesale  and  retail  dealers,  and  they  export  it  to  England, 
Switzerland,  America,  Algeria,  Italy,  and  Turkey.  France  produces 
200,000,000  kilograms  of  beet  root  sugar,  and  imports  about  the  same 
quantity  from  the  French  and  foreign  colonies.  The  consumption  is 
about  250,000,000  kilograms.  The  difference  is  exported. 

“Since  1857  the  manufacture  and  the  refining  have  made  great  pro¬ 
gress,  and  this  has  had  the  effect  of  producing  sugar  at  a  lower  price* 
The  principal  improvements  to  be  pointed  out  are,  in  sugar-making,  the 
process  of  double  carbonization,  triple-action  vacuum  pans,  and  the 
employment  of  centrifugal  machines ;  and  in  refining,  the  improvements 
in  the  system  of  bleaching,  the  employment  of  centrifugal  machines,  and 
the  diminution  of  the  general  expenses,  by  the  concentration  of  work  in 
large  establishments.” 


CHOCOLATE. 

“  Chocolate-making  has  become  an  important  trade  j  it  gives  rise  to  the 
circulation  of  30,000,000  francs  annually,  and  is  continually  on  the 
increase.  In  the  year  1832  the  quantity  of  cocoa  consumed  in  France 
was  little  more  than  528  tons  5  in  1863  it  had  gradually  increased  to 
5,513  tons,  which  represented  a  production  of  11,000  tons  of  chocolate, 
of  an  average  value  of  3  francs  per  kilogram.  This  increase  was  due  to 
the  employment  of  machinery,  with  the  aid  of  which  chocolate  is  manu¬ 
factured  both  more  cheaply  and  of  better  quality. 

“The  chocolate  manufactories  are  situated  in  and  near  Paris  and  also 
in  the  departments  of  the  Hord,  Somme,  Gironde,  Loir  et  Phone,  and 
Pyrenees,  and  use  both  hydraulic  and  steam  power.  As  to  the  estab¬ 
lishments  where  the  work  is  carried  on  by  manual  labor,  they  are  now 
few  in  number,  and  are  gradually  approaching  entire  extinction.  A  great 
number  of  women  are  employed  in  cleaning  the  cocoa  and  wrapping  up 
the  cakes  of  chocolate.  They  are  seldom  out  of  work.  Both  men  and 
women  are  engaged  in  the  factories  of  their  employers,  and  the  amount 
of  their  wages  is  estimated  at  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  whole  value  of 
the  production.  The  home  consumption  absorbs  nearly  the  whole  quan¬ 
tity  made.  Only  188  tons  were  exported  in  1863 ;  but  this  exportation 
would  increase  rapidly  if  the  duties  on  the  cocoa  and  sugar  were  returned 
on  the  export  of  the  chocolate.  French  chocolate  is  in  great  repute  in 
adjoining  countries. 

“The  committee  of  admission  have  to  observe  that  considerable  pro¬ 
gress  has  been  made  since  1855  in  the  manufacture,  due  principally  to 


SUGAR  AND  CONFECTIONERY.  217 

the  improvement  of  the  machinery  and  plans  employed,  and  to  the 
special  pains  taken  in  the  manipulation  and  the  materials.” 

CONFECTIONERY. 

“The  productions  of  this  section  comprise:  1.  Sweetmeats,  containing 
almonds  and  liqueurs;  2.  Acidulated  and  other  drops,  barley  sugar, 
apple  sugar,  &c.;  3.  Pastiles  and  lozenges  of  gum,  burned  almonds, 
fondants  or  cream  sweetmeats,  nougats,  drops,  bonbons,  figures  and  fancy 
articles,  comfits,  and  fruits  preserved  in  sugar. 

“The  principal  places  of  production  of  confectionery  are  Paris,  Mar¬ 
seilles,  Bordeaux, Yerdun,  Clermont,  Perrand,  Lyons,  Rouen,  and  Orleans* 
The  raw  materials  are  sugar,  almonds,  gums,  perfumes,  and  fruit.  The 
sugar,  principally  employed  in  the  refined  state,  undergoes  this  prepara¬ 
tion  in  France,  and  the  average  value  of  that  employed  is  about  127 
francs  the  100  kilograms,  (2  hundred  weight.)  Within  the  last  five  or 
seven  years  sugar  obtained  by  the  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of 
beet  root  juice  of  the  first  quality,  by  means  of  the  apparatus  of  Cail  & 
Co.,  which. has  been  employed  in  confectionery.  This  sugar,  inferior  to 
refined,  is  now  worth  about  117  francs  the  100  kilograms.  The  almonds  are 
in  a  large  proportion  also  of  French  production,  and  grown  in  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  Bouelies  du  Rhone,  Herault,  Vaucluse,  Lower  Alps,  and 
Aveyron.  The  average  price  on  the  spot  varies,  according  to  quality? 
from  140  francs  to  250  francs  the  100  kilograms.  Italy  and  Spain  also 
have  latterly  contributed  a  considerable  quantity.  The  price  of  these 
varies  from  120  francs  to  180  francs. 

u  The  gums  come  exclusively  from  Senegal  and  Alexandria.  The  prices 
of  these  at  Marseilles  or  Bordeaux  vary,  according  to  the  abundance  of 
the  crop,  from  100  francs  to  280  francs  the  100  kilograms.  The  French 
confectioners  generally  make  use  of  the  most  delicate  perfumes,  such  as 
vanilla,  the  price  of  which  varies  from  40  francs  to  100  francs,  rose¬ 
water,  orange-flowers,  raspberries,  maraschino,  &c.,  to  the  exclusion  of 
strong-flavored  concentrated  essences.  All  these  perfumed  waters  are 
produced  in  the  south  of  France,  Yar,  and  the  Maritime  Alps.  The 
price  varies  from  1  franc  to  1  frauc  50  centimes  for  good  qualities.  The 
most  esteemed  fruits  are  those  of  the  centre  of  France  and  Auvergne, 
and  the  price  in  the  fresh,  unprepared  state  varies,  according  to  the 
season,  from  20  francs  to  100  francs  the  100  kilograms. 

u  The  manufacture  of  the  various  products  of  confectionery  was  carried 
on  entirely  by  hand  until  1845.  Since  that  time  apparatus  of  various 
kinds,  propelled  and  heated  by  steam,  have  successively  replaced  that 
primitive  method,  which  is  rapidly  disappearing.  Men  alone  are  or  can 
be  employed  in  this  work,  but  many  preparatory  operations — long,  but 
not  fatiguing — such  as  the  shelling  and  blanching  of  almonds,  the 
preparation  of  fruit  and  gum,  and  packing,  are  reserved  for  women,  who 
in  number  equal,  if  they  do  not  surpass,  that  of  the  men.  In  Paris  the 
wages  vary  with  the  importance  of  the  work  and  the  skill  of  the  work- 


218 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


men,  from  35  centimes  to  65  centimes  per  hour,  and  in  the  case  of  women 
from  15  centimes  to  25  centimes.  The  labor  is  estimated  to  cost  about 
one-eighth  of  the  value  of  the  whole  production.  The  wholesale  trade 
in  confectionery  amounts  to  about  40,000,000  francs  per  annum,  of  which 
three-fourths  are  represented  by  sweetmeats  and  one-fourth  by  preserved 
fruits,  jellies  and  jams.  Although  held  in  high  esteem  abroad,  these 
productions  are  only  exported  to  a  very  small  extent  as  compared  with 
the  home  consumption  5  but  the  export  trade  would  rapidly  assume 
important  proportions  if,  as  in  the  case  of  refined  sugar,  the  consumer’s 
tax  on  sugar  were  refunded  on  the  export  of  the  goods.” 

LIQUEURS. 

“  Paris,  Bordeaux,  Marseilles,  Isere,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  all  the  great 
centres  of  population,  possess  distilleries.  The  principal  materials 
employed  in  this  industry  are  wine  spirit,  refined  sugar,  plants,  and 
aromatic  substances.  The  spirit  is  principally  obtained  from  Langue¬ 
doc,  and  the  price  varies  greatly  with  the  season.  In  December,  1866, 
it  was  worth  75  francs  the  hectolitre,  (22 £  gallons,)  exclusive  of  duty. 
The  refined  sugar  is  obtained  from  Paris,  Marseilles,  and  Nantes,  at 
rates  varying  from  127  francs  to  130  francs  the  100  kilograms.  The 
aromatic  plants  are  grown  in  the  environs  of  Lyons  and  Grenoble, 
and  their  prices  varies  from  50  francs  to  300  francs  the  100  kilograms. 
The  aromatic  substances  are  vanilla,  cinnamon,  cloves,  and  nutmeg,  and 
the  prices  range  between  50  francs  and  80  francs  the  kilogram.  The 
manufacture  is  accomplished  by  distillation,  with  the  aid  of  steam  and 
a  special  apparatus,  more  or  less  perfect,  the  alembic  being  the  model  on 
which  all  are  based. 

“The  workmen  are  always  engaged  in  the  establishments  of  their 
employer,  and  their  wages  range  from  4  francs  to  6  francs  per  day.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  liqueurs  made  are  for  home  consumption $  still  this 
trade  gives  rise  to  an  important  export,  in  spite  of  the  large  augmenta¬ 
tion  of  price,  caused  principally  by  the  duty  on  the  consumption  of 
spirits  and  sugar.  The  trade  is  so  divided  and  disseminated  that  it  is 
difficult  to  give  the  precise  amount  of  the  annual  production ;  but  taking 
the  statistics  respecting  the  transformation  of  spirits  into  liqueurs,  as 
given  by  authority,  we  arrive  at  a  proximate  estimate  of  45,000,000 
francs.” 

CONDIMENTS  AND  STIMULANTS. 

“The  white  wines  of  the  Loire  and  of  the  Charente  are  those  which 
give  the  best  vinegar.  The  price  varies  with  the  season,  from  5  francs 
to  20  francs  per  hectolitre.  The  preparation  consists  essentially  in  set¬ 
ting  in  action  the  principles  of  fermentation  in  the  wine,  which,  to  that 
end,  is  exposed  to  a  given  heat  in  reservoirs  prepared  for  the  purpose. 
For  some  time  the  use  of  steam  for  the  heating,  and  of  machinery  for 
transferring  the  liquor  from  one  vessel  to  another,  has  reduced  the  cost 


FERMENTED  DRINKS. 


219 


of  the  manual  labors  by  two-thirds.  Lastly,  the  theories  of  Mr.  Pasteur 
ou  fermentation  have  thrown  light  upon  many  questions  which  were 
heretofore  obscure.  The  amount  of  the  annual  production  of  vinegar  in 
France  is  about  1,500,000  hectolitres,  which  at  the  average  rate  of  20 
francs  gives  a  money  value  of  30,000,000  francs. 

“ Mustard  seed  is  cultivated  in  many  departments,  and  specially  in 
the  Nord,  Pas-de-Calais,  the  Bas  Rhin,  and  the  Charente.  The  annual 
produce  is  050  tons,  worth  150,000  francs.  Triturated  in  special  mills, 
mixed  with  vinegar,  and  flavored  with  various  condiments,  it  is  deliv¬ 
ered  to  the  trade  ready  for  the  table.  The  quantity  produced  is  about 
3,000  tons,  of  the  total  value  of  2,000,000  francs. 

“Fruits  and  vegetables  preserved  in  vinegar,  English  sauces,  capers, 
&c.,  make  up  a  total  of  about  3,000  tons,  and  a  value  of  4,000,000  francs.’7 

“  Spices  are  all  imported  from  America,  India,  and  China,  and  make 
up  a  total  of  4,250,000  francs. 

“The  various  countries  which  supply  France  with  coffee,  the  use  of 
which  has  so  largely  extended,  are  Brazil,  the  West  Indies,  India,  and 
Egypt.  The  qualities  vary  extremely,  but  of  all  kinds  known  that  which 
is  cultivated  in  Arabia,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Mocha,  is  decidedly 
the  finest.  The  prices  of  coffee  range  from  2  francs  to  3  francs  50  cen¬ 
times,  according  to  the  country  of  production.  The  value  of  the  imports 
in  18G4  reached  80,000,000  francs. 

“The  continental  blockade  rendered  it  necessary  to  find  some  sub¬ 
stitute  for  coffee,  and  hence  resulted  the  preparation  of  chiccory,  which, 
although  possessing  none  of  the  qualities  of  coffee,  has  held  its  place  to 
the  present  time,  and  even  progresses  in  demand,  on  account  of  its  low 
price  and  the  similarity  in  color  between  it  and  coffee.  The  roots  of  the 
chiccory  plant,  cultivated  specially  in  the  north  of  France,  and  in  the 
Haut  and  Bas  Rhin,  are  first  roasted,  and  then,  after  having  been  prop¬ 
erly  dried  in  a  stove,  are  again  roasted  and  reduced  to  powder.  These 
operations  are  carried  on  in  well  organized  establishments  on  a  large 
scale.  The  green  roots  are  Avorth  from  4  francs  50  centimes  to  5  francs 
the  100  kilograms.  Sliced  and  dried,  they  fetch  18  francs  to  24  francs. 
The  powder,  when  prepared,  is  Avorth  40  francs  to  50  francs  the  100  kilo¬ 
grams,  and  in  grain  from  50  francs  to  60  francs.  The  annual  produce 
may  be  estimated  at  7,000  tons,  of  the  value  of  3,500,000  francs  to 
4,000,000  francs. 

“Finally,  the  productions  which  form  the  subject  of  the  preceding  enu¬ 
meration  contribute  to  the  annual  industry  of  France  to  the  folloAving 
extent : 

“1.  Sugar,  400,000,000  francs ;  2.  Confectionery,  40,000,000  francs ;  3. 
Chocolate,  30,000,000  francs;  4.  Liqueurs,  45,000,000  francs ;  5.  Condi¬ 
ments  and  stimulants,  127,000,000  francs.  Total,  G42,000,000  francs.” 

CLASS  73. — FERMENTED  DRINKS. 

In  class  73 — fermented  drinks,  wines,  spirits,  &c. — there  AA'as  a  very 
extensive  collection  from  every  quarter  of  the  world.  The  importance 


220 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


of  the  department  may  he  inferred  from  the  fact  that  there  were  7,700 
exhibitors  and  22,000  samples  shown.  France,  with  her  splendid  and 
delicate  wines,  maintained  her  known  supremacy  in  this  manufacture. 
The  principal  particulars  of  the  trade  in  France,  furnished  from  official 
sources,  are  given  below. 

The  German  wines,  manufactured  according  to  the  highest  principles 
of  the  art,  and  the  produce  of  wines  that  are  raised  with  a  care  which 
is  not  bestowed  on  any  other  article  of  human  consumption,  ranked  very 
high.  The  best  Rhine  wines  are  white;  but  two  celebrated  brands, 
Assmannshausen  and  Stein wein,  are  red,  and  were  liberally  represented. 
Johannisberger  maintained  its  position  as  the  king  of  German  wines. 
It  is  not,  however,  sold  in  the  market,  except  in  bad  years,  when  the 
princely  proprietor  does  not  care  to  retain  the  wine.  There  is  a  large 
district  called  Joliannisberg,  but  the  vines  are  cultivated  in  the  usual 
way,  while  at  Schloss  Johannisberg  the  most  unremitting  attention, 
utterly  regardless  of  cost,  is  paid  to  them.  The  district,  however,  has  a 
good  exposure,  and  very  often  produces  a  superior  wine. 

Of  the  wines  of  Spain,  Portugal,  Austria,  and  Hungary  it  is  impossi¬ 
ble  to  speak.  They  were  displayed  in  infinite  variety,  and  of  qualities, 
it  may  be  presumed,  that  represented  the  highest  kind  of  production.  It 
was  stated,  however,  by  competent  judges,  that  no  appreciable  advance 
has  of  late  years  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  wine.  A  practical 
method  has,  nevertheless,  been  discovered  by  which  undue  fermentation  is 
avoided  in  the  case  of  wines  intended  for  exportation.  The  wine  is  sub¬ 
jected  to  60°  Centigrade  of  heat.  The  exposure  only  continues  for  a  few 
moments,  but  the  heat  effectually  destroys  all  germs  of  further  fermen¬ 
tation,  without,  it  is  claimed,  injuring  the  wine. 

The  wines  and  beers  exhibited  from  the  United  States  are  noticed  in 
the  Report  on  the  United  States  section. 

The  products  shown  in  this  class  are  divided  into  four  series : 

1.  Wine  of  all  kinds ;  2.  Alcohol,  eau-de-vie,  and  their  derivatives, 
kirsch,  bitters,  &c.;  3.  Cider ;  4.  Beer. 

WINE,  ALCOHOL,  AND  BRANDY  IN  FRANCE. 

u  Yiticultural  production  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  French  agri¬ 
culture.  It  extends  to  over  2,287,821  hectares, 1  situated  in  81  depart¬ 
ments,  the  yield  being,  on  an  average,  50,000,000  hectolitres, 2  of  a  total 
value  to  the  producers  of  750,000,000  francs.  In  1865  the  quantity 
reached  68,942,931  hectolitres,  and  considering  the  development  that  has 
taken  place  during  the  last  few  years,  it  is  certain,  that,  unless  checked 
by  the  grape  disease,  the  oidiurn,  the  amount  of  50,000,000  hectolitres 
will  generally  be  exceeded. 

u  Vineyard  property  is  excessively  subdivided.  It  is  held  by  no  less  than 
2,200,000  proprietors,  so  that  each  property,  on  an  average,  scarcely 

1 A  hectare  is  nearly  equivalent  to  two  and  a  half  acres  Eoglish. 

2  A  hectolitre  is  equal  to  22J  gallons  English. 


FERMENTED  DRINKS. 


221 


exceeds  one  hectare.  The  cost  of  cultivation  varies  considerably,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  season  and  the  rate  of  wages  in  the  various  districts  of  France. 
They  range  from  150  francs  to  570  francs  per  hectare,  which  give  for  the 
rate  of  wages  from  1  franc  90  centimes  to  4  francs,  and  even  5  francs  per 
day.  The  trade  in  wine  is,  of  course,  a  very  considerable  one.  The  city 
of  Paris  alone  consumes  annually  about  3,600,000  hectolitres ;  that  is  to 
say,  an  average  of  183  litres  (a  litre  is  rather  more  than  If  pint)  per 
head  for  each  inhabitant,  and  this  consumption  would  certainly  go  on 
increasing  largely  if  it  were  not  impeded  by  the  present  system  of  taxes, 
and  by  their  heavy  rates.  The  city  or  octroi  duties,  for  instance,  exceed 
in  amount  the  value  of  the  greater  part  of  the  wine  on  which  they  are 
placed.  Exportation  increases  every  year  under  the  influence  of  the  new 
treaty  of  commerce.  In  the  year  1866  the  exports  amounted  to  3,194,104 
hectolitres,  of  the  value  of  308,502,000  francs,  while  in  1851  the  total 
value  did  not  exceed  195,923,000  francs.  Thus,  in  five  years,  there  has 
been  an  increase  to  the  extent  of  60  per  cent.  The  value  of  the  exports 
of  spirits  and  liqueurs  amounted  in  1866  to  93,97 0,000  francs,  while  in 
1861  it  had  not  reached  over  52,966,000  francs.  It  had  therefore  increased 
to  the  extent  of  80  per  cent,  in  the  same  period.  The  total  amount  of 
the  exports  of  wine  and  spirits  in  1866  was  then  402,472,000  francs.  In 
1866  the  prices  were  far  below  those  of  1865.  This  reduction  of  price, 
combined  with  the  changes  introduced  in  the  English  tariff,  which  make 
the  duty  on  wine  introduced  in  bottle  the  same  as  that  imported  in  the 
wood,  has  increased  the  exports  of  wine  from  France  to  England  from 
94,385  hectolitres  to  205,992  hectolitres ;  that  is  to  say,  an  augmentation 
of  120  per  cent,  between  1865  and  1866,  and  it  is  hoped  that  this  con¬ 
sumption  will  overcome  the  obstacles  which  arise  out  of  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  trade  in  England  and  the  great  number  of  local  taxes. 

u  Sixty-five  departments  have  taken  part  in  the  Exhibition  of  1867 ; 
they  are  represented  by  600  exhibitors.  Unfortunately,  the  Exhibition  of 
the  great  growths  of  the  Bordelais  is  far  from  being  complete.  As  to 
Burgundy,  the  chamber  of  commerce  and  the  agricultural  societies  and 
committees  liav%  zealously  competed  in  the  organization  of  a  most 
remarkable  exhibition.  Various  processes  have  been  proposed  and 
experimented  on  recently  with  the  view  to  the  improvement  and  man¬ 
agement  of  the  fermentation  of  wine,  and  particularly  to  make  it  capa¬ 
ble  of  bearing  changes  of  temperature,  and  more  especially  long  sea 
voyages  $  but  the  most  important  improvement  to  be  noticed  is  certainly 
that  of  an  illustrious  chemist,  Mr.  Pastern’,  who  has  shown  that  the 
greater  part  of  the  maladies  in  wines  arise  from  the  development  of 
fermentation  from  invisible  vegetable  growths,  the  germs  of  which  are 
annihilated  when  the  wine  is  exposed  in  closed  vessels  to  a  temperature 
of  60  degrees  Centigrade  for  only  a  few  minutes.  Numberless  experi¬ 
ments  have  confirmed  the  truth  of  this  discovery,  and  have  proved  at 
the  same  time  that  this  operation  does  not  injure  the  flavor  of  the 
vine,  but,  on  the  contrary,  very  often  improves  it. 


222 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


“The  production  of  alcoliol  lias  averaged,  during  tlie  last  ten  years, 
1,124,872  hectolitres,  but  the  increase  has  latterly  been  very  considerable. 
Thus,  the  season  of  1863-4  produced  1,278,192  hectolitres ;  in  1864^-5, 
1,305,905 ;  in  1865-6,  1,789,474,  which  is  divided  as  follows:  Distillation 
of  wine,  1,200,000  hectolitres,  giving  in  alcohol  1,010,166  hectolitres; 
distillation  of  beet-root,  283,022  hectolitres;  distillation  of  molasses, 
307,409  hectolitres;  distillation  of  farinaceous  substances,  79,648  hec¬ 
tolitres;  distillation  of  lees  and  fruits,  53,232  hectolitres;  and  various 
substances,  55,997  hectolitres.  Total,  1,789,474  hectolitres.” 

CIDER  AND  BEER. 

“The  average  annual  production  of  cider  during  the  past  ten  years  has 
been  9,057,570  hectolitres;  in  1866  it  was  11,323,745  hectolitres,  and  it 
increases  every  year.  The  railways  contribute  largely  to  this  result  by 
transporting  rapidly  the  cider  apples  from  the  place  of  production  to  the 
centres  of  consumption.  The  consequence  is  that  the  price  of  apples 
has  been  augmented,  and  that  the  farmers  find  it  worth  their  while  to 
extend  their  plantations.  The  consumption  of  cider  is  also  larger  than 
it  was,  because  in  many  districts  where  nothing  but  water  was  drank 
they  now  make  use  of  cider  or  beer.  The  best  cider  in  France  is  made 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Calvados  and  La  Manche,  but  it  is  desirable  that 
the  proprietors  should  bestow  the  same  amount  of  care  upon  the  culti¬ 
vation  and  manufacture  as  the  wine  growers. 

“We  have  previously  said  that  the  consumption  of  beer  increases 
considerably  in  several  parts  of  France  where  its  use  was  very  restricted 
a  few  years  since.  In  other  localities  its  use  extends  even  where  wine  or 
cider  is  the  common  drink  of  the  country.  The  manufacture  has  made 
great  progress,  and  we  no  longer  go  to  Germany  or  to  England  for  light, 
agreeable,  and  wholesome  beer.  This  development  of  the  brewing  trade 
has  produced  a  similar  progress  in  the  cultivation  of  hops  in  the  north¬ 
ern  and  eastern  departments,  and  the  Vosges  and  Alsace.  At  the  pres¬ 
ent  time  French  hops  are  in  as  great  demand  as  the  best  Bavarian  hops, 
and  they  might  pass  for  them  in  common.  • 

“  These  particulars,  although  very  incomplete,  show  the  importance  of 
the  trade  in  the  industry  of  fermented  drinks  in  France,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  number  of  persons  engaged  or  interested  in  the  culture 
of  the  wine,  but  also  as  regards  the  capital  engaged  in  the  production, 
home  consumption,  and  export.” 


GROUP  Till 


LIVE  STOCK  AND  SPECIMENS  OF  AGRICULTURAL 

BUILDINGS. 

Class  74.  Farm  Buildings  and  Agricultural  Works.— Class  75.  Horses,  Asses, 

Mules.— Class  76.  Bulls,  Buffaloes,  &c.— Class  77.  Sheep,  Goats. — Class  78. 

Pigs,  Rabbits.  — Class  79.  Poultry. — Class  80.  Sporting  Dogs  and  Watch 

Dogs.— Class  81.  Useful  Insects. — Class  82.  Fish,  Crustacea,  and  Mollusca. 

All  the  classes  of  Group  VIII  were  represented  at  Billancourt  by  a  certain 
number  of  productions  which  were  renewed  every  fortnight  and  divided 
into  fourteen  competitive  exhibitions.  The  exhibition  was  divided  as 
follows : 

EXHIBITION  OF  AGRICULTURAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

APRIL. 

Fir st fortnight. — Ploughs  of  all  kinds,  hydraulic  machines,  steam  engines. 
Second  fortnight. — Steam  ploughs,  harrows,  extirpating  rollers,  scarifica¬ 
tors,  pugmills,  and  apparatus  for  making  drain-pipes. 

MAY. 

First  fortnight. — Drills  for  seed  and  manures,  hemp  and  flax  strip¬ 
pers,  vehicles,  harness,  weighing  machines,  churns,  and  dairy  utensils. 
Second  fortnight. — Mowing  machines,  winnowing  machines,  rakes,  hay¬ 
making  apparatus,  and  apparatus  for  tying  and  the  preservation  of  hay. 

JUNE. 

First  fortnight. — Competition  in  farriery  and  examination  of  specimens 
of  rural  establishments.  Second  fortnight. — Chaff  and  root  cutters,  horse 
hoes,  &c.,  mills. 

JULY. 

First  fortnight. — Apparatus  for  clipping  various  domestic  animals. 
Second  fortnight. — Reaping  machine  and  other  harvesting  apparatus. 

"'AUGUST. 

First  fortnight. — Threshing  machines  and  other  apparatus  for  the 
cleaning  and  preservation  of  grain.  Second  fortnight. — Portable  ovens, 
apparatus  for  cooking  vegetables,  washing  linen,  and  manufacturing 
manures. 

SEPTEMBER  AND  OCTOBER. 

Examination  of  specimens  of  various  agricidtural  industries. 


* 


224 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


ANIMALS. 

APRIL. 

First  fortnight. — Breeding  sheep.  Second  fortnight. — Fat  animals. 

MAY. 

First  fortnight. — Dairy  cattle;  breeders.  Second  fortnight. — Sheep  for 
wool;  breeders. 

JUNE. 

First  fortnight. — Horses  and  other  animals  for  draught.  Second  fort¬ 
night. — Poultry  and  small  animals. 

JULY. 

First  fortnight. — Cattle  for  labor;  breeders.  Second  fortnight. — Sad¬ 
dle  horses,  hunters,  carriage  horses,  ponies,  &c. 

AUGUST. 

First  fortnight. — Dogs.  Second  fortnight. — Draught  oxen. 

SEPTEMBER. 

First  fortnight. — Pigs,  breeders.  Second  fortnight. — Asses,  mules,  &c. 

OCTOBER. 

First  fortnight. — Fat  animals.  Second  fortnight. — Animals  acclima¬ 
tized  or  capable  of  being  so. 


t 


GROUP  IX 


LIVE  PRODUCE  AND  SPECIMENS  OF  HORTICUL¬ 
TURAL  WORKS. 


Class  83.  Glass  Houses  and  Apparatus. — Class  84.  Flowers  and  Ornamental 
Plants. — Class  85.  Vegetables. — Class  86.  Fruit  Trees. — Class  87.  Seeds  and 
Saplings  of  Forest  Trees.— Class  88.  Hot-house  Plants. 

CLASS  84  TO  88.— FLOWEES  AND  OENAMENTAL  PLANTS. 

These  classes  were  represented  at  the  Exhibition  in  the  French  section 
by  products  renewed  every  fortnight,  and  gave  rise  to  fourteen  series  of 
prize  competitions.  A  special  catalogue  was  published,  and  only  a  sum¬ 
mary  of  the  proceedings  can  be  given  here. 

RESUME  OF  THE  FOURTEEN  COMPETITIVE  SERIES. 

( First  Series,  from  April  1  to  14,  1867 J 

Principal  exhibition. — Camelias  in  flower. 

Minor  exhibitions. — New  plants  reared  from  the  seed,  hot-house  plants, 
(orchids,  bromelia,  ferns.)  Greenhouse  and  conservatory  plants,  (erica, 
acacias  and  mimosa,  herbaceous  ferns,  amaryllis,  stocks,  cinerarias, 
Chinese  primrose,  daphnes,  cyclamens,  mignonette.)  Ligneous  plants  for 
the  open  air,  (holly,  magnolia  grandiflora,  yucca,  ivy.)  Bulbous  plants, 
(hyacinths,  tulips,  saffron.)  Forced  shrubs,  (lilacs,  rose  trees,  and  others.) 
Fruit  and  vegetables,  (pine-apples,  early  fruits,  fruits  of  1866,  &c.)  Fruit 
trees  pruned  and  trained,  (pear,  peach,  cherry,  plum,  and  apricot  trees, 
vines,)  standard  fruit  trees. 

Second  series ,  ( from  April  14  to  30,  1867 J 

Principal  exhibition. — C onifer s. 

Minor  exhibition. — Hothouse  plants,  (orchids,  cacti,  lycopodium,  sela- 
ginella,  &c.)  Plants  grown  in  heated  beds,  (agave,  aloe,  Bonapartem, 
dasylirion,  litzsea,  yucca,  rhododendrons,  epacris,  erica,  cinerarias.)  Herb¬ 
aceous  plants,  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (hyacinths,  pansies,  primroses, 
stocks,  &c.)  Ligneous  plants,  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (magnolias, 
rose  trees,  &c.)  Early  vegetables. 

Third  series ,  ( from  May  1  to  14,  1867 J 

Principal  exhibition. — Azalea  indica,  rhododendron  arboreum. 

Minor  exhibitions. — New  plants  of  all  kinds.  Hothouse  plants  and 
plants  grown  in  heated  beds,  (orchids,  &e.)  Plants  cultivated  for  the 
decoration  of  apartments.  Greenhouse  bulbous  plants,  (ixia,  sparaxis.) 

15  u  E 


226 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Plants  of  all  kinds  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (peonies,  rose  trees,  clematis, 
Gessner  tulips,  pansies,  auriculae,  mignonette,  gladiolus,  &c.)  Vege¬ 
tables  and  fruit,  (vegetables  in  season,  early  vegetables,  pine  apples,  &c.) 

Fourth  series ,  ( from  May  15  to  30,  1867.  J 

Principal  exhibition. — Palms  and  cycadeae. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Hothouse  plants,  (orchids,  iscara.)  Plants  grown 
in  heated  beds  and  conservatories,  (azaleas,  calceolarias,  Himalaya  rhodo¬ 
dendrons,  &c.)  Ligneous  plants,  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (clematis, 
rose  trees,  &c.)  Herbaceous  plants,  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (peonies, 
ranunculuses,  anemones,  daisies,  and  others.)  Vegetables  and  forced 
fruit,  (grapes,  &e.) 

Fifth  series ,  ( from  June  1  to  14,  1867 J 

Principal  exhibition. — Orchids  and  pelargonium  in  flower. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Hothouse  plants,  (caladium  bulbosum,  &c.)  Green¬ 
house  plants,  (calceolarias,  verbenas,  &c.)  Herbaceous  plants,  grown  in 
the  open  ground,  (rhododendrons,  azaleas,  kalmia,  rose  trees,  &c.)  Vege¬ 
tables  and  forced  fruit,  (melons,  &c.) 

Sixth  series ,  ( from  June  15  to  30,  1867 .) 

Principal  exhibition. — Roses  and  pandame. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Pelargonium  in  flower.  Hothouse  plants,  (orchids, 
Theophrasta,  clavija,  maranta,  calatliea,  phrynium,  bananas,  begonias.) 
Plants  grown  in  heated  beds  and  conservatories,  (orange  trees,  lemon 
trees,  verbenas,  calceolarias.)  Herbaceous  plants,  grown  in  the  open 
ground,  (larkspurs,  irises,  10-week  stocks,  indigenous  orchids,  Alpine 
plants,  peonies,  &c.)  Vegetables  in  season.  Exotic  and  indigenous 
fruits,  (bananas,  cherries,  strawberries.) 

Seventh  series ,  (from  July  1  to  14,  1867J 

Principal  exhibition. — Pelargonium  zonale  and  tree  ferns. 

Minor  exhibition. — Hothouse  plants,  (exotic,  useful,  and  officinal  plants, 
orchids,  pitcher  plants,  gloxinia,  caladium  bulbosum.)  Plants  grown  in 
heated  beds,  (petunias,  rochea,  crassula,  saracenia  amaryllis,  lilium 
auratum.)  Plants  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (larkspurs,  mignonette, 
climbing  roses,  roses,  &c.)  Vegetables  in  season,  (mushrooms  and  others.) 
Pruit,  (cherries,  strawberries,  &c.) 

Eighth  series,  ( from  July  15  to  31,  1867 J 

Principal  exhibition.—  Pinks  and  hothouse  plants. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Hothouse  plants,  (exotic  fruit  trees,  gloxinia.) 
Greenhouse  plants,  (lantana,  petunia.)  Herbaceous  plants,  grown  in  the 
open  ground,  (officinal  plants,  phlox,  penstemon,  shot,  climbing  roses, 
gladiolus,  larkspurs,  phlox  Drummondii,  &c.)  Ligneous  plants,  for  decor¬ 
ation,  (hortensias,  &c.)  Fruit  bushes,  (stone  fruits,  berries,  melons. 
Vegetables  in  season. 


FLOWERS  AND  ORNAMENTAL  PLANTS. 


227 


Ninth  series ,  ( from  August  1  to  14,  1867.y 

Principal  exhibition. — Fuchsias  and  gladiolus. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Exotic  climbing  plants,  (passion-flowers  and  others.) 
Greenhouse  plants,  (heliotropes,  cape  heaths.)  Plants  grown  in  the 
open  ground,  (dahlias,  pinks,  climbing  roses,  phlox  decussata,  lilies, 
zinnia,  lobelia,  nasturtiums,  hortensias,  &c.)  Stone  and  other  fruit, 
(berries,  grapes,  peaches.)  Vegetables  in  season. 

Tenth  series ,  ( from  August  15  to  31,  1867.  J 

Principal  exhibition. — Aroides. 

Minor  exhibition. — Hothouse  plants,  (orchids,  Gesnera,  achimenes, 
nagelia,  sinningia.)  Greenhouse  and  conservatory  plants,  (fuchsias, 
erythrina,  pelargonium  zonale  and  pelargonium  inguinans,  plants  for 
hanging  baskets.)  Perennial  plants  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (dahlias, 
climbing  roses,  penstemon,  phlox,  pinks,  &c.)  Annuals,  (china  asters, 
balsams,  zinnia,  and  others.)  Bulbous  plants,  (lilies,  gladiolus.)  Ligneous 
plants,  grown  in  the  open  ground.  Aquatic  plants.  Vegetables  in 
season,  (melons  and  others.)  Fruit  bushes  and  trees,  (fruits  with  pips 
and  with  stones,  peaches,  grapes,  figs.) 

Eleventh  series ,  ( from  September  1  to  14,  1867. J 

Principal  exhibition. — Dahlias. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Hothouse  plants,  (dragon  trees,  croton,  allamanda.) 
Greenhouse  plants,  (fuchsias,  veronicas,  pelargonium  zonale  and  pelar¬ 
gonium  inguinans.)  Plants  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (dianthus  sinensis 
and  dianthus  Hedewigii,  china  asters,  balsams,  and  others.)  Ligneous 
plants  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (rose  trees.)  Bulbous  plants,  (gladiolus 
and  others.)  Vegetables  in  season.  Fruits  with  pips  and  stones,  (peaches, 
grapes,  figs,  pine-apples.)  Trees  with  caducous  leaves. 

Twelfth  series ,  ( from  September  15  to  30,  1867J 

Principal  exhibition. — Araliaceae. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Hothouse  plants,  (canna,  solaiium,  ficus,  hibiscus, 
musa,  and  others.)  Greenhouse  plants,  (fuchsias,  pelargonium  zonale 
and  pelargonium  inguinans.)  Plants  grown  in  the  open  ground,  (gra¬ 
mineous  plants,  dahlias,  chrysanthemums,  asters,  gladiolus.  Ligneous 
plants,  (roses,  bamboos.)  Annuals  of  various  kinds.  Vegetables  in 
season. 

Fruit,  (grapes,  fruits  with  pips,  with  stones,  cucurbitacem,  strawber 
ries.) 

Thirteenth  series ,  (from  October  1  to  14,  1867.) 

Principal  exhibition. — Fruits  of  all  kinds,  and  Indian  chrysanthemums. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Hothouse  plants,  (orchids  and  others.)  Vegeta¬ 
bles  in  season,  (potatoes,  cabbages,  mushrooms,  Indian  potatoes,  water¬ 
melons.) 


228 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Fourteenth  series ,  (from  October  15  to  30, 1867 J 
Principal  exhibition. — Vegetables  of  all  kinds. 

Minor  exhibitions. — Ligneous  plants  grown  in  the  open  ground.  Vari¬ 
ous  systems  of  multiplication  for  fruit  trees,  forest  plantations,  chrysan¬ 
themums,  and  other  plants. 

Special  shows  of  bouquets  and  natural  flowers. 


GROUP  X 


ARTICLES  EXHIBITED  WITH  THE  SPECIAL 
OBJECT  OF  IMPROVING  THE  PHYSICAL  AND 
MORAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

Class  89.  Apparatus  and  Methods  Used  in  the  Instruction  of  Children.— Class 
90.  Libraries  and  Apparatus  Used  in  the  Instruction  of  Adults  at  Home,  in 
the  Work-shops,  or  in  Schools  and  Colleges. — Class  91.  Furniture,  Cloth¬ 
ing,  and  Food  from  all  sources,  Remarkable  for  Useful  Qualities,  combined 
with  Cheapness.— Class  92.  Specimens  of  the  Clothing  Worn  by  the  People 
of  Different  Countries. — Class  93.  Examples  of  Dwellings  characterized 
by  Cheapness  combined  with  the  Conditions  Necessary  for  Health  and  Com¬ 
fort.— Class  94.  Articles  of  all  kinds  Manufactured  by  Working  Masters. — 
Class  95.  Instruments  and  Processes  peculiar  to  Working  Masters. 

Tlie  articles  contained  in  Group  X  were  of  a  very  miscellaneous  char¬ 
acter,  and  in  fact  were  borrowed  from  twenty-one  of  the  preceding 
classes,  to  be  massed  here. 

The  most  interesting  subjects  for  study  were  the  school  appliances, 
and  the  cheap  houses  for  workmen.  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  the 
United  States  excelled  in  the  former  Exhibition  not  only  the  machinery 
of  education,  but  the  school-houses  themselves.  In  the  matter  of  eco¬ 
nomical  cottages  for  laborers  there  were  many  competitors. 

The  Emperor  was  among  the  number,  and  obtained  the  principal  prize, 
which  was  handed  to  him  by  the  Prince  Imperial,  the  president  of  the 
commission,  on  the  day  of  the  distribution  of  rewards. 

CLASSES  89  AND  90.— APPARATUS  AXD  METHODS  USED  IX 

IXSTRUCTIOX. 

“Among  the  institutions  which  concur  for  the  physical  and  moral  im¬ 
provements  of  the  working  classes,  the  Imperial  Commission  has  placed 
in  the  first  rank  the  educational  establishments  which,  from  the  creches 
(asylums  where  the  infants  of  female  operatives  are  taken  care  of  dur¬ 
ing  the  day)  to  the  special  schools,  develop  in  the  child  and  the  youth, 
the  apprentice,  and  the  workman,  the  qualities  of  intelligence  and  char¬ 
acter,  and  initiate  them  in  that  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge 
which  will  guide  them  in  all  the  phases  of  their  existence,  and  render 
them  fitted  for  any  position  in  life.” 

The  following  observations  on  education  in  France  were  drawn  up  by 
M.  Charles  Robert,  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  united  juries  of 
Group  X ;  M.  Marguerin,  member  of  the  committee  of  admission  of  class 
89 ;  M.  Pli.  Pompee,  vice-president  of  class  90  ;  M.  Barbier,  member  and 
delegate  of  class  89,  was  added  to  the  commission.  The  report  was 


230 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


translated  for  the  English  official  catalogue,  from  which  it  is  here  repro¬ 
duced. 

u  The  duty  of  collecting  and  classifying  all  the  articles  which  could  pro¬ 
perly  he  shown  as  illustrating  our  public  system  of  education,  has  been 
confided  to  the  committees  of  classes  89  and  90.  The  first  was  designed 
for  the  admission  of  all  the  works  adapted  for  the  education  of  children 
from  their  birth  to  the  time  when,  their  intelligences  being  developed, 
they  could  either  continue  their  special  studies  or  enter  immediately  into 
apprenticeship  for  the  callings  for  which  they  were  ultimately  intended. 

u  The  committee  of  class  90  is  charged  with  the  investigation  of  all  those 
institutions  which  tend  either  to  recover  lost  time,  to  perfect  the  educa¬ 
tion  already  received  in  the  primary  schools,  or  to  afford  new  acquire¬ 
ments  to  youth  or  adults,  which  would  permit  them  at  a  future  period 
to  bring  their  works  to  the  greatest  perfection  of  which  man’s  creations 
are  capable.  But,  if  the  institutions  for  teaching  may  be  theoretically 
divided  into  sections,  as  we  have  just  done,  they  cannot  be  practically 
so  separated.  The  education  of  man  is  a  thing  complete  in  itself,  which, 
though  it  lias  its  degrees,  cannot,  without  great  inconvenience,  be  sub¬ 
jected  to  change  of  direction,  proceeding,  or  method.  Thus,  no  sooner 
had  the  united  committee  of  the  two  classes  commenced  this  work,  than 
it  was  found  how  difficult  it  was  to  determine  to  which  class  appertained 
certain  Exhibitors  who  had  productions  interesting  both  to  the  adult 
classes  and  children’s  schools,  and  sometimes  to  every  description  of 
scholastic  institutions.  An  understanding  between  them  being  indis¬ 
pensable,  a  methodical  and  reasonable  distribution  of  their  respective 
duties  was  arranged  by  a  mixed  commission;  and  while  at  the  same 
time  they  each  separately  preserved  their  own  individuality,  the  two 
committees  of  admission  combined  their  efforts  so  as  to  give  to  this  part 
of  the  Exhibition  the  necessary  unity  and  completeness.  It  is  also  for 
this  express  purpose  that  this  preface  has  been  compiled  in  common  by 
the  members  of  the  two  classes. 

u  Before  entering  into  details  concerning  the  articles  exhibited,  we  can¬ 
not  help  stating  that  the  space  allotted  for  the  two  classes  89  and  90  has 
been  quite  insufficient  to  present  its  whole  development,  or  to  give  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  details  and  ensemble  of  our  vast  system  of  public 
instruction.  However,  we  feel  convinced  that  incomplete  as  this  Exhi- 
tion  is,  it  will  prove  to  our  own  countrymen  and  to  foreigners  that  pub¬ 
lic  instruction  has  made  in  the  last  few  years  immense  progress  in  France, 
thanks  to  a  liberal  and  prolific  impulse ;  and  that  our  public  and  private 
establishments  are  worthy  of  a  nation  so  enlightened  and  advanced  as 
ours  proves  herself  in  all  the  branches  of  human  activity. 

u  For  the  first  time,  at  the  Universal  Exhibition  of  London  in  1862,  a 
particular  class  was  created  to  receive  the  school  requisites,  works,  and 
materials,  but  this  was  limited  to  infant  schools  and  special  schools  for 
drawing. 

u  xhe  French  Exhibition  of  1867,  however,  embraces,  on  a  much  more 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


231 


comprehensive  scale,  all  kinds  of  education — that  of  adults  as  well  as  of 
children,  their  professional  education  as  well  as  technical  education ;  and, 
acting  up  to  its  universal  character,  presents  for  examination  the  various 
evidences  of  the  intellectual  activity  of  the  country.  Therefore,  whereas 
the  Exhibition  of  London  only  numbered  180  exhibitors  in  this  class, 
that  of  Paris  possesses  as  many  as  500  exhibitors,  which,  however,  is 
less  than  half  the  number  who  applied  to  the  Imperial  Commission  for 
admission. 

“  A  rapid  progress  has  been  realized  during  the  last  five  years,  and  a 
still  more  marked  advance  is  in  process  of  realization,  to  bear  fruit  in 
no  very  distant  future.  These  are  the  results  proved  by  facts  in  the 
exhibition  of  classes  89  and  90. 

“  I.  The  hygienic  condition  of  school  buildings,  the  judicious  disposi¬ 
tion  of  the  interior,  the  arrangement  and  installation  of  the  whole,  are 
subjects  of  vital  importance  in  educational  matters.  These  requirements 
are  now  better  understood  and  more  ably  carried  into  effect.  The  new 
schools  are  better  distributed,  besides  affording  the  scholars  a  more  ample 
supply  of  air,  light,  and  space.  A  large  number  of  old  buildings  have 
been  greatly  improved  in  this  respect,  and  arranged  in  accordance  with 
this  principle.  The  impetus  has  been  given,  and  this  transformation 
will  gradually  be  extended  to  the  smallest  and  most  insignificant  vil¬ 
lages. 

“  II.  The  institution  of  creches ,  or  infant  asylums,  which  has  been  tried 
for  some  time,  is  now  regularly  organized,  and  is  showing  a  progressive 
development.  It  is  the  same  with  the  salles  dtasile ,  (infant  schools,) 
which  are  under  an  august  and  charitable  patronage.  France  numbers 
3,572  public  infant  schools ;  264  were  founded  between  1863  and  1865, 
and  during  the  same  period  the  inmates  of  these  schools  were  augmented 
by  34,912  children.  In  the  rapidly  increasing  training  schools  for  the 
education  of  teachers,  school  mistresses  are  taught  the  use  of  those  gym¬ 
nastic  exercises  and  games  which  make  these  dwelling  places  of  youth 
more  gay  and  wholesome  to  the  little  inmates. 

“HI.  The  progress  in  the  management  of  the  elementary  schools  is  still 
more  marked  in  every  way.  From  1863  to  1865  the  number  of  communes 
possessing  no  school  was  reduced  from  818  to  694 ;  938  new  schools  have 
been  founded,  and  the  scholars,  which  now  number  4,436,470,  have  been 
augmented  by  100,102  children.  The  communal  or  free  schools  for  girls 
and  boys  amounted  in  1865  to  69,699 j  and  they  are  also  attended  more 
regularly,  and  are  less  frequently  abandoned  by  the  pupils,  after  their  first 
communion.  The  institution  of  cantonal  examinations,  and  prizes  and 
primary  instruction  certificates,  have  had  a  most  happy  and  surprising 
influence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  instruction  has  not  remained  station¬ 
ary,  having  considerably  extended,  inasmuch  as  different  branches  of 
study,  which  were  previously  optional,  have  now  become  obligatory ;  it 
is  also  much  improved  by  a  more  intelligent  direction ;  agriculture  and 
horticulture  are  being  taught  with  eminently  satisfactory  results ;  in  a 


232 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


word,  the  general  improving  tendency  is  to  make  primary  instruction  a 
broad,  solid  basis,  on  which  may  rest  the  education  of  adults — special, 
secondary,  and  technical — in  accordance  with  the  mental  capability  and 
requirements  and  the  future  career  of  the  students.  Besides  these 
improvements,  the  position  of  the  instructors  is  much  improved  ;  they 
are  better  remunerated  for  their  services ;  their  interests  are  protected ; 
elevated  in  the  eyes  of  the  population  by  public  recognition  of  their 
services,  and  allowed  to  participate  in  all  honorary  distinctions.  They 
are  thus  more  than  ever  encouraged  to  devote  themselves  to  the  diffu¬ 
sion  of  public  instruction,  which  is  the  special  requirement  of  the  times 
and  the  sincere  wish  of  the  entire  French  population.  The  improve¬ 
ments  have  been  attained  principally  by  boys7  schools  ;  with  the  girls7 
schools  the  residts  have  been  less  marked ;  but,  happily,  the  new  law  on 
female  education,  the  project  for  which  is  now  before  the  legislative  body 
for  approval,  will  soon  give  an  impulse  in  the  right  direction.  An  evi¬ 
dent  and  progressive  improvement  in  the  science  of  training  teachers, 
and  in  the  methods  and  ways  of  teaching,  is  an  unmistakeable  sign  of 
the  vital  interest  that  this  question  of  education  excites  in  the  country. 
Proofs  of  this  are  everywhere  shown  in  the  French  Exhibition  of  1867. 

u  IY.  The  science  of  teaching  and  scholastic  training,  which  oidy  can  be 
an  efficient  auxiliary  to  national  education  when  it  is  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  immutable  principles  of  religion  and  morality,  and  this  truth  is 
represented  by  works  worthy  of  French  literature.  It  is  not  only  taught 
in  all  the  primary  normal  schools,  but  the  taste  for  the  study  of  this 
science  is  kept  up  among  the  schoolmasters  by  annual  conferences — a 
system  which  is  rapidly  becoming  a  part  of  our  scholastic  education. 
The  improvement  in  the  methods  and  plans  of  instruction  are  manifest 
ever  since  the  English  Exhibition  of  1862.  The  elementary  books  and 
treatises  for  the  teaching  of  reading,  writing,  grammar,  arithmetic,  his¬ 
tory,  geography,  and  drawing,  have  gained  much  in  simplicity  and  clear¬ 
ness  }  they  are  more  practical  5  they  are  more  impressed  with  the  end 
they  have  in  view,  while  they  spare  the  child  both  time  and  trouble. 
Their  progress  may  be  appreciated  by  the  study  of  the  productions  of 
the  pupils.  The  needlework  done  by  little  girls  shows  that  works  of  a 
fanciful  and  frivolous  kind  have  given  place  to  those  of  utility  and  family 
necessity. 

u  Y.  The  province  of  education  is  to  study  the  physical  growth  of  chil¬ 
dren.  To  the  ordinary  gymnastic  games  must  be  added  rational  gym¬ 
nastics,  which  may  rule  and  complete  the  first.  The  apparatus  exhibited 
show  that  there  are  plenty  of  means  for  physical  education,  but  it  is  often 
impossible  to  organize  them  practically,  while  French  habits  make  it  more 
difficult  here  than  elsewhere.  If  gymnastic  exercises  have  not  yet  man¬ 
aged  to  bring  together  the  youthful  population  with  the  view  of  public 
recreation,  singing  has  had  the  advantage  of  so  doing. 

u  The  new  choral  societies  which  are  daily  organized,  the  Orpheonic 
gatherings  which  take  place  periodically,  the  cheap  musical  publications 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


233 


that  have  spread  widely,  prove  that  music  is  fully  established  in  the 
tastes  and  habits  of  the  people.  The  most  distinguished  French  com¬ 
posers  are  now  engaged  for  the  Orpheons,  and  classical  music  begins  to 
arrest  the  public  attention.  The  Central  Patronage  Committee  of  the 
French  Orplieons,  recently  inaugurated,  will  forward  this  great  move¬ 
ment,  and  give  it  encouragement  and  impulse.  The  Exhibition  gives 
evidence  of  the  considerable  development  given  to  singing  during  the 
last  few  years. 

“  VI.  The  French  educational  system  would  not  be  in  accordance  with 
the  charitable  habits  of  our  country  if  it  did  not  endeavor  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  those  unfortunate  beings  whose  infirmities  have  long 
condemned  them  to  loneliness.  The  Exhibition  shows  us  many  recent 
improvements  in  the  contrivances  for  educating  the  blind  and  the  deaf 
and  dumb.  By  rendering  study  less  irksome,  these  contrivances  facili¬ 
tate  their  communication  with  the  world,  and  the  possibility  of  employ¬ 
ing  talents  which  would  otherwise  be  rendered  useless.  The  endeavor 
to  educate  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  ordinary  schools  is  too  recent  yet  for 
the  result  of  the  trial  to  be  appreciated $  the  future  will  show  what  is  to 
be  expected  from  it. 

“  Lastly,  even  the  idiots  partake  of  the  universal  progress  of  a  civiliza¬ 
tion  which  becomes  more  humane  as  it  becomes  more  liberal.  These 
unfortunates  are  received  into  special  establishments,  and  attended  to 
with  the  most  ingenious  care.  It  is  no  longer  a  hope,  but  a  certainty, 
that  these  poor  children  can  often  recover,  with  a  part  of  their  moral 
consciousness,  somewhat  of  the  faculty  of  participating  in  the  feelings, 
objects,  and  ordinary  occupations  of  the  more  favored  portion  of  the 
human  family. 

“VII.  The  improvement  in  the  ordinary  means  of  education  provided 
for  children,  and  the  restoration  of  those  who  may  be  called  the  disin¬ 
herited  of  nature,  wrere  deemed  scarcely  sufficient  by  the  friends  of  pro¬ 
gress  in  France.  They  felt  it  to  be  necessary  that  a  great  educational 
system,  extensive,  varied,  open  to  all  those  who  wished  to  teach,  as  well 
as  those  desiring  to  learn,  should  be  made  available  to  adults,  offering 
the  means  of  repairing  the  errors  of  their  parents  and  guardians,  or  the 
negligence  of  youth,  the  means  of  extending  the  elementary  knowledge 
received  in  preparatory  schools,  and  finding  in  superior  instruction  suited 
to  their  peculiar  avocation  the  legitimate  reward  of  their  labors. 

“  The  ministerial  orders  suggesting  lectures  and  evening  schools  for 
apprentices  and  grown-up  people,  responded  to  this  double  want.  Private 
efforts  had,  it  is  true,  in  this  instance  preceded  official  decrees.  Several 
societies  had  organized  in  various  places,  especially  on  the  behalf  of 
town  workmen,  means  for  scientific  instruction.  The  Polytechnic  Asso¬ 
ciation,  which  dates  from  1830,  numbers  now  22  different  sections  in 
Paris  and  its  environs,  while  it  has  founded  and  endowed  a  much  larger 
number  in  various  departments,  showing  that  individual  enterprise  has 
been  in  no  wise  idle.  However,  it  was  only  an  energetic  will  appealing 


234 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


from  liigli  quarters,  such  as  that  of  our  minister  of  public  instruction,  to 
the  general  intelligence  of  the  country,  that  could,  in  the  brief  period  of 
two  years,  determine  this,  and  inaugurate  such  a  vast  educational  move¬ 
ment  which,  from  the  1st  of  January,  1864,  to  the  15th  of  December,  1866, 
augmented  the  number  of  adult  educational  institutions  from  5,623  to 
28,546,  and  thereby  created  a  spontaneous  accession  of  600,000  voluntary 
pupils.  These  institutions  have  adopted  two  different  methods  of  instruc¬ 
tion,  each  useful  in  its  way,  that  of  lectures  to  open  the  minds  of  the 
public  and  enlighten  them  on  various  important  subjects,  and  that  of 
lessons  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  precise  instruction.  The  future  can 
alone  determine  how  far  the  system  of  lectures  will  enter  into  the  habits 
of  our  country;  but  it  is  of  paramount  importance  to  her  dearest  interests, 
to  her  prosperity  and  her  dignity,  that  the  regular  education  of  adults, 
which  heretofore  has  only  been  sustained  by  precarious  resources  and 
by  the  devotion  of  the  teachers,  should  be  systematized  and  established  as 
a  great  public  institution.  This  is  the  object  of  the  law  on  public  instruc¬ 
tion  now  under  consideration  by  the  legislative  body,  whose  business  it 
will  be  to  place  adult  education  on  the  same  permanent  footing  as  the 
legislation  of  1833  did  for  the  institutions  for  the  instruction  of  the  youth¬ 
ful  population.  The  education  of  apprentices  and  adults  when  it  passes 
beyond  the  limits  of  elementary  instruction  changes  its  character,  and 
enters  into  the  arena  of  applied  science  and  art.  The  programmes  of 
the  various  societies  which  have  for  their  object  the  education  of  the 
working  man,  clearly  show  the  spirit  and  the  limits  of  the  enterprise. 
However,  the  recent  introduction  of  the  teaching  of  living  languages, 
commercial  geography,  and  political  and  industrial  economy,  cannot  fail 
to  tend  to  generalize,  and  to  constitute  for  the  working  classes  a  superior 
order  of  education,  nearly  analogous  to  that  adopted  in  special  and  high- 
class  educational  institutions. 

“VIII.  If  we  except  some  few  departmental  centres  where  public 
instruction  is  favorably  endowed,  the  teaching  of  the  applied  arts  is  much 
better  organized  and  more  sought  after  than  that  of  sciences.  The  practi¬ 
cal  and  successful  results  achieved  by  the  system  of  teaching  adopted  in  the 
drawing  and  modelling  schools,  secured  for  France  an  honorable  position 
at  the  Exhibition  of  London  in  1862,  and  it  has  since  shown  still  more 
marked  improvement.  Paris,  which  is  the  chief  city  of  the  world  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  productions  of  industrial  art,  has  naturally  put 
itself  at  the  head  of  the  movement  and  set  the  example.  The  institution 
of  a  certificate  of  master  or  mistress  of  arts  as  a  reward  for  skilled 
teachers,  the  introduction  of  drawing  into  the  primary  schools  for  girls 
and  boys,  the  reorganization  of  evening  classes  for  male  adults,  the  open¬ 
ing  of  numerous  lay  schools  for  female  adults,  annual  competitive  exam¬ 
inations  between  classes  of  the  same  degree,  a  more  enlightened  and 
elevated  object  given  to  instruction,  the  renewal  of  models,  and  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  collections  according  to  the  rules  of  the  most  severe  taste — these 
are  the  great  educational  advances  in  which  the  municipality  and  the 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


235 


state  both  participate,  and  which  may  be  fully  appreciated  by  the  con¬ 
templation  of  the  productions  of  the  pupils,  to  be  seen  at  the  Exhibition. 

“The  objects  sent  by  the  provincial  towns  also  exhibit  most  favorable 
results.  The  workmen,  as  well  as  the  manufacturers  themselves,  are 
beginning  to  understand  that  the  superiority  of  our  productions  in  an 
artistic  point  of  view  must  be  maintained  by  the  increased  cultivation 
of  artistic  and  scientific  taste. 

“IX.  Besides  the  primary  schools  and  the  educational  courses  for 
adults,  which  meet  the  wants  of  popular  instruction  concurrently  with 
the  classical  colleges  and  collegiate  institutions — the  studies  in  which 
are  adapted  only  to  the  demands  of  certain  social  positions  and  limited 
careers — the  middle  classes  require  a  system  of  education  more  acces¬ 
sible  in  its  conditions,  more  economical  in  its  cost,  and  better  suited 
to  the  wants  of  a  community  in  which  the  sciences  are  constantly 
improving  all  branches  of  industry,  and  which  brings  up  its  children  in 
a  liberal  manner,  and  prepares  them  at  once,  without  any  limitation,  for 
agriculture,  trade,  and  commerce,  as  well  as  for  the  arts  and  public 
employment. 

“The  law  of  the  21st  of  June,  1865,  completing  former  enactments,  the 
superior  primary  instruction  of  1833,  the  special  education  of  1847,  and 
the  professional  education  of  1850,  inaugurated  the  system  referred  to. 
At  the  same  time  that  it  was  completely  established  in  new  schools, 
secondary  special  education  rallied  round  it  under  a  common  denomina¬ 
tion,  but  on  a  broader  basis,  the  establishments  which  preceded  it,  namely, 
the  superior  primary  schools,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  not  successful,  the 
professional  schools,  which  remain  isolated,  and  the  commercial  colleges, 
where  primary  special  education  has  not  yet  attained  its  development. 
A  series  of  supplemental  arrangements  have  established  the  new  system 
on  a  solid  basis. 

“The  action  of  the  Council  of  Surveillance  renders  it  easily  adaptable 
to  the  several  localities  without  injuring  its  original  character*  the 
diplomas  conferred  at  the  conclusion  of  the  course  of  study  set  before  the 
pupils  what  is  always  necessary  to  sustain  and  stimulate  them  in  their 
work;  the  normal  school  of  Cluny,  the  certificate  of  capacity,  and  the 
junction  of  literature  with  science,  insure  the  services  of  a  body  of  pro¬ 
fessors  who  will  bring  into  their  classes  the  habits  of  method  and  the 
spirit  of  study  under  which  they  themselves  have  been  formed.  It  is, 
then,  not  too  much  to  hope  that  the  system  of  practical  secondary  edu¬ 
cation — that  is  to  say,  properly  speaking,  the  education  of  the  middle 
classes — is  founded  in  our  country  on  a  definite  principle.  The  Exhibition 
presents,  as  it  were,  an  inventory  of  all  this  work  of  formation  to  which, 
during  the  last  30  years,  the  state,  the  municipal  authorities,  the  chambers 
of  commerce,  the  industrial  societies,  and,  in  a  marked  degree,  private 
individuals,  have  contributed.  This  multiplicity  of  efforts  has  produced 
a  great  variety  of  combinations  in  the  programme  of  studies;  still  the 
leading  ideas  show  themselves  clearly,  and  indicate  the  current  of  thought 


236 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION, 


and  national  requirements.  This  new  system  either  sets  aside  the  study 
of  languages  altogether  or  renders  them  entirely  subordinate,  and  calls 
in  the  working  element  only  as  a  means  of,  or  preparation  for,  truly  pro¬ 
fessional  schools.  In  spite  of  its  name,  it  is  a  system  of  general  educa¬ 
tion,  that  is  to  say,  theoretical,  with  a  marked  practical  character.  It 
leads  to  applications,  but  it  does  not  insist  upon  them.  It  stops  where 
apprenticeship  begins. 

u  X.  Primary  instruction,  developing  itself  in  adult  classes,  gives  to 
the  apprentice  and  artisan  notions  of  science  which  they  may  apply  in 
their  own  occupations  ;  secondary  special  instruction  initiates  its  pupils 
in  scientific  theories,  of  which  they  will  find  the  applications  in  their 
workshops,  when  they  become  foremen  and  manufacturers ;  neither  the 
one  nor  the  other  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  apprenticeship  in  any 
case.  Apprenticeship,  however,  has  a  diminishing  tendency,  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  the  conditions  of  modern  industry.  In  respect  of  free  indus 
try,  that  it  should  produce,  according  to  the  ancient  system,  good  appren¬ 
tices,  and,  consequently,  good  artisans,  would  be,  in  respect  to  many 
professions,  a  complete  illusion.  JThis  was  clearly  shown  by  the  result  of 
the  inquiry  opened  by  the  minister  of  public  works  in  1863.  The  natural 
force  of  circumstances  has  left  technical  education  to  supply  the  defi¬ 
ciency  of  instruction  during  apprenticeship.  Technical  education  existed, 
in  fact,  before  the  name  was  known.  The  government,  in  order  to  meet 
the  varied  national  wants,  long  since  organized  various  establishments, 
where  real  professional  apprenticeship  was  practically  carried  out.  The 
schools  of  agriculture  and  the  farm  schools,  the  schools  of  art  and  manu¬ 
factures,  the  naval  school,  &c.,  are  establishments  for  technical  or  x>rofes- 
sional  education,  which  are  here  synonymous  terms.  Private  enterprise 
did  still  more,  because,  being  unable  to  incur  the  same  expenditure  as 
the  state,  it  acted  in  a  more  practical  manner.  The  inquiry  has  made 
known  the  useful  creations  of  industrial  societies,  of  large  companies,  of 
chiefs  of  works,  of  heads  of  free  institutions,  of  congregational  estab¬ 
lishments,  who  have  in  opposite  parts  of  the  empire  realized  the 
apprenticeship  of  determined  professions  with  more  or  less  success. 
But,  in  face  of  the  ever-increasing  mass  of  wants,  it  was  evident  that  it 
was  necessary  to  encourage  and  to  regulate  technical  education  by  mak¬ 
ing  it  general.  This  is  the  object  of  a  bill  now  before  the  legislature. 
The  object  of  technical  education  differs  then  clearly  from  secondary 
special  education.  The  latter  remains  always  general,  leads  to  all  the 
industrial  professions,  but  only  lends  itself  to  practical  work  exception¬ 
ally.  It  is  essentially  an  education;  the  former,  on  the  contrary,  is  par¬ 
ticular;  it  prepares  pupils  for  a  fixed  profession  ;  it  has  recourse  to  edu¬ 
cation  only  as  an  assistant;  it  is  an  apprenticeship. 

u  XI.  The  diffusion  of  education  cannot  be  carried  out  without  the  dif¬ 
fusion  of  books;  they  are  the  auxiliaries  of  education,  and  are,  more¬ 
over,  themselves  teachers.  The  colportage — that  is  to  say,  the  sale  of 
books  by  hawking  or  otherwise  than  in  shops — can  neither  diffuse  them 


EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 


237 


in  sufficient  numbers,  give  adequate  extension  to  circulation,  or  place 
them  in  all  hands.  Its  business  is  trade,  not  education ;  and,  even  regu¬ 
lated  as  it  is,  it  cannot  furnish  sufficient  guarantees.  The  establishment 
of  libraries  in  all  the  communes  of  France,  lending  or  hiring  out  books, 
placing  them  within  the  reach  of  all,  was  the  necessary  object  of  the 
propagation  of  education.  Set  on  foot  by  the  minister  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion,  established  in  the  communal  schools,  kept  by  the  schoolmaster,  the 
scholars’  libraries  were  the  first  established.  There  are  at  present  8,000 
libraries,  which  lend  500,000  books  per  annum.  But  ministerial  action 
was  not  enough  to  endow  40,000  communes  with  libraries,  and  public 
spirit  came  in  aid  with  remarkable  alacrity.  A  great  number  of  free 
societies  have  been  formed  for  this  special  object j  some  including  the 
whole  of  an  old  province,  such  as  Alsace,  in  their  action  $  others  a 
department,  and  the  rest  purely  local  in  their  action.  Many  in  Paris 
attempt  to  organize  for  themselves  centres  of  action  from  which  to  ope¬ 
rate  on  the  country  around,  either  in  giving  their  assistance  in  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  libraries,  or  in  making  known  and  encouraging  good  books,  or 
by  influencing  the  colportage.  Whatever  may  be  the  extent  of  their 
operations,  or  the  mode  of  their  action,  they  all  concur  in  maintaining  a 
healthy  agitation,  which  has  already  borne  good  fruit.  Not  only  have 
thousands  been  induced  to  read  who  never  before  touched  a  book  except 
by  accident,  but  publishers  having  thus  a  large  market  open  to  them, 
and  authors  finding  a  public  always  ready  for  their  works,  have  elimi¬ 
nated  new  features  in  their  literary  productions.  The  former,  by  more 
economic  arrangements,  have  endeavored  to  reach  the  perfection  of 
cheapness,  while  the  latter  comprehend  that,  in  order  to  reach  the  soul 
of  a  whole  nation,  literature  must  separate  itself  from  refined  notions 
and  elaborations  of  style,  and  that  it  cannot  be  too  pure  either  as  regards 
the  form  or  the  matter. 

u  XII.  The  exhibition  of  the  progress  of  education  in  France  would  still 
be  incomplete  were  it  limited  to  the  groups  above  indicated 5  the  work 
would  be  uncrowned.  Happily  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  has  here 
intervened.  By  virtue  of  the  Imperial  decision,  dated  November  8, 1850, 
the  Exhibition  includes  not  only  the  acts  emanating  from  his  adminis¬ 
tration  and  the  works  of  the  pupils  of  the  public  schools,  but  also  import¬ 
ant  collections  from  scientific  missions,  and  a  series  of  reports  presenting 
a  picture  of  the  progress  accomplished  in  France  in  science,  as  well  as  in 
letters,  during  the  last  twenty  years.  From  the  minister  of  the  interior 
to  the  village  schoolmaster,  all  the  representatives  of  national  education 
find  themselves  thus  associated  at  the  Exhibition  of  1867  in  a  common 
responsibility,  in  the  face  of  France  and  the  whole  world.” 


GENERAL  INDEX 

OF  THE 

GROUPS  AND  CLASSES 

ACCORDING  TO  THE 

CLASSIFICATION  ADOPTED  BY  THE  IMPERIAL  COMMISSION. 


GROUP  I. 

WORKS  OF  ART. 

Class.  Page. 

1.  Paintings  in  Oil .  19 

2.  Other  Paintings  and  Drawings .  28 

3.  Sculpture,  Die-sinking,  Stone  and  Cameo  Engraving .  32 

4.  Architectural  Designs  and  Models .  34 

5.  Engraving  and  Lithography .  34 

GROUP  II. 

APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS. 

• 

6.  Printing  and  Books .  35 

7.  Paper,  Stationery,  Binding,  Painting,  and  Drawing  Materials .  39 

8.  Application  of  Drawing  and  Modelling  to  the  Common  Arts .  44 

9.  Photographic  Proofs  and  Apparatus . 47 

10.  Musical  Instruments .  48 

11.  Medical  and  Surgical  Instruments  and  Apparatus .  51 

12.  Mathematical  Instruments  and  Apparatus  for  Teaching  Science .  53 

13.  Maps  and  Geographical  and  Cosmograpliical  Apparatus .  54 

GROUP  III. 

FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  USED  IN  DWELLINGS. 

14.  Furniture .  59 

15.  Upholstery  and  Decorative  Work . 60 

16.  Flint  and  other  Glass ;  Stained  Glass .  61 

17.  Porcelain,  Earthenware,  and  other  Fancy  Pottery .  65 

18.  Carpets,  Tapestry,  and  Furniture  Stuffs .  69 

19.  Paper  Hangings .  72 

20.  Cutlery .  74 

21.  Gold  and  Silver  Plate .  76 

22.  Bronzes  and  other  Artistic  Castings  and  Repousse  Work .  79 

23.  Clock  and  Watch  Work .  82 

24.  Apparatus  and  Processes  for  Heating  and  Lighting .  86 

25.  Perfumery .  87 

26.  Morocco  Work,  Fancy  Articles,  and  Basket  Work .  89 


240 


INDEX. 


GROUP  IV. 

CLOTHING,  INCLUDING  FABRICS,  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  WORN  ON  THE  PERSON. 
Class.  Page. 

27.  Cotton  Yarns,  Threads,  and  Tissues .  95 

28.  Flaxen  and  Hempen  Yarns,  Threads,  and  Tissues .  97 

29.  Combed  Wool  and  Worsted  Yarns  and  Fabrics .  98 

30.  Carded  Wool  and  Woollen  Yarns  and  Fabrics .  100 

31.  Silk  and  Silk  Manufactures .  103 

32.  Shawls .  106 

33.  Lace,  Net,  Embroidery,  and  Trimmings .  10^ 

34.  Hosiery,  Under-clothing,  and  Minor  Articles  .  115 

35.  Clothing  for  both  sexes .  126 

36.  Jewelry  and  Ornaments .  133 

37.  Portable  Arms .  138 

38.  Travelling  and  Camp  Equipages .  143 

39.  Toys .  145 

GROUP  V. 

PRODUCTS,  RAW  AND  MANUFACTURED,  OF  MINING  INDUSTRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 

40.  Mining  and  Metallurgy .  147 

41.  Forest  Products  and  Industries .  151 

42.  Products  of  the  Chase  and  Fisheries;  Uncultivated  Products .  157 

43.  Agricultural  Products,  (not  used  as  food,)  easily  preserved .  160 

44.  Chemical  and  Pharmaceutical  Products .  164 

45.  Specimens  of  the  Chemical  Processes  used  in  Bleaching,  Dyeing,  Printing,  and 

Dressing .  165 

46.  Leather  and  Skins .  166 

GROUP  VI. 

APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS. 

47.  Apparatus  and  Processes  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy .  169 

48.  Implements  and  Processes  used  in  the  Cultivation  of  Fields  and  Forests .  174 

49.  Implements  used  in  the  Chase,  Fisheries,  and  Gathering  Wild  Products .  176 

50.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Agricultural  Works,  and  for  the  Preparation 

of  Food .  . 

51.  Apparatus  used  in  Chemistry,  Pharmacy,  and  Tanning .  . 

52.  Prime  Movers,  Boilers,  and  Engines  specially  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the 

Exhibition .  . 

53.  Machines  and  Apparatus  in  general .  177 

54.  Machine  Tools . . .  178 

55.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Spinning  and  Rope-making .  181 

56.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Weaving . 

57.  Apparatus  and  Processes  for  Sewing  and  for  making  up  Clothing .  184 

58.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  the  Manufacture  of  Furniture  and  other  objects 

for  Dwellings .  185 

59.  Apparatus  and  Processes  used  in  Paper-making,  Dyeing  and  Printing .  187 

60.  Machines,  Instruments,  and  Processes  used  in  various  works .  . 

61.  Carriages  and  Wheelwrights’  Work .  188 

62.  Harness  and  Saddlery .  190 

63.  Railway  Apparatus .  191 

64.  Telegraphic  Apparatus  and  Processes .  198 

65.  Civil  Engineering,  Public  Works,  and  Architecture .  200 

66.  Navigation  and  Life-boats,  Yachts,  and  Pleasure-boats . 204 


INDEX, 


241 


GROUP  VII. 

FOOD,  FRESH  OR  PRESERVED,  IN  VARIOUS  STATES  OF  PRESERVATION. 


Class.  Page. 

67.  Cereals  and  other  Eatable  Farinaceous  Products,  with  their  Derivatives .  207 

68.  Bread  and  Pastry . . . 

69.  Fatty  Substances  used  as  Food;  Milk  and  Eggs .  210 

70.  Meat  and  Fish . 212* 

71.  Vegetables  and  Fruit .  213 

72.  Condiments  and  Stimulants ;  Sugar  and  Confectionery .  215 

73.  Fermented  Drinks .  219 


GROUP  VIII. 

LIVE  STOCK  AND  SPECIMENS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  BUILDINGS. 

74.  Farm  Buildings  and  Agricultural  Works .  223 

75.  Horses,  Asses,  Mules .  . 

76.  Bulls,  Buffaloes,  &c . . .  . 

77.  Sheep,  Goats . .  . 

78.  Pigs,  Rabbits .  . 

79.  Poultry .  . 

80.  Sporting  Dogs  and  Watch  Dogs .  . 

81.  Useful  Insects .  . 

82.  Fish,  Crustacea,  and  Mollusca .  . 


GROUP  IX. 

LIVE  PRODUCE  AND  SPECIMENS  OF  HORTICULTURAL  WORKS. 


83.  Glass  Houses  and  Apparatus .  225 

84.  Flowers  and  Ornamental  Plants .  225 

85.  Vegetables .  . 

86.  Fruit  Trees .  . 


87.  Seeds  and  Saplings  of  Forest  Trees 

88.  Hot-house  Plants . . 


GROUP  X. 

ARTICLES  EXHIBITED  WITH  THE  SPECIAL  OBJECT  OF  IMPROVING  THE  PHYSICAL  AND 


MORAL  CONDITION  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

89.  Apparatus  and  Methods  used  in  the  Instruction  of  Children .  229 

90.  Libraries  and  Apparatus  used  in  the  Instruction  of  Adults  at  Home,  in  the  Work¬ 

shop,  or  in  Schools  and  Colleges .  229 


91.  Furniture,  Clothing,  and  Food  from  all  sources,  remarkable  for  useful  qualities 

combined  with  cheapness . 

92.  Specimens  of  the  Clothing  worn  by  the  people  of  different  countries . 

93.  Examples  of  Dwellings  characterized  by  cheapness  combined  with  the  conditions 

necessary  for  health  and  comfort . 

94.  Articles  of  all  kinds  Manufactured  by  Working  Masters . 

95.  Instruments  and  Processes  peculiar  to  Working  Masters . 


16  U  E 


[REFERENCES 


TO  THE 


PLAN  OF  THE  BUILDING  AND  PARK. 


REFERENCES  TO  THE  UPPER  LEFT  HAND  CORNER  OF  THE  PL4N. 

A.  — Spain. — 1,  Moorish  Farm-house ;  2,  Yalentian  Cottage. 

B.  — Portugal. — 3,  Silk- worm  Nursery. 

C.  — Switzerland. — 4,  Fine  Arts  Annexe. 

D.  — Austria. — 5,  Bakery;  6,  Restaurant;  7,  Hungarian  House;  8,  Styrian  House 
9,  Lower  Austrian  House  ;  10,  Tyrolean  House ;  11,  Stables ;  12,  Riding  School. 

E. — Schleswig-Holstein. — 13,  General  Exhibition. 

F. — Wurtemberg.—  14,  Annexe. 

G.  — Prussia. — 15,  Annexe;  16,  School-house;  17,  Lake;  18,  Equestrian  Statue. 

U. — Bavaria. — 19,  Principal  Annexe ;  20,  Annexe. 

I. — Norway. 

J.  — Denmark. 

K.  — Sweden. — 21,  House  of  Gustavus  Yasa. 

E. — Russia.— 22,  Caucasian  House  ;  23,  Boiler. 

M.  — France. — 24,  Agricultural  Exhibition ;  25,  Offices  and  Warehouses ;  26,  Restaurant. 
Addenda. — a,  Agricultural  Machinery;  b,  Swiss  Annexe;  c,  Russian  Stables;  d,  Con¬ 
cert  Hall ;  e,  Russian  Annexe. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  LOWER  LEFT-HAND  CORNER  OF  THE  PLAN. 

France — Continued. — 27,  Conservatory  ;  28,  Lake  ;  29,  Marine  Aquarium  ;  30,  Fresh¬ 
water  Aquarium  ;  31,  Greenhouse  ;  32,  Temperate  Greenhouse  ;  33,  Cold  Greenhouse  ;  34, 
Greenhouse;  35,  Botanical  Diorama;  36,  37,  38,  Greenhouses;  39,  Restaurant;  40,  41, 
Greenhouses;  42,  Orchestra;  43,  Tent  of  Her  Imperial  Majesty  the  Empress ;  44,  45,  Green¬ 
houses  ;  46,  Botanical  Diorama ;  47,  Greenhouse  ;  48,  Post  Office  and  Telegraph. 

N.  — Belgium. — 49,  Fine  Arts  Annexe;  50,  Exhibition  of  Railway  Plant,  &c. 

O.  — Holland. — 51,  Farm-house  ;  52,  Fine  Arts  Annexe;  53,  Exhibition  of  Carriages. 
Addenda. — f,  Police  and  Firemen  ;  g,  Turnstile ;  h,  Cloak-rooms. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  UPPER  RIGHT-HAND  CORNER  OF  THE  PLAN. 

P.  — Italy. — 54,  Museum  ;  55,  Boiler. 

— Siam,  Japan,  and  China. — 56,  Chinese  Tea  House;  57,  Theatre. 

K.— Tunis. — 58,  Bey’s  Palace. 


244 


REFERENCES. 


S. — Egypt. — 59,  Cafe;  60,  Temple  of  Edfou;  61,  Summer  Palace  of  the  Viceroy;  62, 
Exhibition  of  the  Plan  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

T.  — Danubian  Principalities. 

U.  — Morocco. — 63,  Imperial  Tent. 

V.  — Turkey. — 64,  School-house ;  65,  Mosque. 

W.  — United  States. — 66,  Boiler-house;  67,  American  Farmer’s  House,  or  Illinois 
Cottage ;  68,  United  States  School-house  ;  69,  Louisiana  Cottage. 

X. — Mexico  and  Brazil. — 70,  Temple. 

Y.  — Great  Britain  and  Ireland. — 71,  Testing  House,  (heating  apparatus,  &c. ;)  72, 
Light-house ;  73,  Barrack  Huts ;  74,  Public  Munitions  of  War ;  75,  Private  Munitions  of 
War;  76,  Exhibition  of  Protestant  Mission. 

Addenda. — hh,  Jurors’ Meeting  Room;  i,  United  States  Annexe;  j,  English  Annexe; 
k,  Cafe  and  Concert-room  ;  1,  Concert  Hall;  m,  International  Club;  n,  Restaurant;  o,  Gas 
Works  ;  p,  Exhibition  of  English  Marine  Machinery. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  LOWER  RIGHT-HAND  CORNER  OF  THE  PLAN. 

Z.  — France — Continued. — 77,  Imperial  Tent ;  78,  Engine ;  79,  Exhibition  of  Pottery  ; 
80,  Exhibition  of  Cashmere  Shawls;  81,  Waterfall;  82,  Swiss  Cottage;  83,  Exhibition  of 
Glass;  84,  Exhibition  of  Photosculpture ;  85,  Windmill;  86,  Church;  87,  Fire  Engine;  88, 
Police  and  Firemen;  89,  Lake;  90,  Light-house;  91,  Materials  for  Cleansing  Woollen 
Fabrics;  92,  Leather  Working  Machines;  93,  Theatre;  94,  Refrigerating  Apparatus ;  95, 
Mills  and  Presses;  96,  French  War  Office  Exhibition;  97,  Porcelain;  98,  Photography. 

Addenda. — qq,  Exhibition  of  Fire  Engines  ;  r,  Mining  Exhibition  ;  s,  Machinery ;  t, 
Railway  Plant,  &c. ;  uu,  Money  Exchange  Offices;  v,  Equestrian  Statues;  w,  French 
Marine  Engines ;  x,  Exhibition  of  Pleasure  Boats ;  y,  Restaurant. 


o 


REPORT 

UPON  THE 

CHARACTER  AID  CONDITION 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


17  U  E 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

General  Observations  upon  the  United  States  Section .  247 

Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Products  of  the  United  States .  255 

List  of  Awards  by  the  International  Juries  to  Exhibitors  from  the 
United  States .  315 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  AND  CATALOGUE. 


Space  occupied  and  number  of  Exhibitors— Number  of  Awards  to  Exhibitors 
and  others— Percentage  of  Awards— Notices  of  the  various  Groups— Cat¬ 
alogues  and  other  Publications  —  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  United 
States  Section— List  of  Awards. 

SPACE  OCCUPIED  AND  AWARDS. 

The  space  occupied  by  the  United  States  was  a  sector  of  the  building 
in  the  end  towards  the  Seine.  It  was  separated  on  one  side  from  the 
space  allotted  to  China  and  Japan  by  the  Rue  d’Afrique,  (one  of  the 
transverse  avenues,)  and  on  the  other  side  it  was  separated  from  the 
portion  of  the  building  occupied  by  Great  Britain  and  its  colonies,  by  a 
narrow  sector  devoted  to  the  products  of  South  America. 

The  superficial  area  of  this  sector  was  38,488  square  feet.  In  addition 
to  this  there  were  the  constructions  in  the  Park,  the  space  at  Billancourt, 
and  a  long  rectangular  building  at  one  side  of  the  Park,  called  the  Annex, 
provided  for  many  objects  that  could  not  conveniently  be  received  in  the 
building.  The  total  space  occupied  was  as  follows : 

Square  feet. 


In  the  Palace .  38,  488 

In  the  Park .  55,769 

At  Billancourt .  3,  880 


Total .  98, 137 


The  total  number  of  entries  in  the  official  catalogue  was  717  ;  but  this 
did  not  show  the  exact  number  of  exhibitors,  for  some  of  the  objects 
entered  being  broken  or  damaged  were  not  set  up.  The  same  exhibits 
were,  in  some  cases,  entered  under  different  classes.  The  total  number  of 
exhibitors  whose  products  were  present  in  time  and  competing  for  prizes 


was  536,  as  shown  by  the  following  resume  : 

Whole  number  of  entries  in  the  catalogue .  717 

Deduct  the  products  broken  and  not  set  up,  including  the  hors 
concours .  17 


Repetitions  of  the  same  names,  and  admissions  at  different 

dates  through  the  season,  after  the  jury  work  was  closed _ 164 

-  181 


Present  in  time  and  competing  for  prizes 


536 


248 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  nature  of  the  objects  exhibited  is  fully  shown  in  the  descriptive 
catalogue  which  forms  a  part  of  this  report. 

The  total  number  of  awards  to  the  exhibitors  from  the  United  States 
was  as  follows : 


Grand  prizes . 

Artists’  medal . 

Gold  medals . 

Silver  medals . 

Bronze  medals . 

Honorable  mentions 


1 

18 

76 

98 

93 


Total  awards 


291 


Full  details  of  the  distribution  of  these  awards  are  given  in  the  list 
appended  to  this  report. 

From  the  tabular  statement  prepared  by  Mr.  Beckwith  and  presented 
in  the  preface  to  the  General  Report,  it  appears  that  the  percentage  of 
awards  to  exhibitors  from  the  United  States  was  52.79  ;  the  percentage 
to  exhibitors  from  France  was  55.57,  and  to  those  from  Great  Britain 
and  colonies,  26.10.  The  general  average  percentage  of  awards  to  all 
exhibitors  was  34.53.  Next  after  France  the  United  States  stands  highest 
.  upon  the  list.  Mr.  Beckwith  observes  in  the  preface  before  cited : 

u  The  high  position  conceded  by  the  verdict  of  the  juries  to  American 
industrial  products  is  not  due  in  general  to  graceful  design,  fertile  com¬ 
binations  of  pleasing  colors,  elegant  forms,  elaborate  finish,  or  any  of 
the  artistic  qualities  which  cultivate  the  taste  and  refine  the  feelings  by 
awakening  in  the  mind  a  higher  sense  of  beauty,  but  it  is  owing  to  their 
skilful,  direct,  and  admirable  adaptation  to  the  great  wants  they  are 
intended  to  supply,  and  to  the  originality  and  fertility  of  invention  which 
converts  the  elements  and  natural  forces  to  the  commonest  uses,  multi¬ 
plying  results  and  diminishing  toil. 

u  The  peculiar  and  valuable  qualities  of  our  products  will  be  adopted 
and  reproduced  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  improving  the  mechanical  and 
industrial  arts,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  and  gratifying  to  believe 
that  the  benefits  will  be  reciprocal,  that  our  products  will  in  time  acquire 
those  tasteful  and  pleasing  qualities  which  command  more  admiration 
and  find  a  quicker  and  better  market  than  the  barely  useful.” 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 

As  a  participator. in  this  great  international  display  the  United  States 
labored  under  many  disadvantages.  The  nation  had  not  recovered  from 
the  paralyzing  effects  of  the  disastrous  war  of  the  rebellion,  and  the 
people  were  not  aroused  in  season  to  an  appreciation  of  the  importance 
of  the  projected  Exhibition.  The  manufacturing  industry  of  the  country 
was  in  a  transition  state.  Labor  was  scarce  and  dear,  and  many  manu¬ 
facturers  found  it  difficult  to  fill  the  orders  which  had  been  received,  and 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


249 


thus  could  not  undertake  the  preparation  of  goods  for  exhibition.  The 
remoteness  of  the  Exhibition  greatly  discouraged  effort,  inasmuch  as 
comparatively  few  of  the  exhibitors  could  be  present  and  attend  to 
placing  and  explaining  their  contributions.  The  broad  Atlantic  separ¬ 
ated  our  artizans  and  producers  from  the  Champ  de  Mars,  while  most  of 
the  great  competing  nations  were  connected  by  rail  directly  with  the 
Exposition  building.  The  cost  of  transportation  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States  to  the  agency  in  New  York  was  considerable,  and  although 
the  contributions  were  forwarded  across  the  ocean  by  the  government, 
no  provision  was  made  for  the  repacking  and  return  of  the  articles, 
which,  at  the  close  of  the  Exhibition,  were  to  be  at  the  risk  and  expense 
of  the  exhibitor,  and  thus  many  persons  who  would  have  joined  in  the 
Exhibition  were  deterred  from  taking  any  part  in  it. 

Yet,  notwithstanding  all  these  difficulties,  the  country  may  be  con¬ 
gratulated  upon  the  success  of  its  exhibition ;  and  that  the  skill,  indus¬ 
try,  and  energy  of  the  people  did  not  suffer  by  comparison  in  the  great 
international  contest. 

Our  raw  materials  were  not  excelled  by  any  in  the  Exposition,  and  by 
their  variety,  abundance,  and  quality,  gave  convincing  evidence  of  the 
extraordinary  natural  wealth  of  our  States  and  Territories.  In  the  dis¬ 
play  of  mineral  products  the  coal  of  Pennsylvania,  the  gold  and  silver 
ores  of  California,  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Colorado,  the  copper  and  iron  of 
Minnesota,  the  zinc  ores  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  emery  of  Massachusetts, 
were  especially  prominent.  The  collection  was  rich  5  but  some  regions 
and  products  were  disproportionately  represented,  and  it  lacked  that 
unity  and  completeness  which  can  only  be  attained  through  intelligent 
organized  effort.  Almost  all  other  prominent  displays  in  this  class  were 
prepared  with  the  strong  aid  and  authority  of  the  governments,  through 
regularly  organized  corps  of  engineers. 

In  forestry  and  productions  of  the  forest  the  display  made  by  the 
United  States  was  meagre.  Much  attention  was  given  to  this  class  by 
other  countries;  the  display  made  by  France,  Brazil,  Australia,  and 
Canada,  were  notable  features  of  the  Exposition.  Several  of  these  col¬ 
lections,  as  also  some  of  the  collections  of  mineral  products,  had  been 
prepared  for  previous  great  exhibitions,  and  may  be  regarded  as  standard 
displays,  which  are  added  to  and  improved  at  each  new  exhibition. 

The  exhibitions  of  the  cereal  productions  and  of  the  cotton,  tobacco, 
wool,  and  other  staple  products,  though  in  some  instances  prominent 
and  thoroughly  satisfactory,  were  in  general  fragmentary  and  not  on  a 
scale  commensurate  with  the  enormous  capacity  of  the  country  for  their 
production. 

The  most  notable  deficiency  in  the  exhibition  made  by  the  United 
States  was  in  Group  III,  including  the  application  of  the  fine  arts  to  the 
useful  arts.  This  deficiency  was  shown  by  the  absence  of  rich  furnish¬ 
ings,  upholstery,  and  decorative  work,  and  manufactures  depending  for 
their  excellence  upon  a  high  degree  of  taste  and  skill  in  design.  There 


250 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


was  no  fine  display  of  richly  decorated  porcelain  and  faience,  encaustic 
tiles,  and  marquetry;  and,  with  the  notable  exception  of  the  bronzed  iron 
work  of  Messrs.  Tucker  &  Company,  no  collection  of  artistic  bronzes,  bas- 
reliefs,  and  ornamental  castings,  nor  of  highly  ornamented  and  artistic 
furniture. 

The  bronze  work  of  the  Messrs.  Tucker  may  justly  be  excepted  for  its 
novelty,  intrinsic  excellence,  and  artistic  value.  It  attracted  much 
attention,  and  the  articles  were  in  demand.  Some  were  ordered  in  per¬ 
son  by  the  King  of  Prussia. 

OBSERVATIONS  UPON  THE  GROUPS. 

The  following  observations  upon  the  display  made  by  the  United  States 
in  several  of  the  groups  are  from  a  report  submitted  by  Commissioner 
Freese  and  others. 

“In  Group  II,  ‘Materials  and  their  applications  in  the  liberal  arts/  we 
find  among  the  contributions  made  by  the  86  American  exhibitors  much 
to  admire  and  commend.1  The  specimens  of  typography  were  such  as 
could  not  fail  to  be  commended  by  any  one  conversant  with  the  art,  and 
we  are  pleased  to  observe  that  three  of  the  exhibitors  of  book  printing 
received  prizes.  Of  specimens  of  stationery,  book-binding,  &c.,  the  dis¬ 
play  is  very  limited,  and  out  of  all  proportion  with  our  immense  trade  in 
these  articles,  and  yet  of  the  13  exhibitors  no  less  than  six  received 
prizes,  proving  that  what  is  lacking  in  quantity  and  variety  of  these 
articles  in  the  Exhibition  is  more  than  made  up  in  quality.  Of  plastic 
moulding  there  is  but  one  exhibitor  and  three  specimens,  one  represent¬ 
ing  what  is  called  ‘  Uncle  Ned’s  School,’  another  called  1  Taking  the  Oath 
and  Drawing  Rations,’  and  a  third  called  1  The  Charity  Patient,’  repre¬ 
senting  a  benevolent  faced  old  doctor  compounding  a  prescription  for  a 
poor  woman  in  waiting.  All  these  are  peculiarly  American,  and  are 
admirably  executed.  Of  proofs  and  apparatus  of  photography  most  of 
the  specimens  are  commendable,  and  of  the  ten  exhibitors  four  received 
prizes. 

“  Of  instruments  of  music  the  display,  though  small,  adds  decidedly 
to  the  character  of  the  American  exhibition.  Of  the  nine  exhibitors  in 
this  class  two  received  gold  medals,  one  a  silver  medal,  and  two  bronze 
medals. 

“  In  Group  IV  the  contributors  to  the  American  exhibition  are  few  in 
number,  (only  54.)  Of  yarns  and  tissues  of  cotton  the  contributors  are 
six,  and  of  these  five  have  received  prizes.  Of  other  yarns  and  tissues 
of  linen,  hemp,  wool,  and  silk,  the  contributors  are  nine,  of  whom  five 
have  received  awards.  Of  shawls,  hosiery,  and  clothing,  the  contribu¬ 
tors  are  sixteen,  of  whom  five  have  received  recognition.  But  the  great 
feature  of  this  group  was  the  display  of  breech-loading  fire-arms,  metal¬ 
lic  cartridges,  and  rifled  cannon,  of  which  there  are  fourteen  contribu¬ 
tors,  of  whom  seven  have  received  gold  or  silver  medals. 

'In  this  and  the  following  enumerations  of  the  number  of  exhibitors  no  allowance  has  been 
made  for  the  repetitions  of  entries  in  the  catalogue. 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


251 


“  To  Group  V  American  contributors  have  made  most  noble  and  appro¬ 
priate  contributions,  embracing  products  (raw  and  manufactured)  of 
mining  industry,  forestry,  etc. 

“  In  Class  40  of  this  group  the  following  States  and  Territories  have 
contributed  from  their  mines  and  quarries :  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  New  Jersey,  Michigan,  Ohio,  California,  Nevada,  Arkansas, 
Missouri,  Louisiana,  Alabama,  Kansas,  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  Tennessee,  Vermont,  Georgia,  West  Virginia,  Utah,  and  Idaho. 

u  In  products  of  the  forest,  embraced  in  the  next  class,  (41,)  we  find 
specimens  of  woods  from  Missouri,  Kansas,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  California,  Louisiana,  and  Utah. 

“  Passing  to  Group  VI,  comprising  instruments  and  processes  of  com¬ 
mon  arts,  we  find  in  the  American  exhibition  a  larger  number  of  exhib¬ 
itors  (227)  than  in  any  other  of  the  groups,  though  this  is  accounted  for 
in  the  fact  that  this  group  embraces  a  larger  number  of  classes,  (20,)  and 
consequently  a  larger  range  of  articles,  than  any  other. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  contributions  to  this  group  add  to  the  excel¬ 
lence  of  the  American  exhibition,  and  that  some  should  fail  to  do  so  is 
scarcely  to  be  wondered  at,  among  so  large  a  number  of  contributions. 

u  Of  apparatus  and  methods  of  mining  and  metallurgy  there  are  four 
contributors,  two  of  whom  have  received  prizes  ;  of  implements  and  pro¬ 
cesses  of  rural  and  forest  work  there  are  25  contributors,  six  of  whom 
received  medals,  of  which  two,  for  the  best  specimens  of  mowing  and 
reaping  machines,  are  of  gold;  of  apparatus  for  hunting,  fishing,  &c., 
there  is  but  one  contributor,  and  the  contribution  is  of  no  special  value  ; 
of  materials  and  method,  of  agricultural  work,  and  of  alimentary  industry, 
there  are  20  contributors,  eight  of  whom  have  received  recognition,  and 
nearly  all  the  contributions  do  credit  to  the  genius  and  industrial  activity 
of  our  country;  of  chemical,  pharmaceutic,  and  tanning  apparatus  there  are 
seven  contributors,  four  of  whom  have  received  medals  and  honorable 
mention,  and  the  other  three  are  scarcely  less  worthy  of  a  like  recogni¬ 
tion  ;  of  machines  and  mechanical  apparatus  in  general,  we  have  38 
contributions;  that  these  should  have  been  awarded  no  less  than  21  prizes, 
(over  50  per  centum  of  the  number  of  exhibitors,)  cannot  be  otherwise 
than  gratifying  to  every  American. 

u  Of  machine  tools  we  have  14  contributors,  10  of  whom  have 
received  recognition,  and  the  contributions  of  the  other  four  are  com- 
-  mendable ;  of  cotton- ginning,  cord-twisting,  and  burr-picking  machines 
we  have  five  contributions,  all  good,  and  two  of  which  have  received 
recognition ;  of  weaving  and  knitting  machines  we  have  five  specimens, 
three  of  which  have  received  silver  medals ;  of  apparatus  and  process  of 
sewing  and  making  clothes,  (which  class  includes  our  inimitable  sewing 
machines,  in  which,  as  agreed  upon  by  all  impartial  judges,  we  are  far 
in  advance  of  all  other  nations,)  there  are  18  contributors,  of  whom 
two  have  received  gold  medals,  and  one  of  them  an  imperial  decoration ; 
three  have  received  silver  medals ;  seven,  bronze  medals ;  and  one  au 


252 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


honorable  mention,  making  a  sum  total  of  13  prizes  among  18  con¬ 
tributors.  Of  apparatus  and  methods  of  making  furniture  and  house¬ 
hold  objects,  there  are  10  contributors,  three  of  whom  received  prizes,  and 
others  of  this  class  would,  doubtless,  have  received  high  prizes  could  they 
have  been  present  themselves  to  explain  to  the  jury  the  peculiar  working 
and  intrinsic  value  of  their  inventions.  Of  machinery  for  paper  making, 
printing,  &c.,  there  are  but  five  contributors,  and  none  of  the  great  steam 
power  printing  presses,  for  which  American  inventors  and  manufactu¬ 
rers  have  become  so  justly  celebrated,  were  included  in  this  display ;  and 
of  five  exhibitors  in  this  class,  two  have  received  medals,  while  another 
machine  for  dressing  type,  classified  under  the  next  head,  received  the 
award  of  a  gold  medal,  and  is  every  way  worthy  of  it. 

u  Passing  into  the  annex,  we  find  two  American  buggies,  and  a  street 
railway  carriage,  all  three  of  which  are  fine  specimens  of  skill  and  taste  in 
carriage-building,  and  all  of  which  received  prizes.  Near  these  are 
ladies  and  gentlemen’s  saddles,  of  good  workmanship,  which  also  received 
recognition  from  the  jury.  Here,  too,  we  find  the  great  American  loco¬ 
motive,  which  in  workmanship  and  beauty  of  finish  far  excels  all  others 
in  the  Exposition,  and  to  which  the  jury  awarded  a  gold  medal.  There 
are  eight  other  contributions  to  this  class,  though  only  one  other — a  rail¬ 
road  scale — received  a  prize. 

u  Of  models  relating  to  navigation  and  salvage  there  are  14  contribu¬ 
tors  to  the  American  exhibition,  four  of  whom  received  recognition  from 
the  jury,  and  nearly  all  the  specimens  do  honor  to  the  inventors. 

u  Next  in  review  we  reach  Group  VII,  and  find  from  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  33  samples  of  wheat  and  other  cereals, 
from  as  many  different  States  and  special  localities,  together  with  a 
large  number  of  contributions  of  like  character  direct  from  the  States. 
The  specimens  are  invariably  good,  and  have  attracted  a  large  share  of 
attention  from  European  agriculturists,  and  would  have  attracted  more 
had  their  installation  been  better.  Of  the  17  private  contributors  to  this 
class,  nine  have  received  awards.  Of  baking  and  pastry  cooking  we  have 
but  one  contribution,  and  judging  from  the  quality  of  bread,  cake,  and 
crackers  produced  we  should  call  it  first-rate,  but  for  some  cause  it  has 
received  no  recognition  from  the  jury.  Of  prepared  specimens  of  meat 
and  fish,  (including  salt-cured  and  smoked  hams,  packed  beef,  pork,  and 
lard,  preserved  lobster,  canned  oysters,  &c.,)  we  have  seven  contribu¬ 
tions,  and  every  one  has  received  an  award. 

u  Of  preserved  fruits  and  vegetables,  sugars,  chocolates,  &c.,  the  con¬ 
tributors  number  21,  of  whom  10  have  received  awards,  and  all  the 
samples  are  commendable.  Of  fermented  drinks,  such  as  wines,  brandies, 
ales,  porters,  and  brown-stouts,  the  contributors  number  25,  of  whom 
seven  received  awards. 

u  This  brings  us  to  Group  X,  the  last,  though  not  the  least  important. 
Here  we  find  a  specimen  of  a  western  primary  schoobhouse,  school  fur¬ 
niture,  and  school  apparatus.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  nothing  in  the 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


253 


American  exhibition  has  excited  more  general  attention  and  commenda¬ 
tion  from  European  visitors,  and  no  other  of  our  exhibits  tended  to 
excite  more  general  inquiry  into  the  peculiar  character  of  our  political 
institutions,  and  especially  as  to  the  relations  which  those  institutions 
bear  toward  our  common  school  system.  The  school-room,  in  size,  finish, 
ventilation,  and  furnishing,  is  superior  to  any  other  in  the  Exposition, 
and  the  apparatus  within,  though  not  in  quantity,  certainly  in  quality, 
equals  those  exhibited  by  any  other  nation.  But  as  a  report  is  in  course 
of  preparation,  covering  the  whole  subject  of  school-houses,  school  appa¬ 
ratus,  &c.,  additional  remarks  are  here  unnecessary. 

u  In  this  same  class  we  find  books  and  apparatus  for  the  use  of  the 
blind,  contributed  from  Massachusetts,  which  are  in  every  way  quite 
equal  to  any  others  in  the  Exposition,  and  we  are  pleased  to  know  that 
both  these  and  the  school  building  received  awards. 

u  Passing  to  the  next  class,  (20,)  we  find  the  articles  to  consist  of  sur¬ 
gical  instruments,  artificial  limbs,  hospital  wagon,  ambulance  and  relief 
material,  medicine  wagon,  and  camp  equipage,  such  as  were  used  by  the 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission,  and  all  collected  by  one  of  the  United 
States  commissioners.  To  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission  the 
jury  awarded  a  grand  prize,  and  each  of  the  other  six  exhibitors  in  this 
class  received  recognition. 

u  In  the  next  class  (93)  we  find  three  specimens  of  houses  from  the 
United  States,  namely,  a  western  farmer’s  house,  a  Boston  bakery,  and 
a  cottage  made  of  Louisiana  cypress.  The  first  of  these  has  deservedly 
attracted  a  large  share  of  attention,  and  added  much  to  the  character  of 
the  American  exhibition.  It  is  decidedly  American  in  its  construction — 
plain,  substantial,  and  convenient — representing  thrift  and  comfort  with¬ 
out  display.” 

CATALOGUES  AND  OTHEE  PUBLICATIONS. 

Three  editions  were  published  and  circulated  of  an  official  catalogue 
of  the  products  of  the  United  States  that  were  exhibited.  This  cata¬ 
logue  was  printed  in  English,  French,  and  German,  and  was  accompanied 
by  geographical  and  statistical  notices  in  French  upon  the  population, 
trade,  and  resources  of  the  United  States,  prepared  from  data  furnished 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior.1 

A  special  catalogue  in  8vo  of  the  minerals  of  the  United  States  exhib¬ 
ited  in' Group  V,  class  40,  was  also  printed.  This  catalogue  was  com¬ 
piled  by  Commissioner  D’Aligny. 

Numerous  copies  in  English,  French,  German,  and  Swedish,  of  the 
report  of  the  Commissioner  of  the  United  States  General  Land  Office  for 

1866,  accompanied  by  a  map,  were  gratuitously  distributed. 

1  The  foliowing  is  the  title  of  this  catalogue  in  full.  It  was  printed  in  12mo,  pp.  160: 
“Official  Catalogue  of  the  Products  of  the  United  States  of  America  exhibited  at  Paris, 

1867,  with  Statistical  Notices.  Catalogue  in  English,  Catalogue  Fran9ais,  Deutscher  Cata¬ 
log.  Third  edition.  Paris :  Impriu  erie  Centrale  des  Chemins  de  Fer.  A.  Chaix  et  Cie,  Rue 
Berg&re,  20,  pr&s  du  Boulevard  Montmartre,  1867.” 


254 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  territorial  commissioner  from  Colorado  published  a  beautifully 
printed  pamphlet  descriptive  of  the  Territory  and  its  resources,  and  of 
the  large  collection  of  the  ores  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  These  books 
were  printed  in  French  and  in  English,  and  were  gratuitously  distributed 
to  those  who  took  an  interest  in  the  display  from  that  portion  of  the 
United  States. 

The  State  commissioner  from  Nevada  published  a  small  edition  of  a 
similar  pamphlet,  accompanied  by  a  map  of  eastern  Nevada. 

The  Agricultural  Society  of  the  State  of  California  sent  a  few  sets  of 
its  transactions  for  distribution.  Illinois  also  sent  reports  of  its  Agri¬ 
cultural  Society  and  complete  sets  of  the  reports  on  the  geology  of  the 
State.  A  small  volume  on  the  mineral,  agricultural,  and  manufacturing 
resources  of  the  State  of  Alabama  was  printed  in  Paris,  and  gratuitously 
distributed.  The  colony  of  Vineland,  New  Jersey,  also  circulated  a 
descriptive  pamphlet. 

The  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  products  of  the  United  States  which 
follows  will  show  the  character  of  the  exhibition  made  in  the  various 
groups  and  classes.  The  notices  of  the  various  objects  have  been  pre¬ 
pared,  in  part,  from  data  furnished  by  Dr.  Thomas  W.  Evans,  of  Paris. 


DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE 


OF  THE 

PBODUCTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

EXHIBITED  AT  PABIS,  1867. 


GROUP  I. 

4 

WORKS  OF  ART. 

CLASS  1.— PAINTINGS  IN  OIL. 

Baker,  G.  A.,  Yew  York. — 1.  Portrait  of  a  Child,  the  property  of  A. 
M.  Cozzens,  esq.  2.  Portrait  of  a  Lady,  the  property  of  F.  Pren¬ 
tice,  esq. 

Beard,  W.  H.,  Yew  York. — 3.  The  Bears’  Dance,  the  property  of  Josiah 
Caldwell,  esq. 

Bierstadt,  A.,  Yew  York. — 4.  The  Rocky  Mountains,  the  property  of 
Janies  McHenry,  esq. 

Boughton,  G.  H.,  Albany,  Yew  York. — 5.  Winter  Twilight,  the  property 
of  R.  L.  Stuart,  esq.  6.  The  Penitent,  the  property  of  J.  F.  Ken- 
sett,  esq. 

Casilear,  J.  W.,  Yew  York. — 7.  Genesee  Flats,  the  property  of  Shepard 
Gandy,  esq.  8.  A  Swiss  Lake,  the  property  of  R.  M.  Olyphant,  esq. 

Church,  F.  E.,  Yew  York. — 9.  Yiagara,  the  property  of  J.  Taylor  John¬ 
ston,  esq.  10.  The  Rainy  Season  in  the  Tropics,  the  property  of  M. 
O.  Roberts,  esq.  Mr.  Church  received  the  Artists’  Medal,  with  500 
francs  in  gold. 

Cole,  J.  F.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 11.  Pastoral  Landscape. 

Colman,  S.,  Yew  York. — 12.  View  of  the  Alhambra. 

Cropsey,  J.  F.,  Yew  York. — >13.  Mount  Jefferson,  Yew  Hampshire,  the 
property  of  R.  M.  Olyphant,  esq. 

Dix,  C.  T.,  Yew  York.— 14.  Marine. 

Durand,  A.  B.,  Yew  York. — 15.  In  the  Woods,  the  property  of  J.  Stur- 
gess,  esq.  16.  A  Symbol,  the  property  of  R.  M.  Olyphant,  esq. 

Elliott,  C.  L.,  Yew  York.— 17.  A  Portrait,  the  property  of  Fletcher 
Harper,  esq. 

Gifford,  S.  R.,  Yew  York. — 18.  Twilight  on  Mount  Hunter,  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  J.  W.  Pinchot,  esq.  19.  Home  in  the  Wilderness,  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  M.  Knoedler,  esq. 


[GROUP  I. 


256  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Gignoux,  R.,  New  York. — 20.  Mount  Washington,  New  Hampshire,  the 
property  of  A.  T.  Stewart,  esq. 

Gray,  H.  P.,  New  York. — 21.  The  Apple  of  Discord,  the  property  of  R. 
M.  Olyphant,  esq.  22.  The  Pride  of  the  Village,  the  property  of  W. 
H.  Osborn,  esq. 

Hart,  James  M.,  New  York. — 23.  Landscape :  Tunxis  River,  Connec¬ 
ticut,  the  property  of  S.  P.  Avery,  esq. 

Healy,  G.  P.  A.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — 24.  Portrait  of  Lieutenant  Gen¬ 
eral  Sherman.  25.  Portrait  of  a  Lady,  the  property  of  W.  B.  Dun¬ 
can,  esq. 

Homer,  Winslow,  New  York. — 26.  Confederate  Prisoners  at  the  Front, 
the  property  of  J.  Taylor  Johnston,  esq.  27.  The  Bright  Side,  the 
property  of  W.  H.  Hamilton,  esq. 

Hubbard,  R.  W.,  New  York. — 28.  View  of  the  Adirondacks,  taken  near 
Mount  Mansfield,  the  property  of  Mrs.  H.  B.  Cromwell.  29.  Early 
Autumn,  the  property  of  H.  G.  Marquand,  esq. 

Hunt,  W.  M.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 30,  31,  32,  33,  34,  35,  36.  Por¬ 
traits.  37.  Portrait  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  38,  39.  Italian  Boy.  40. 
Dinan,  in  Brittany.  41.  The  Quarry. 

Huntington,  D.,  New  York. — 42.  Portrait  of  Gnlian  C.  Verplanck, 
esq.  43.  The  Republican  Court,  time  of  Washington,  the  property 
of  A.  T.  Stewart,  esq. 

Inness,  George,  Perth  Amboy,  New  Jersey. — 44.  American  Sunset, 
the  propety  of  Marcus  Spring,  esq.  45.  Landscape,  with  cattle. 

Johnson,  E.,  New  York. — 46.  Old  Kentucky  Home,  the  property  of  H. 
W.  Derby,  esq.  47.  Mating,  the  property  of  Major  General  John 
A.  Dix.  48.  Fiddling  his  Way,  the  property  of  R.  L.  Stuart,  esq. 
49.  Sabbath  Morning,  the  property  of  Robert  Hoe,  esq. 

Johnson,  F.,  Brooklyn,  New  York. — 50.  The  Omelet. 

Kensett,  J.  F.,  New  York. — 51.  Lake  George  in  Autumn,  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  R.  M.  Olyphant,  esq.  52.  Coast,  Newport  Harbor,  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  G.  T.  Olyphant,  esq.  53.  Glimpse  of  the  White  Mountains, 
the  property  of  R.  L.  Stuart,  esq.  54.  Morning  oft  the  Coast  of 
Massachusetts,  the  property  of  S.  Gandy,  esq. 

Lambdin,  G.  C.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 55.  The  Consecration, 
1861,  the  property  of  George  Whitney,  esq.  56.  The  Last  Sleep. 

Langdon,  Woodbury,  New  York. — 57.  The  Storm.  58.  Out  at  Sea. 

Lafarge,  John,  Newport,  Rhode  Island. — 59.  Flowers,  the  property  of 
S.  F.  Van  Chote,  esq. 

Leutze,  E.,  New  York. — 60.  Mary  Stuart  hearing  the  first  mass  at  Holy- 
rood,  after  her  return  from  France,  the  property  of  John  A.  Riston, 
esq. 

Lewis,  J.  S.,  Burlington,  New  Jersey. — 61.  The  Fisher  Boy. 

May,  E.  C.,  New  York. — 62.  Lady  Jane  Grey  giving  her  Tablets  to  the 
Governor  of  the  Tower  on  her  way  to  Execution.  63.  Lear  and  Cor¬ 
delia,  (King  Lear,  Act  IV,  scene  7.)  64.  Portrait. 


CLASS  II-IV.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


257 


Mac  Entee,  J.,  New  York. — 65.  Virginia  in  1863,  the  property  of  Cyrus 
Butler,  esq.  66.  Last  of  October,  the  property  of  S.  C.  Evans,  esq. 
67.  Autumn,  Ashokan  Woods,  the  property  of  Bobert  Hoe,  esq. 
Mignot,  L.  B.,  New  York. — 68.  Sources  .of  the  Susquehanna,  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  H.  W.  Derby,  esq. 

Moran,  T.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 69.  Autumn  on  the  Cone- 
rnaugh,  in  Pennsylvania,  the  property  of  C.  L.  Sharpless,  esq.  70. 
The  Children  of  the  Mountain. 

Owen,  George,  New  York. — 71.  Study  from  Nature,  New  England 
scenery. 

Bichards,  W.  T.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 72.  Woods  in  June,  the 
property  of  B.  L.  Stuart,  esq.  73.  Foggy  Day  at  Nantucket,  the 
property  of  George  Whitney,  esq. 

Weir,  J.  F.,  New  York. — 74.  The  Gun  Foundry,  the  property  of  B.  P. 
Parrott,  esq. 

Whistler,  J.  McNeil,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — 75.  The  White  Girl. 
76.  u  Wapping,”  or  u  On  the  Thames.”  77.  Old  Battersea  Bridge. 
78.  Twilight  on  the  Ocean. 

White,  E.,  New  York. — 79.  Thoughts  of  Liberia,  the  property  of  B.  L. 
Stuart,  esq. 

Whittridge,  W.,  New  York. — 80.  The  Old  Hunting  Ground,  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  J.  W.  Pinchot,  esq.  81.  Bhode  Island  Coast,  the  property 
of  A.  M.  Cozzens,  esq. 

Weber,  Paul,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 82.  Bolton  Park,  England. 

CLASS  2.— VARIOUS  PAINTINGS  AND  DESIGNS. 

Darley,  F.  O.  C.,  New  York. — 1.  Cavalry  Charge  at  Fredericksburg, 
Virginia,  the  property  of  W.  T.  Blodgett,  esq. 

Johnson,  E.,  New  York. — 2.  Wounded  Drummer  Boy,  the  property  of 
the  Century  Club. 

Bowse,  S.  W.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 3.  Crayon  Portrait  of  Balph 
Waldo  Emerson,  esq.  4.  Crayon  Portrait  of  J.  Bussell  Lowell,  esq. 

CLASS  3— SCULPTURE,  DIE-SINKING,  STONE  AND  CAMEO  ENGRAVING. 

Hosmer,  Miss  H.  G.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 1.  The  Sleeping  Faun. 
Thompson,  L.,  New  York. — 2.  Statue  of  Napoleon,  the  property  of  C.  C. 
D.  Pinchot,  esq. ;  cast  by  Mr.  L.  A.  Amouroux.  3.  Bust  of  a  Bocky 
Mountain  Trapper. 

Volk,  L.  W.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — 4.  Bust  of  A.  Lincoln. 

Ward,  J.  Q.  A.,  New  York. — 5.  The  Indian  Hunter  and  his  Dog,  the 
property  of  the  Central  Park,  New  York;  cast  by  Mr.  L.  A.  Amouroux. 
6.  The  Freedman,  the  property  of  John  Baker,  esq.;  cast  by  Mr.  L. 
A.  Amouroux. 

CLASS  4.— ARCHITECTURAL  DESIGNS  AND  MODELS. 

•  (For  American  Farmer's  House,  and  School-house,  see  Group  X, 
class  93.) 


258 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  II. 


CLASS  5.— ENGRAVING  AND  LITHOGRAPHY. 

Marshall,  W.  E. — Lincoln;  engraving  on  steel.  Washington;  engrav¬ 
ing  on  steel. 

Halpin,  F.,  New  York. — President  Lincoln;  engraving  on  steel. 
Whistler,  James  McNeil,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Twelve  etchings. 

GROUP  II. 

APPARATUS  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  LIBERAL  ARTS. 

CLASS  6.— PRINTING  AND  BOOKS. 

American  Bank  Note  Company,  New  York. — Specimens  of  bank-note 
engraving  and  printing. 

American  Bible  Society,  New  York. — Specimen  copies  of  the  publi¬ 
cations  of  the  society. 

Since  the  formation  of  this  society,  in  1816,  it  has  received  from  sales 
and  donations  $10,847,854,  and  has  issued,  in  every  known  language,  an 
aggregate  of  22,118,475  copies  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  has  17  power 
presses,  and  about  400  persons  employed  in  the  Bible  House.  During 
the  late  war  6,555,231  volumes  were  issued. 

Appleton,  D.,  &  Co.,  New  York. — Books,  including  a  copy  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Encyclopaedia.  Bronze  medal. 

Baker  &  Godwin,  Printing-house  square,  New  York. — Typography, 
plain  and  in  colors. 

Bond,  Professor  G.  P.,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. — Description  of  the 
Great  Comet  of  1858. 

Bradstreet,  J.  M.,  &  Son,  18  Beekman  street,  New  York. — Specimen 
of  book  printing  by  Hoe’s  press. 

Brewer  &  Tileston,  131  Washington  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 
Worcester’s  Dictionary. 

Broughton,  Nicholas,  Jr.,  28  Cornhill,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 
Specimens  of  typography  from  the  American  Tract  Society. 
Bufford,  J.  H.,  &  Sons,  313  Washington  street,  Boston,  Massachu¬ 
setts. — Lithographic  view  of  Mr.  Bacon’s  bakery,  in  that  establish¬ 
ment. 

Demorest,  W.  J.,  437  Broadway,  New  York. — Specimens  of  a  monthly 
magazine,  illustrated. 

Gallaudet,  E.  M.,  President  of  the  Columbia  Institute  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  Washington,  D.  C. — Reports  of  that  institution. 
Houghton,  H.  O.,  &  Co.,  Riverside,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. — Speci¬ 
men  books  illustrated.  Bronze  medal. 

Illinois,  State  of. — Reports  of  the  State  Geologist,  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  Adjutant  General,  State  Agricultural  Society, 
Chicago  Board  of  Trade,  &c. 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


CLASS  VII,  VIII.] 


259 


Kneass,  N.  B.,  Jr.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Books  for  the  use  of 
the  blind. 

The  exhibitor  of  these  books  is  blind,  and  a  graduate  of  the  Institution 

of  Teachers  in  Pennsylvania. 

Merriam,  G.  &  C.,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. — Specimens  of  book 
printing.  Bronze  medal. 

Missouri,  State  of. — Books;  in  the  Farmer’s  Cottage,  Park. 

National  Bank  Note  Company. — Samples  of  bank  note  engraving 
and  printing. 

Prang  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Chromo-lithographs;  in  the 
Restaurant. 

State  Agricultural  Society  of  California. — Reports  and  Trans¬ 
actions  ;  several  sets  distributed  through  the  Commissioner,  but  not 
on  exhibition  except  in  the  American  Farm-house. 

Many  copies  of  these  publications  were  distributed  by  exchange  with 

those  most  interested  in  these  subjects. 


CLASS  7.— PAPER,  STATIONERY,  BOOK-BINDING,  PAINTING,  AND  DRAWING 

MATERIALS. 

American  Lead  Pencil  Company,  New  York. — Samples  of  lead  pen¬ 
cils.  Bronze  medal. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Office  card  rack;  in  the  Bakery, 
Park. 

Day,  Austin  G.,  Seymour,  Connecticut. — Ordinary  and  indelible  pencils 
in  hard  rubber  cases.  Bronze  medal. 

Fairchild,  L.  W.,  &  Co.,  New  York. — Gold  pens;  pen  and  pencil  cases. 
Bronze  medal. 

Forman,  J.  C.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. — Specimens  of  work  executed  on  the 
American  Circular  Border  Ruling  machine. 

Jessup  &  Moore,  27  North  Sixth  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 
Specimens  of  paper  made  from  wood,  straw,  and  hemp.  Bronze 
medal. 

Matthews,  W.,  New  York. — Specimen  of  binding;  the  Colt  u  Memorial.” 

Murphy’s,  W.  F.,  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Samples  of  blank 
books.  Bronze  medal. 

Noonan  &  McNab,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. — Specimens  of  writing  paper. 

Northampton  Indelible  Pencil  Company,  Northampton,  Massachu¬ 
setts. — Indelible  pencils  for  marking  linens. 

Pierce,  T.  N.,  &  Co.,  427  North  Eleventh  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. — Slates. 

San  Lorenzo  Mills,  San  Lorenzo,  California. — Paper. 

Secombe  Manufacturing  Company,  264  Broadway,  New  York. — 
Holt’s  improved  ribbon  hand  stamps.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  8.— SPECIMENS  OF  DESIGN  AND  PLASTIC  MOULDING  APPLIED  IN 

THE  ORDINARY  ARTS. 

Rogers,  J.,  New  York. — Three  groups  of  statuettes. 


260 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  n. 


CLASS  9.— PROOFS  AND  APPARATUS  OF  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Beer,  Sigismund,  481  Broadway,  New  York. — Stereoscopic  views. 
Bronze  medal. 

Draper  &  Husted,  Bidge  avenue  and  Wallace  street,  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania. — Photographs. 

Gardner,  A.,  Washington,  D.  C. — Photographs. 

Gutekunst,  F.,  704  Arch  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Photo¬ 
graphs. 

Lawrence  &  Houseworth,  San  Francisco,  California. — Photographic 
and  stereoscopic  views,  comprising  22  large  photographs  of  the  Yose- 
mite  valley,  California;  4  of  the  mammoth  trees;  21  stereoscopic 
views  of  the  Yosemite  valley ;  33  of  the  mammoth  trees ;  40  of  San 
Francisco ;  17  illustrating  the  art  of  hydraulic  mining ;  43  of  placer 
mining ;  158  of  scenery  in  California,  and  29  in  Nevada. 

At  the  close  of  the  Exposition,  these  views  were  donated  by  the  exhibi¬ 
tors,  through  the  commissioner  from  the  State  of  California,  to  various 
public  societies  and  institutions,  including  the  Photographic  Society  of 
Paris,  the  J ardin  des  Plantes,  the  Geological  Society  of  France,  and  the 
British  Museum. 

Morvan,  A.  G.,  (Heliotype  Company,)  90  Fulton  street,  New  York. — 
Photographic  engraving. 

Butherford,  L.  M.,  New  York. — Photograx>hs  of  the  moon  and  solar 
spectrum. 

A  remarkably  large  and  fine  photograph  of  the  moon’s  surface,  and 
another  of  the  solar  spectrum  showing  the  dark  lines  with  great  distinct¬ 
ness.  A  silver  medal  was  awarded  to  Mr.  Butherford. 

Vischer,  Edward,  San  Francisco,  California. — Six  photographic 
albums,  containing  views  of  California  and  Washoe. 

The  contributions  of  this  exhibitor  were  duly  invoiced  and  shipped 
from  San  Francisco,  but  failed  to  reach  the  exhibition,  having  been  lost 
or  mislaid  in  the  transit. 

Watkins,  C.  E.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Photographic  views  of  Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Being  a  complete  set,  30  or  more,  of  the  celebrated  views  of  the  Yose¬ 
mite  valley  and  of  the  great  trees  of  Mariposa  county.  These  views  are 
of  large  size,  and  were  sent  by  the  exhibitor  framed  in  passe  partout  and 
ready  to  hang.  The  views  of  the  Mariposa  trees  were  framed  in  the 
wood  of  the  trees  appropriately  carved.  These  photographs  attracted 
much  attention,  and  the  jury  awarded  a  bronze  medal. 

Willard  &  Co.,  684  Broadway,  New  York. — Photographic  camera 
tubes  and  lenses.  Honorable  mention. 

Williamson,  C.  H.,  245  Fulton  street,  Brooklyn,  New  York. — Photo¬ 
graphs. 


CLASS  X.  ] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


261 


CLASS  10.— MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

Chickering  &  Sons,  New  York  and  Boston. — Pianos.  Gold  medal. 

(See  a  notice  at  the  end  of  this  class.) 

Gemunder,  George,  174  East  Ninth  street,  New  York. — Stringed 
instruments.  Bronze  medal. 

Lindemann  &  Sons,  2  Leroy  place,  New  York. — Cycloid  piano.  (See 
a  notice  at  the  end  of  this  class.) 

Mason  &  Hamlin,  596  Broadway,  New  York;  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
Boston,  Massachusetts. — Cabinet  organs.  Silver  medal. 
Metzerott,  W.  G.,  &  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. — Wind  instruments. 
Schreiber  Cornet  Manufacturing  Company,  99  Houston  street, 
New  York. — Wind  instruments  of  brass  and  German  silver.  Bronze 
medal. 

Stein  way  &  Sons,  New  York. — Pianos.  Gold  medal.  (See  a  notice 
at  the  end  of  this  class.) 

Wright,  E.  G.,  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Wind  instruments  of 
brass  and  German  silver. 

Zimmermann,  C.  F.,  238  North  Second  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. — Accordeons. 

NOTICE  OF  THE  PIANOS  EXHIBITED  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  piano  manufacturers  of  the  United  States  may  justly  claim  to 
have  gained  and  preserved  the  first  reputation  in  the  world.  The  princi¬ 
pal  feature  upon  which  that  reputation  is  founded  is  the  introduction  of 
the  iron  instead  of  the  wooden  frame,  an  improvement  which  has  necessi¬ 
tated  and  been  followed  by  various  others. 

Until  the  third  decade  of  the  present  century  only  European  instru¬ 
ments  found  a  ready  market  in  America.  It  was  soon  found,  however, 
that  no  wooden  framed  piano  could  long  resist  the  extraordinary  climatic 
changes  of  the  country  without  requiring  almost  constant  tuning  and 
repairs. 

In  the  Exhibition  of  1867,  two  firms  more  especially  dispute  the  palm 
of  pre-eminence — Messrs.  Steinway  &  Sons,  of  New  York,  and  Messrs. 
Cliickering  &  Sons,  of  New  York  and  Boston.  The  jury  readily  acknow¬ 
ledged  the  remarkable  qualities  of  the  pianos  of  these  two  houses,  and, 
pronouncing  them  both  first-class  products,  gave  equal  awards  to  each, 
and  the  highest  in  its  gift,  viz :  the  gold  medal. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Emperor  Mr.  C.  F.  Chickering  was  created  Chevalier 
of  the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

Each  of  these  firms  has,  from  time  to  time,  taken  out  patents  for  improve¬ 
ments.  Mr.  Chickering  claims  to  be  the  sole  inventor  of  the  circular  scale, 
and  to  have  made  many  other  improvements  which  have  been  rendered 
necessary  from  time  to  time  by  the  development  of  musical  science. 

Messrs.  Steinway  &  Sons  claim  the  application  of  various  important 
improvements  necessary  for  avoiding  the  thin  and  disagreeably  nasal 
18  u  E 


262 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  II. 


character  of  tone  at  first  possessed  by  the  iron  frame,  and  for  supplying 
that  solidity  of  construction  which  the  gradual  extension  of  the  musical 
capabilities  of  the  piano  rendered  necessary.  They  claim  also  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  over-stringing  as  well  as  the  adoption  of  agraffes.  It  will  not 
be  presumed  in  this  notice  to  judge  of  the  respective  merits  of  the 
improvements  or  the  claims  as  to  priority  of  the  inventions  of  either 
party,  or  to  attempt  a  technical  particularization  of  them,  but  it  may  be 
said  that  the  pianos  of  Messrs.  Chickering  &  Sons  and  of  Messrs.  Stein¬ 
way  &  Sons,  not  forgetting  the  beautiful  cycloid  instrument  manufactured 
and  exhibited  by  Messrs.  Lindemann  &  Sons,  are  unrivalled,  and  that  while 
these  instruments  have  a  solidity  of  construction  which  withstands  the 
deleterious  influence  of  any  climate,  their  depth,  volume,  power  and  deli¬ 
cacy  of  tone  are  fully  equal  to  all  that  can  be  required. 

CLASS  11. -MEDICAL  AND  SURGICAL  INSTRUMENTS  AND  APPARATUS. 

Abbey,  Charles,  &  Sons,  230  Pear  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 
Dentist’s  gold  foil.  Bronze  medal. 

The  exhibition  made  by  this  firm  sustains  the  well-deserved  reputation 
of  their  manufacture.  This  gold  foil  has  all  the  essential  requisites  for 
filling  teeth,  whether  it  is  to  be  used  in  its  ordinary  state,  or  is  to  be 
rendered  adhesive  by  heating.  It  has  great  tenacity,  coherence,  and 
ductility,  and  is  uniform  in  its  thickness. 

Allen,  John,  &  Son,  22  Bond  street,  New  York. — Artificial  teeth.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

The  pieces  of  continuous  gums  shown  by  the  Messrs.  Allen  are  very 
beautiful,  and  are  striking  imitations  of  nature,  but  being  placed  upon 
platinum  plates  they  are  rather  heavy  for  comfort  in  using. 

Barnes,  J.  K.,  Surgeon  General  United  States  army,  Washington,  D.  C. — 
Plans  of  field  hospitals,  surgical  instruments,  and  hospital  appa¬ 
ratus  of  the  United  States  army.  In  the  Annex,  ambulance,  medi¬ 
cine  wagon  ;  in  the  Park,  hospital  tent  and  furniture.  Silver  medal. 
Bates,  K.,  730  South  Eighth  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Instru¬ 
ments  to  cure  stammering.  Honorable  mention. 

This  extraordinary  invention  consists  of  a  metallic  tube  which  by  a  sim¬ 
ple  arrangement  can  be  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth,  thus  pre¬ 
venting  the  adhesion  of  the  tongue,  and  allowing  the  air  to  pass.  This  is 
intended  to  assist  in  enunciating  the  lingual  letters.  For  the  labials  another 
tube  is  provided,  and  prevents  the  lips  closing  against  each  other  by  ner¬ 
vous  contractions.  For  the  gutturals  a  small  band  is  supplied  with  a 
screw,  by  which  a  small  plate  can  be  forced  against  the  glottis  so  as  to  keep 
it  open,  and  give  passage  to  the  sounds  produced  by  it.  The  neck  band 
is  made  of  silk  or  satin,  and  has  the  appearance  of  an  ordinary  cravat. 
Beals,  J.  H.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Improved  corset. 

Cummings,  William,  &  Son,  New  York. — Model  of  a  hospital  car. 
Bronze  medal  ;  in  the  international  sanitary  department.  (See  notice 
at  the  end  of  this  catalogue.) 


CLASS  XI.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


263 


Crandall,  L.,  &  Son,  470  Grand  street,  New  York. — Crutches. 

Davis,  T.  J.,  04  East  Fifteenth  street,  New  York. — Artificial  eyes. 
Firmenich,  J.,  7  Arcade  building,  Buffalo,  New  York. — Dermic  instru¬ 
ments  for  cauterization. 

Howard,  Dr.  Benjamin,  New  York. — Ambulance  and  relief  material. 
Honorable  mention ;  in  the  international  sanitary  collection.  (No¬ 
ticed  at  the  end  of  this  catalogue.) 

Hudson,  Dr.  E.  D.,  New  York. — Artificial  limbs.  A  bronze  medal  was 
awarded. 

This  exhibition  was  made  in  the  international  sanitary  collection,  and 
is  noticed  at  the  end  of  the  catalogue. 

Johnson  &  Lund,  27  North  Seventh  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylva¬ 
nia. — Artificial  teeth.  Bronze  medal. 

Lincoln,  M.,  19  Green  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Artificial  arms. 
Marks,  A.  A.,  575  Broadway,  New  York. — Artificial  legs. 

Moody,  Mrs.  S.  A.,  12  East  Sixteenth  street,  New  York. — Abdominal 
corsets. 

Moore,  J.  G.,  New  Holland,  Pennsylvania. — Illustrations  of  teeth  filling. 
Perot,  T.  Morris,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Medicine  wagon. — 
Honorable  mention ;  in  the  international  sanitary  department.  (No¬ 
ticed  at  the  end  of  this  catalogue.) 

Scott,  J.,  Ocala,  Florida. — Improved  trusses. 

Selpho,  William,  &  Son,  516  Broadway,  New  York. — Artificial  limbs. 
Honorable  mention. 

Stockton,  Samuel  W.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Mineral  teeth, 
with  porcelain  pivots  and  new  system  of  transverse  holes.  Honor¬ 
able  mention. 

Taylor,  Charles  F.,  159  Fifth  avenue,  New  York. — Therapeutic  appa¬ 
ratus.  Honorable  mention. 

Tiemann,  George,  &  Co.,  New  York. — Surgical  instruments.  A  silver 
medal  was  awarded  to  Mr.  George  Tiemann  as  co-operator. 

Ustick,  S.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Model  of  an  apparatus  for 
invalids. 

Weston,  J.  W.,  706  Broadway,  New  York. — Artificial  leg. 

White,  Samuel  S.,  528  Arch  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 
Dentist’s  furniture  and  instruments.  Artificial  teeth.  Gold  medal. 

The  teeth  exhibited  by  Mr.  White  are  of  superior  quality,  and  are  re¬ 
markable  imitations  of  natural  teeth.  Their  smooth  surface,  semi-opaque 
and  enamelled,  has  not  that  appearance  of  vitrification  so  disagreeable  in 
most  artificial  teeth.  Their  forms  are  excellent,  preserving  not  only  the 
distinctive  characters  of  the  different  teeth  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaw, 
but  also  of  the  right  and  left  side  of  the  mouth.  Their  tint  is  a  mixture  ot 
brown  and  yellow  at  the  base,  and  a  bright  and  clear  enamel  on  the 
sharp  part  of  the  tooth.  They  are  light  and  yet  solid  and  strong. 

The  “  block-teeth,”  with  porcelain  gums,  also  exhibited,  are  made 


264 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  II. 


different  sizes,  so  that  any  mouth  may  he  fitted.  Those  intended  for 
mounting  in  hardened  caoutchouc  have  a  pivot,  with  an  expanded  head, 
which  prevents  the  teeth  being  pulled  away  from  the  base. 

Among  the  other  objects  is  a  case  of  dental  instruments  containing 
excellent  forceps  and  a  variety  of  other  articles.  All  of  these  instru¬ 
ments  are  elaborate  and  ingenious,  but  they  are  injured  by  an  excess  of 
luxurious  ornamentation  which  is  misplaced,  for  surely  it  is  unnecessary 
and  undesirable  to  encumber  instruments  intended  for  constant  use  with 
fine  stones  and  other  ornaments. 

The  gold  foil  and  spongy  gold  exhibited  are  excellent.  The  gold  medal 
awarded  to  Mr.  White  is  only  a  just  recompense  for  the  excellent  sendees 
rendered  to  the  dental  art  by  his  house,  which  employs  a  large  number 
of  operatives,  and  lias  more  than  300  agents  in  the  United  States  and 
Europe. 

CLASS  12.— INSTRUMENTS  OF  PRECISION  AND  APPARATUS  FOR  INSTRUC¬ 
TION  IN  SCIENCES. 

Barlow,  Milton,  Richmond,  Kentucky. — Planetarium.  Bronze  medal. 
Bond,  William,  &  Son,  17  Congress  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 
Astronomical  clock,  chronograph  and  chronometer.  Silver  medal. 
Clum,  H.  A.,  Rochester,  New  York. — Aelloscope. 

Cochrane,  James,  64  West  Tenth  street,  New  York. — Apparatus  for 
measuring  water  under  pressure. 

Davidson,  George,  United  States  Coast  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. — 
Improved  sextant.  Honorable  mention. 

Darling,  Brown  &  Sharpe,  Providence,  Rhode  Island. — Graduated 
rules,  squares,  gauges,  scales,  &c.  Silver  medal. 

Edson,  William,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Hygrodeik  for -indicating  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  Honorable  mention. 

Morse,  S.  E.,  &  G.  L.  Harrisson,  New  Jersey. — Bathometer j  an  instru¬ 
ment  for  measuring  the  depth  of  water. 

Tolles  R.  F.,  Canastota,  New  York. — Microscope  and  telescope  glasses ; 

eyepieces  and  telescope.  Silver  medal. 

Wales,  William,  Port  Lee,  New  Jersey. — Microscopic  object  glasses. 
Silver  medal. 

CLASS  13.— GEOGRAPHY,  COSMOGRAPHY,  APPARATUS,  MAPS,  CHARTS,  ETC. 

Bache,  A.  D.,  Hydrographic  Bureau,  superintendent  of  the  United  States 
Coast  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C. — (Out  of  competition.) — Nautical 
charts  and  apparatus,  deep-sea  thermometers,  gauging  instruments. 
Johnson,  A.  J.,  113  Fulton  street,  New  York. — New  illustrated  Family 
Atlas.  Bronze  medal. 

Joslin,  G.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Terrestrial  globe. 

Knight,  E.  H.,  Washington,  D.  C. — War  map  of  the  United  States. 
Tillmann,  S.  D.,  12  Clinton  place,  New  York. — Tonometer.  New  system 
of  chemical  nomenclature. 


CLASS  XIV,  XV.1  ’  UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  265 

Schedler,  Joseph,  Hudson  City,  New  Jersey. — Terrestrial  globes. 
Bronze  medal. 

Smith,  S.,  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Counting-room  desk ;  in  Mr. 
Bacon’s  bakery  in  the  Park. 

Ustick,  S.,  108  Fourth  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Water 
cooler. 


GROUP  III. 

FURNITURE  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS  USED  IN  DWELLINGS. 

CLASS  14.— FURNITURE. 

Boston  Chair  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Rocking-chair  on  a 
new  plan. 

Boyd,  John  D.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Door  of  California  wood. 

This  door  was  a  superb  piece  of  workmanship,  being  most  highly 
finished  and  polished  so  as  to  bring  out  the  beautiful  natural  grain  of 
the  wood  of  the  Madona  or  California  laurel  used  in  its  construction. 
This  wood  has  a  yellowish  color  like  satin  wood,  but  is  remarkable  for 
the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  stained  so  as  to  look  like  black  walnut, 
mahogany,  or  rosewood. 

Butler,  J.  L.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Sofa-bedstead;  in  the  Annex  in  the 
Park. 

English  &  Merrick,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Folding  chairs. 
Glass,  Peter,  Barton,  Wisconsin. — Mosaic  tables  and  table  top.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

These  tables  are  said  to  contain  no  less  than  96,321  pieces  of  wood. 

Phelan  &  CoLlender,  63  to  69  Crosby  street,  New  York. — Billiard  table. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  cushions  of  this  table  combine  elasticity  and  cor¬ 
rectness  in  the  highest  possible  degree.  The  lowness  of  the  cushion 
also  compared  with  the  ball  affords  the  player  unusual  advantages  in 
regard  to  the  facility  and  accuracy  of  the  stroke,  advantages  unattainable 
except  by  the  present  improved  method  of  constructing  the  cushions. 
With  the  ordinary  construction  a  low  cushion  causes  the  ball  to  “jump.” 

Robinson,  D.  T.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Model  of  an  extension  dining 
table ;  in  M.  Bacon’s  bakery  in  the  Park. 

CLASS  15.— UPHOLSTERY  AND  DECORATIVE  WORK. 

Shuster,  John,  133  Court  street,  Brooklyn,  New  York. — Chimney  pieces 
of  American  marbles. 

Three  beautiful  mantles,  one  of  Tennessee  marble,  one  of  white  marble 
from  Vermont,  and  the  other  of  the  beautiful  stalagmitic  marble  from 
Suisun,  California. 

Boyd,  John  D.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Ornamental  door  *of  Cali¬ 
fornia  wood.  (See  Class  14.) 


266 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


rGROUP  III. 


CLASS  16.— FLINT  AND  OTHER  GLASS,  STAINED  GLASS. 

Boston  Silver  Glass  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Silvered 
glass  table  ware ;  in  the  Restaurant. 

Jones,  Thomas,  Centre  and  Franklin  street,  New  York. — Window  sasli 
of  cut  and  ground  glass,  colored  sidelights. 

Lyon,  James  B.,  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Pressed  glassware. 
Bronze  medal. 

Pacific  Glass  Works,  J.  Taylor,  president,  San  Francisco,  California. — 
Glass  bottles  of  various  forms  and  colors  designed  for  wines,  pre¬ 
serves,  pickles,  sauces,  &c.,  manufactured  in  California  from  sand 
obtained  upon  the  bay  of  Monterey. 

These  samples,  which  compared  favorably  with  any  in  the  Exhibition, 

were  donated,  at  the  close,  to  the  museum  at  Sevres. 

Schwitter,  Anthon,  177  Broadway,  New  York. — Glassware  engraved 
by  a  mechanical  process. 

CLASS  17.— PORCELAIN,  FAIENCE,  AND  OTHER  POTTERIES. 

Boch,  William,  Bochtown,  Newtown,  New  York. — Porcelain  ware. 

Ramsay,  G.  M.,  23  Courtlandt  street,  New  York. — Air-tight  jars  for  pre¬ 
serving  purposes,  &c. 

CLASS  18.— CARPETS,  HANGINGS,  AND  OTHER  FURNITURE  TISSUES. 

Chipman,  George  W.,  &  Co.,  119  Milk  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 
Carpet  lining.  Honorable  mention. 

Townsend,  Wisner  H.,  20  Reade  street,  New  York.— Samples  of  oil¬ 
cloth.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  19.— PAPER  HANGINGS. 

Bigelow,  J.  R.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Paper-hangings. 

Christy,  Constant  &  Co.,  New  York. — Paper-hangings. 

Graves,  R.,  &  Co.,  New  York. — Paper-hangings. 

Howell  &  Brother,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Paper-hangings. 
Honorable  mention. 


CLASS  20.— CUTLERY. 

Biggs,  C.,  57  Beekman  street,  New  York. — Pocket  cutlery  from  the  man¬ 
ufactory  of  Booth  Brothers,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 

Shaver,  A.  G.,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Erasers  and  pencil-sharp¬ 
eners. 

CLASS  21  —GOLD  AND  SILVER  PLATE. 

Meriden  Britannia  Company,  West  Meriden,  Connecticut. — Plated 
table  ware ;  in  the  Restaurant. 

Tiffany  &  Co.,  550  and  552  Broadway,  New  York. — Ornamental  plate 
and  silver-ware  in  various  styles  of  chasing;  reduction  of  the 
“  America”  of  Crawford,  decorating  the  cupola  of  the  Capitol  at 
Washington;  models  of  the  steamers  “Commonwealth”  and  “Van¬ 
derbilt.  ”  Bronze  medal. 


CLASS  XXII-XXIV.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


267 


Tlie  hull  of  the  model  of  the  Vanderbilt  is  fashioned  in  frosted  or 
dead  silver,  with  a  burnished  streak  or  gunwale.  The  paddles  are  of 
burnished  silver,  tipped  with  gold;  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  funnels 
are  of  gold;  the  deck  is  formed  of  polished  silver;  the  quarter  boats  of 
gold.  The  just  proportion  of  every  part  is  preserved  in  the  model,  and 
every  detail,  even  of  the  minute  parts,  has  been  carefully  wrought  in  silver 
or  gold. 

CLASS  22.— ARTISTIC  BRONZES,  ARTISTIC  CASTINGS  OF  VARIOUS  KINDS, 
AND  CHASED  METAL  ORNAMENTS. 

Tucker,  Hiram,  &  Co.,  59  John  street,  New  York. — Iron  ornaments 
bronzed  by  new  process.  Silver  medal. 

These  objects,  consisting  of  clock  stands,  vases,  lamps,  chandeliers, 
brackets,  &c.,  were  much  admired. 

CLASS  23.— CLOCKS  AND  CLOCK  WORKS. 

New  Haven  Clock  Company,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Clocks.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

Fournier,  S.,  60  Royal  street,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Clocks  and 
clock  works.  Silver  medal. 

•  This  exhibition  consisted  of  several  large  and  accurately  made  clocks 
for  churches  and  public  buildings.  They  were  set  up  and  running  during 
the  Exhibition,  and  the  works  were  in  full  view  in  an  alcove  or  enclosed 
space  reserved  for  them. 

CLASS  24.— APPARATUS  AND  METHODS  OF  WARMING  AND  LIGHTING. 

Beidler,  J.  H.,  Lincoln,  Illinois. — Hydro-caloric  light. 

Clogston,  T.  S.,  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Steam  radiator  for  heat¬ 
ing  buildings. 

Gouges  Ventilating  Company,  254  Broadway,  New  York. — Atmos¬ 
pheric  ventilator. 

Haskins,  D.  G.,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. — Gas  furnace. 

Ives,  J.,  &  Co.,  18  Beekman  street,  New  York. — Kerosene  and  petro¬ 
leum  lamps  and  chandeliers. 

Markland,  T.  J.,  835  Ellsworth  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylania. — Coal 
scuttle. 

Mueller,  J.  U.,  Detroit,  Michigan. — Improved  stove  handles. 

O’Neil,  A.,  Portsmouth,  Ohio. — Sheet  metal  stove  boiler. 

Pease,  F.  S.,  Buffalo,  New  York. — Gas  apparatus. 

Pratt  &  Wentworth,  89  North  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Cook¬ 
ing  stove  and  utensils.  Bronze  medal. 

Tucker,  H.,  &  Co.,  59  John  street,  New  York. — Lamps  and  chandeliers. 
Ustick,  S.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Model  of  an  improved  street 
lamp. 

Whitely,  Edward,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Cooking  range  and  appa¬ 
ratus,  in  the  American  restaurant. 


268 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  IV. 


CLASS  25.— PERFUMERY. 

Tallman  &  Collins,  Janesville,  Wisconsin. — Perfumery.  Honorable 
mention. 

Wright,  R.  &  G.  A.,  624  Chestnut  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — 
Toilet  soap  and  perfumery.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  26.— FANCY  ARTICLES,  TOYS,  BASKET  WORK. 

Bloodgood,  Annie  De  Etta,  127  Ninth  avenue,  New  York. — Wax 
flowers. 

Hauxhurst,  Caroline,  Rahway,  New  Jersey. — Ornaments  of  skele¬ 
ton  leaves. 

Kaldenberg  &  Son,  New  York. — Meerschaum  pipes.  Honorable  men¬ 
tion. 

Laohaume,  J.,  163  Prince  street,  New  York. — Rustic  work,  baskets, 
stands,  &c. 

Macdaniel,  Miss  F.,  New  York. — Natural  flowers  with  color  preserved. 

Smith,  Mde.  E.  W.,  West  Medford,  Massachusetts. — Wax  flowers,  fruits, 
&c. 


GROUP  IV. 

CLOTHING,  (INCLUDING  TISSUES,)  AND  OTHER  OBJECTS 
WORN  ON  THE  PERSON. 

CLASS  27.— COTTON  YARN,  THREADS  AND  TISSUES  OF  COTTON. 

Bell  Factory,  Huntsville,  Alabama. — Cotton  fabrics.  Honorable  men¬ 
tion. 

Clark  Thread  Company,  G.  A.  Clark,  treasurer,  Newark,  New  Jersey. — 
Cotton  and  cotton  yarns.  Silver  medal. 

.  Groll  &  Grubbs,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Cotton  batting. 

Hadley  Company,  Holyoke,  Massachusetts. — Spool  cotton.  Bronze 
medal. 

New  York  Mills,  Walcott  &  Campbell,  57  Worth  street,  New  York. — 
Fine  muslins.  Silver  medal. 

Slater,  S.,  &  Son,  Webster  Woollen  Mills,  Webster,  Massachusetts. — 
Jaconets  and  cotton  fabrics.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  28.— YARN  AND  TISSUES  OF  LINEN,  HEMP,  ETC. 

Harvey,  W.,  84  Maiden  Lane,  New  York. — Flax,  hemp,  cotton,  linen, 
and  paper  twine  and  cordage. 

Hall  Manufacturing  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Cordage 
made  on  Bazin’s  twisting  machine. 

CLASS  29.— COMBED_WOOL  AND  WORSTED  YARNS  AND  FABRICS. 

(No  exhibitors.) 


CLASS  XXX,  XXXI.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


269 


CLASS  30.— YARN  AND  TISSUES  OF  CARDED  WOOL. 

Hayes,  John  L.,  secretary  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers, 
75  Summer  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Series  of  woollen  fabrics, 
manufactured  by  the  Washington  Mills,  situated  in  Lawrence,  Massa¬ 
chusetts.  Silver  medal. 

None  of  the  pieces  exhibited  were  made  expressly  for  the  exhibition, 
but  were  specimens  of  the  daily  products  of  the  establishment.  They 
were  forwarded  with  a  statement  that  they  were  intended  to  show  the 
average  styles  and  quality  of  the  woollen  goods  then  being  made  in  the 
United  States.  To  each  sample  a  card  was  affixed  showing  the  selling 
price  in  the  United  States.  The  goods  exhibited  consisted  of  eight  varieties 
of  shawls ;  carriage  rugs ;  one  piece  of  each  of  the  following  goods :  fancy 
shirting,  Nevada  plaid,  Italian  cloth,  American  poplin,  blue  Esquimaux 
coating,  black  doeskin,  tricot,  Moscow  beaver,  diagonal  coating,  A.  W. 
braid,  Union  broad  beaver,  Jansen  silk  mixture,  blue,  black  and  white 
silk  mixture,  Paris  indigo  blue  coating,  extra  blue  Washington  coating, 
repellant  cloaking,  fancy  cassimere  ;  and  three  pieces  of  each  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  :  sackings,  mixed  Scotch  tweed. 

Klauder,  1L,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Dyed  and  printed  zephyr. 
Mission  Woollen  Mills,  San  Francisco,  California,  D.  McLennan,  super¬ 
intendent;  Lazard  Freres,  agent. — Woollen  goods,  comprising  a  large 
assortment  of  blankets,  travelling  shawls,  cassimeres  and  flannels,  all 
made  from  pure  California  wool  at  the  company’s  mills  at  the  Mission, 
San  Francisco. 

The  blankets  exhibited  were  remarkably  fine  and  soft,  of  large  size, 
and  unrivalled  in  quality.  The  assortment  contained  blankets  for  family 
use,  for  miners,  for  the  army,  and  for  Indians.  The  family  blankets  were 
86  by  94  inches  in  size,  and  weighed  from  10  to  11 J  pounds  each.  The 
miners’  blankets  were  62  by  84  inches,  and  weighed  from  9J  to  10  J  pounds 
each.  Those  for  the  army  were  66  by  89  inches,  and  weighed  6  pounds 
each. 

The  cassimeres  were  mixed,  plaid,  and  plain;  and  the  flannels  were 
both  plain  and  colored.  The  collection  contained  a  sample  of  the  peculiar 
shaggy  blanketing  used  in  sluices  by  miners  to  catch  and  hold  the  fine 
particles  of  gold  and  sulphurets  of  iron  flowing  from  stamp-batteries.  A 
bronze  medal  was  awarded  for  this  display. 

Shields,  J.,  Davenport,  Iowa. — Woollen  goods. 

Slater,  S.,  &  Son,  Slater  Woollen  Mills,  Webster,  Massachusetts. — 
W oollen  fabrics,  broadcloths,  doeskins,  castors  and  moskowa.  Silver 
medal. 

Stursberg,  H.,  97  Reade  street,  New  York. — Beaver  cloth.  Bronze 
medal. 

CLASS  31. -SILK  AND  TISSUES  OF  SILK. 

Williams  Silk  Manufacturing  Company,  469  Broadway,  New  York. — 
Silk  twist  for  sewing  machines.  Honorable  mention. 


270 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  IV. 


CLASS  32.— SHAWLS,  ETC. 

The  Washington  Mills,  Lawrence,  Massachusetts. — Shawls.  Honor¬ 
able  mention. 

Torrence,  Mrs.  J.  S.,  Ill  Broadway,  New  York. — Worsted  Affghan. 

CLASS  34.— HOSIERY,  UNDER-CLOTHING,  AND  MINOR  ARTICLES. 

Cohn,  M.,  147  Chambers  street,  New  York. — Crinolines  of  various  descrip¬ 
tions. 

Moody,  S.  N.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Two  dress  shirts. 

Mount  City  Paper  Collar  Company,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Paper 
collars. 

Sachse,  F.,  &  Sons,  Pine  street,  Philadelphia. — Dress  shirts.  Bronze 
medal. 

CLASS  35.— CLOTHING  FOR  MEN,  WOMEN,  AND  CHILDREN. 
Bouvet,  J.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Hats. 

Burt,  E.  C.,  27  Park  Bow,  New  York. — Machine-sewed  boots  and  shoes. 
Silver  medal. 

Demorest,  Mrs.  Ellen,  Broadway,  New  York. — Corsets,  patterns,  &c. 
Felmeden,  J.  K.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana, — Boots  and  shoes  made  from 
alligator  leather. 

Linthicum,  W.  O.,  726  Broadway,  New  York. — Spring  overcoat.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

Nicely,  H.  C.,  34  West  Baltimore  street,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Hats 
and  caps. 

Pacalin,  O.,  3  Amity  Place,  New  York.  Metallic  sole  fastening  for  boots. 
Whitney  Brothers  &  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Boots. 

Windle  &  Co.,  New  York. — Boots  and  shoes  with  wooden  soles  and 
heels,  and  flexible  shanks. 

Zallee,  John  C.,  110  Olive  street,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Frock  coat, 
black  doeskin  pantaloons,  and  silk  vest.  Honorable  mention. 

CLASS  36.— JEWELRY  AND  ORNAMENTS. 

(No  exhibitors.) 

CLASS  37.— PORTABLE  ARMS. 

Arm  Manufacturing  Industry  of  the  United  States. 

It  was  found  so  difficult  to  decide  upon  the  relative  merits  of  the  porta 
ble  fire-arms  exhibited  in  the  American  section,  and  their  superiority 
was  recognized  as  so  indisputable,  that  the  international  jury,  as  a  com¬ 
pliment,  and  at  the  same  time  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  what  might 
be  construed  as  an  invidious  distinction,  voted  a  gold  medal  to  u  The 
Arm  Manufacturing  Industry  of  the  United  States.” 

Berdan,  Colonel  H.,  30  Bond  street,  New  York. — Breech-loading  rifle. 
Bonzano,  A.,  Detroit,  Michigan. — Cannon-muzzle  spikers. 


CLASS  XXXVII.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


271 


Colt’s  Fire-arms  Manufacturing  Company,  Hartford,  Connecticut, — 
Colt’s  fire-arms ;  a  Gatling  gun.  Silver  medal.  (See  Gatling  gun.) 
Ferriss,  G.  H.,  Utica,  New  York. — Wrought-iron  breech-loading  rifled 
cannon ;  target  perforated  by  it. 

Gatling,  B.  J.,  Indianapolis,  Indiana. — Improved  battery  gun. 

This  is  a  breech-loading  repeating  gun,  in  which  all  the  operations  of 
loading,  firing,  and  getting  rid  of  the  debris  of  the  case  of  the  cartridge  are 
preformed  by  a  simple  rotary  movement.  It  is  fed  with  metallic  cartridges, 
each  of  the  largest  containing  15  musket  balls  and  one  conical  ball,  thus 
throwing  16  projectiles  at  every  discharge.  Twenty  discharges  can  be 
made  in  eight  seconds.  Among  other  advantages  may  be  mentioned  the 
absence  of  any  gas  escaping  by  the  breech ;  no  recoil  tending  to  divert 
the  aim ;  great  accuracy  of  aim,  and  rapidity  of  firing ;  and,  lastly,  light¬ 
ness.  This  gun  was  exhibited  by  the  Colt  Fire-arms  Manufacturing 
Company,  and  a  silver  medal  was  awarded  to  this  company  for  its  manu¬ 
factures. 

Jenks,  A.,  &  Son,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Fire-arms,  and  parts  of 
same  manufactured  by  machinery. 

Missouri,  State  of. — Indian  weapons,  curiosities  &c. 

Providence  Tool  Company,  J.  B.  Anthony,  president,  Providence, 
Bhode  Island. — Peabody’s  breech-loading  fire-arms.  Silver  medal. 
Bemington,  E.,  &  Son,  Ilion,  New  York. — Breech-loading  fire-arms. 
Silver  medal. 

Boberts,  General  B.  F.,  Washington,  D.  C. — Breech-loading  rifle. 

Description :  calibre,  .58  inch ;  distance  from  muzzle  to  face  of  breecli- 
lock,  when  closed,  37  inches;  length  of  chamber,  1.25  inch.  The  chamber 
has  a  uniform  taper  for  its  entire  length ;  maximum  diameter,  .64  inch, 
minimum  diameter,  .58  inch ;  receiver,  2  inches  in  length ;  breech  block, 
.75  inch  wide.  Breech-block  and  all  its  appendages  assembled  from  one 
piece,  5  inches  in  length. 

The  musket  presented  is  of  the  United  States  u  Springfield”  pattern, 
made  by  machinery.  The  breech-loading  parts,  five  in  number,  were 
made  by  hand,  and  constitute  u  the  Boberts  breech-loading  attachment. 
The  first  piece  is  an  iron  breech  frame  or  receiver,  into  which  the  barrel, 
having  been  cut  off  at  proper  point,  is  firmly  screwed.  This  receiver  is 
imbedded  in  the  stock  in  the  place  of  the  old  breach  pin.  The  barrel  is 
cut  off  about  one  inch  in  front  of  the  cone,  and  a  male  screw  cut,  reach¬ 
ing  nearly  to  the  rear  sight  of  the  barrel.  The  breech  block  is  inserted 
through  this  receiver,  and  supported  against  the  rear  end  on  a  semi¬ 
circular  shoulder,  forming  the  back  of  receiver,  the  centre  around  which 
this  semi  circle  is  described  being  in  the  prolongation  of  the  axis  of  the 
barrel.  The  rear  of  the  breech  block  is  turned  to  fit  with  exactness  this 
semicircle,  and  is  played  around  it  as  a  fulcrum.  The  cheeks  of  the 
receiver  support  the  breech  block  laterally.  When  the  breech  block  is 
in  place  in  the  receiver  it  forms  a  curved  lever,  the  handle  projecting 


272 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  IV. 


backward,  and  it  then  is  moved  about  the  solid  abutment  of  the  receiver, 
instead  of  being  pivoted  by  any  system  of  points  or  pins,  thus  affording 
great  solidity  and  strength. 

The  forward  end  of  the  breech  block  has  a  semicircular  groove  cut  trans 
versely  through  it,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  a  corresponding  tenon 
formed  on  a  block  of  steel,  termed  the  recoil  plate.  The  front  face  of  this 
block  is  flat,  so  that  when  in  position  it  fits  squarely  against  the  vertical 
face  of  the  chamber  and  the  rear  end  of  the  cartridge  case.  A  small  space 
is  left  between  the  tenon  on  the  rear  of  this  block  and  the  front  surface  of 
the  breech  block  above  the  transverse  groove,  to  admit  of  a  slight  rock¬ 
ing  motion  of  recoil  plate,  so  that  it  will  descend  to  expose  the  breech 
of  the  barrel  and  admit  the  cartridge  into  the  chamber.  This  small  open 
space  permits  the  recoil  plate  to  descend  perpendicularly  when  the  rear 
of  the  lever  is  raised,  until  the  top  of  the  plate  passes  below  the  axis  of 
the  barrel,  after  which  it  swings  with  the  arc  of  the  circle  on  the  rear 
end  of  the  receiver.  When  the  rear  of  the  lever  is  raised  the  recoil  plate 
ascends  to  its  position  by  the  exact  reverse  motion,  up  to  the  axis  of  the 
barrel  on  a  circular  motion,  and  afterward  to  close  the  chamber,  ascend¬ 
ing  vertically  and  closing  squarely  against  the  head  of  the  cartridge 
case  and  the  vertical  face  of  the  chamber. 

The  firing  pin  is  located  on  the  right  side  of  the  breech  block,  and 
runs  through  both  this  block  and  the  recoil  plate,  directed  to  the  centre 
for  centre-fire  cartridges  and  grooved  into  the  sides  for  rim-fire  cartridges. 
It  s  so  set  on  a  shoulder  that  the  force  of  the  blow  of  the  hammer  can¬ 
not  drive  it  a  greater  distance  than  is  necessary  to  insure  fire. 

The  retractor  is  a  curved  lever,  fixed  on  the  left  side  of  the  chamber, 
with  one  arm  behind  the  flange  of  the  cartridge  case  and  the  other 
operating  in  a  vertical  groove  on  the  left  side  of  the  recoil  plate.  When 
the  breech  lever  is  raised  and  the  recoil  plate  descends,  the  arm  in  the 
groove  is  not  touched  until  the  top  of  this  plate  reaches  the  bottom  of 
the  chamber,  the  shoulder  at  the  upper  end  of  the  groove  then  strikes 
the  lever  and  ejects  the  cartridge  case. 

Smith  &  Wesson,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. — Fire-arms  and  metallic 
cartridges.  Silver  medal. 

Spencer  Repeating  Rifle  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Spencer 
rifles.  Breech-loading,  capable  of  being  fired  seven  times  in  twelve 
seconds.  Silver  medal. 

United  States  Sanitary  Commission. — Camp  material,  in  the  inter¬ 
national  sanitary  department.  (See  a  notice  at  the  end  of  this  cata¬ 
logue.)  Honorable  mention. 

Windsor  Manufacturing  Company,  Windsor,  Vermont. — Ball’s  pat¬ 
ent  repeating  fire-arms.  Silver  medal. 

Whipple,  H.  B.,  Faribault,  Minnesota. — Arms,  curiosities,  &c.,  of  the 
Ojibwa  and  Dakota  tribes. 


CLASS  XXXVIII-XL.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


273 


CLASS  38.— ARTICLES  FOR  TRAVELLING  AND  FOR  ENCAMPMENT. 

Baird,  H.  S.,  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin. — Indian  curiosities. 

Collins,  Mrs.  L.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Embroidered  flags  in  the 
Louisiana  cottage. 

Meigs,  M.  E.,  Quartermaster  General  in  the  United  States  army  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  (out  of  competition.)  In  the  park. — Material  in  use  in 
the  United  States  army  for  transportation,  clothing,  and  equipment 
in  camp  and  in  garrison. 

Noyes,  J.  H.,  Oneida,  New  York. — Traveller’s  lunch  bag. 

Paddock,  W.  S.,  Albany,  New  York. — Fastenings  for  trunks,  arranged 
on  a  model  trunk. 

Pierce,  Carlos,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — The  Fremont  army  tent,  in 
the  Park. 

This  tent  is  so  constructed  that  during  rain  storms,  when  the  canvass 
shrinks  from  wetting,  it  can  be  lowered  a  little  from  the  inside  instead 
of  loosening  the  pegs  outside  to  provide  for  the  shrinkage. 

Pullan,  R.  B.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Model  tents. 

Short,  J.,  Salem,  Massachusetts. — Army  knapsack. 

CLASS  39.— TOYS  AND  GEWGAWS. 

Mueller,  T.  U.,  Detroit,  Michigan. — Toy  puzzle. 

GROUP  Y. 

PRODUCTS,  RAW  AND  MANUFACTURED,  OF  MINING  INDUS¬ 
TRY,  FORESTRY,  ETC. 

CLASS  40.— MINING  AND  METALLURGY. 

The  display  of  mineral  productions  of  all  kinds  from  the  vast  metallif¬ 
erous  regions  of  the  United  States  was  one  of  the  most  important  features 
of  the  Exposition.  The  most  distant  States  were  represented  there  by 
samples  of  their  ores  and  minerals.  California,  Nevada,  Idaho,  Colorado, 
Arizona,  Montana,  Dakota,  New  Mexico,  Oregon,  and  Washington,  with 
a  united  area  equal  to  the  whole  of  Europe,  nearly  all  sent  specimens 
indicative  of  their  marvellous  resources  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  iron, 
coal,  petroleum,  and  other  minerals.  The  most  prominent  collections 
were  from  California,  Colorado,  and  Nevada. 

Alabama,  State  of. — Minerals  from  that  State. 

Arkansas,  State  of. — Minerals  from  that  State. 

Avery,  R.  D.,  Petite  Anse,  Louisiana. — Rock  salt. 

Baltimore  and  Cuba  Smelting  and  Mining  Company,  C.  Levering, 
president,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Ingot  and  sheet  copper.  Bronze 
medal. 

Barr  &  Cox,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. — Hammers  and  hatchets. 

Barr,  J.,  Licking  county,  Ohio. — Minerals,  samples  of  coal. 


274 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  V. 


Bigelow,  H.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Bocks,  ores,  and  minerals  from 
Michigan.  Silver  medal. 

This  collection  included  a  variety  of  specimens  of  native  copper,  from 
Lake  Superior,  and  of  the  various  interesting  materials  which  accom¬ 
pany  it. 

Bigley,  N.  J.,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Samples  of  coal,  limestone,  fire¬ 
clay. 

Blake,  William  P.,  California,  Commissioner  from  the  State  to  the 
Exposition. — A  collection  of  the  ores  and  minerals  found  in  Califor¬ 
nia  and  the  adjoining  States  and  Territories,  intended  to  illustrate 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  Pacific  coast  region  of  the  United  States. 
Silver  medal. 

This  collection  contained  over  300  specimens  of  good  size,  taken  from 
the  principal  gold-bearing  veins  of  California,  and  from  the  copper,  quick¬ 
silver,  lead,  and  iron  veins.  The  borax,  salt,  petroleum,  and  building 
materials  were  also  shown.  All  the  specimens  were  properly  classified 
and  labelled. 

Burt,  J.,  Detroit,  Michigan. — Iron  ores,  iron,  steel,  samples  of  iron  made 
from  Lake  Superior  specular  and  magnetic  ores. 

Chester  Iron  Company,  (J.  B.  Taft,)  Chester,  Massachusetts. — 
Emery  and  minerals  from  Chester,  Massachusetts.  Silver  medal. 

This  was  a  very  interesting  and  instructive  suite  of  specimens  of  the 
massive  emery  stone  and  the  minerals  which  are  usually  associated  with 
it,  together  with  the  crushed  and  prepared  emery  and  the  emery  cloths  and 
papers.  The  presence  of  emery  at  this  locality  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
Charles  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  when  giving  some  samples  of  iron  ore 
found  there  a  scientific  examination.  This  important  service  was  recog¬ 
nized  by  the  class  jury,  and  a  bronze  medal  was  awarded  to  Dr.  Jackson 
as  co-operator,  for  “Discovery  of  emery  in  the  United  States.” 

Childs,  T.,  &  Co.,  Hartford,  Connecticut. — Skates. 

Connell,  S.  G.,  &  Son,  Buffalo,  New  York. — Pure  white  lead. 

Dixon,  J.,  &  Co.,  Jersey  City,  New  Jersey. — Plumbago  crucibles  and 
stove  polish. 

Douglas,  J.  L.,  158  Broadway,  New  York. — Minerals  from  the  Terri¬ 
tory  of  Nevada. 

Douglass  Axe  Manufacturing  Company,  D.  D.  Dana,  treasurer, 
Boston,  Massachusetts. — Edge  tools.  Silver  medal. 

Douglass  Manufacturing  Company,  70  Beekman  street,  New  York. — 
Edge  tools.  Bronze  medal. 

Elsberg,  Dr.  L.,  123  West  Fifteenth  street,  New  York. — Prepared  peat 
fuel.  Honorable  mention. 

Gaujot,  B.  C.  E.,  Tamaqua,  Pennsylvania. — Samples  of  coal,  rocks, and 
iron  ores. 

Goodenougii  Horseshoe  Company,  W.  C.  Colgate,  president,  1  Dey 
street,  New  York. — Horseshoes.  Honorable  mention. 


CLASS  XL.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


275 


Gould,  J.  D.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Mica.  Honorable  mention. 

This  was  a  fine  assortment  of  mica,  in  large,  clear  sheets,  suitable  for 
stoves,,  lanterns,  and  for  roofing. 

Green,  James  D.,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. — A  column  of  Winooski 
marble,  (Vermont.) 

Hallidie,  A.  S.,  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Wire  rope. 

Samples  of  the  various  sizes  of  wire  ropes,  cables  round  and  fiat  for  min¬ 
ing  purposes,  sash  cords  of  various  sizes,  &c.,  &c.,  all  manufactured  in 
San  Francisco,  and  proving  great  skill  in  this  art.  These  samples,  at  the 
close  of  the  Exposition,  were  donated  to  the  Museum  of  Arts  and  Man¬ 
ufactures. 

Harris,  J.,  Sturgeon  Bay,  Wisconsin. — Samples  of  native  copper  from 
Lake  Superior. 

Herrino,  Farrell  &  Sherman,  254  Broadway,  New  York. — Crystal¬ 
lized  iron — u  Franklinite.” 

Illinois,  .  State  of. — Collection  of  minerals,  building  stones,  fossils. 
Silver  medal. 

Iowa,  State  of. — Specimens  of  the  mineral  productions  of  that  State. 
Jackson,  J.  H.,  155  Broadway,  New  York. — Minerals  and  fossils.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

Kansas,  State  of. — Specimens  of  the  mineral  productions  of  that  State. 
Kase,  S.  P.,  Danville,  Pennsylvania. — Coal  from  the  Beaver  Creek  Coal 
Company. 

Kasson,  A.  C.,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. — Patent  auger  bits. 

Balance  &  Grosjean,  273  Pearl  street,  New  York. — House  furnishing 
hardware.  Chairs,  in  the  Annex.  Honorable  mention. 
McCormick,  J.  J.,  Williamsburg,  New  York. — Skates.  Honorable  men¬ 
tion. 

Merritt,  W.  H.,  North  Anthracite  Coal-field,  Luzerne  county,  Penn¬ 
sylvania. — Anthracite  coal. 

Minnesota,  Territory  of. — Collection  of  minerals  from  that  Territory. 
Missouri,  State  of. — Minerals  from  that  State. 

Nevada,  Territory  of. — Silver  ores.  Silver  medal. 

This  was  a  splendid  display  of  rich  ores  of  silver  from  eastern  Nevada, 
collected  chiefly  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  citizens,  and  represented 
at  the  Exposition  by  David  E.  Buel,  esq.  Many  of  the  masses  were  over 
18  inches  in  diameter,  and  were  from  the  newly-discovered  districts  in  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  State. 

New  Jersey  Zinc  Company,  G.  A.  Bell,  president,  64  Maiden  Lane,  New 
York. — Specimens  of  ores,  and  products  manufactured  therefrom. 
This  series  contained  masses  of  the  red  zinc  ore,  of  the  Franklinite, 
and  of  the  silicate  of  zinc,  all  from  the  company’s  mines  at  Stirling  Hill 
and  at  Mine  Hill,  in  Sussex  county,  New  Jersey.  These  ores  are  worked 
chiefly  into  oxide  of  zinc  for  paints  and  into  pig  iron,  known  as  Frank¬ 
linite  iron. 


276 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION.  [GROUP  V. 

Park  Brothers  &  Co.,  Black  Diamond  Steel  Works,  Pittsburg,  Penn¬ 
sylvania. — Cast-steel  edge  tools. 

A  very  interesting  display  of  superior  tools,  for  which  a  silver  medal 
was  awarded. 

Patterson,  S.,  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylvania. — Anthracite  coal. 

This  was  an  enormous  single  block  of  coal  weighing  three  and  a  half 
tons,  taken  from  the  colliery  of  W.  Johns.  It  occupied  a  prominent 
place  in  the  mineral  collection,  and  a  bronze  medal  was  awarded.  (See 
following  entry.) 

Pennsylvania,  State  of. — Anthracite  coal.  (S.  Patterson’s.)  From 
colliery  of  W.  Johns,  as  noted  above.  Bronze  medal. 

Portage  Lake  Smelting  Works,  E.  D.  Brigham,  treasurer,  Boston, 
Massachusetts. — Ingots  and  cakes  of  copper.  Bronze  medal. 
Prentice,  F.,  Nevada. — Ores  from  Nevada. 

Pigne,  Dr.  J.  B.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Collection  of  minerals  from 
California.  Silver  medal. 

This  was  a  very  complete  collection  of  ores  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead, 
iron,  quicksilver,  &c.,  &c.,  from  the  principal  mines  of  the  Pacific  States, 
all  neatly  classified,  labelled  and  catalogued,  and  intended  for  the  collec¬ 
tion  of  the  Ecole  Imperiale  des  Mines  at  Paris. 

Pioneer  and  Inskip  Mill  and  Mining  Company,  D.  H.  Temple,  sec¬ 
retary,  8  Pine  street,  New  York. — Minerals  and  silver  ores  from 
Nevada. 

Kandall,  Samuel  H.,  New  York. — Specimens  of  mica,  feldspar,  beryl, 
quartz,  &c.  Bronze  medal. 

Eobinson,  E.,  &  Son,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — House  hardware,  in  Mr. 
Bacon’s  bakery,  Park. 

Saffray,  C.,  26  East  Fourth  street,  New  York. — Agglomerated  coal. 
Shaub,G.,  superintendent  of  the  Southern  Porcelain  Company,  Augusta, 
Georgia. — Kaolin. 

Shelton  Company,  Birmingham,  Connecticut. — Iron,  copper,  and  tinned 
tacks. 

Shuster,  J.,  133  Court  street,  Brooklyn,  New  York. — Samples  of  Cal¬ 
ifornia,  Tennessee,  New  York,  and  Vermont  marbles. 

Sibley,  F.  K.,  Auburndale,  Massachusetts.  —  Samples  of  emery  and 
crocus  cloths. 

Texas  Chrome  Mining  Company,  Texas,  Pennsylvania.— Chromic  iron 
ore  in  large  masses  as  taken  from  the  quarry. 

Thomas  Iron  Works,  Hokendauqua,  Pennsylvania. — Iron  and  iron  ores. 
Utah,  Territory  of. — Minerals. 

Waldridge,  W.  D.,  51  Exchange  Place,  New  York. — Samples  of  gold, 
silver,  tin,  and  copper  from  Idaho.  Large  masses  of  silver  ore  from 
the  Poorman  lode  in  Idaho.  These  blocks  contained  large  quantities 
of  ruby  silver  ore.  Gold  medal. 

Warner,  G.  F.  &  Co.,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Malleable  iron  castings. 


CLASS  XLI.XL1I.]  UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  277 

A  very  great  variety  of  small  objects,  chiefly  carriage  hardware,  all 
neatly  arranged  upon  a  large  square  tablet.  Bronze  medal. 

West  Virginia,  State  of. — Minerals  from  that  State  ;  building  stone. 
Wetiierbee,  Sherman  &  Co.,  Port  Henry,  New  York. — Magnetic  iron 
ore,  iron. 

Wharton,  Joseph,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Ores  and  metals, 
nickel,  cobalt,  zinc.  Honorable  mention. 

Whitney,  J.  P.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Gold  and  silver  ores  and  min¬ 
erals  from  Colorado  Territory.  Gold  medal. 

A  very  large  and  brilliant  collection  of  the  pyritic  gold-bearing  ores  of 
Colorado,  accompanied  by  maps  of  the  region,  photographs,  and  statis¬ 
tics,  published  in  three  languages. 

Wilkinson,  A.  S.,  Pawtucket,  Bhode  Island. — Horseshoes. 

Wisconsin,  State  of. — Minerals,  ores,  building  stones,  and  metals  from 
Wisconsin.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  41.— PRODUCTS  OF  THE  FOREST. 

Andrews,  Harris  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Black  moss  from  Lou¬ 
isiana 

Boyd,  John  D.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Samples  of  cabinet  woods 
from  California. 

This  exhibition  consisted  of  masses  of  the  trunk  of  the  madrona,  and 
of  bundles  of  veneers  cut  from  it,  also  of  a  series  of  panels  veneered, 
stained,  and  polished,  showing  a  grain  of  remarkable  beauty. 

Carter,  G.  W.,  98  Hudson  street,  New  York. — Fret,  scroll,  and  orna¬ 
mental  sawing. 

Edwards,  D.,  Little  Genesee,  New  York. — Specimens  of  wood  and  clap¬ 
boards. 

Hall,  E.,  Athens,  Illinois. — Collection  illustrating  the  botany  of  Illinois. 
Kansas,  State  of. — Specimens  of  wood.  Honorable  mention. 

Leavitt  &  Hunnewell,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Prepared  peat  fuel. 
Mears,  C.,  &  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Shingles. 

Missouri,  State  of. — Specimens  of  wood  from  Missouri. 

Paul,  J.  F.,  &  Co.,  441  Tremont  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Wood 
mouldings,  oval  frames,  specimens  of  wood.  Honorable  mention. 
Persac,  A.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Illustrations  of  American  forests. 
Utah,  Territory  of. — Specimens  of  wood. 

Wisconsin,  State  of. — Samples  of  wood. 

CLASS  42.— PRODUCTS  OF  HUNTING  AND  FISHERIES,  AND  UNCULTIVATED 

PRODUCTS. 

Bell,  J.  G.,  335  Broadway,  New  York. — Stuffed  birds. 

Gunther,  C.  G.,  &  Sons,  502  Broadway,  New  York. — Stuffed  animals. 
Silver  medal. 

Illinois,  State  of. — Stuffed  game  birds  from  the  Chicago  Academy 
of  Sciences. 

19  u  E 


278 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  V. 


Kansas,  State  of. — Furs,  antlers,  and  skins. 

Wisconsin,  State  of. — Furs,  antlers,  and  skins. 

CLASS  43.— AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  (NOT  USED  FOR  FOOD)  OF  EASY 

PRESERVATION. 

Alabama,  State  of. — Samples  of  cotton.  Silver  medal  and  honorable 
mention. 

Bourgeois,  E.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Perrique  tobacco.  Honorable 
mention. 

Caroll,  J.  W.,  Lynchburg,  Yirginia.— Tobacco.  Bronze  medal. 

Cozzens,  Frederic  S.,  73  Warren  street,  New  York. — Cigars.  Honor¬ 
able  mention. 

Delpit,  A.,  &  Co.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Snuff  and  smoking  tobacco. 
Silver  medal. 

Diehl,  I.  S.,  80  Broadway,  New  York. — Specimens  of  Angora  wool  from 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  articles  manufactured  from 
the  same. 

Humphries,  John  C.,  parish  of  Bapides,  Louisiana. — Samples  of  cotton. 
Bronze  medal. 

Illinois  Central  Railroad  Company. — Hemp,  flax,  cotton,  and  to¬ 
bacco.  Silver  medal. 

Johnson,  C.  G.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Specimen  of  cotton ;  in  the 
Louisiana  cottage. 

Johnson,  O.,  Galba,  Illinois. — Samples  of  broom  corn. 

Kansas,  State  of. — Agricultural  products  from  Kansas. 

Lehman,  Nongass  &  Co. — New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Wool. 

Lilienthal,  C.  H.,  221  Washington  street,  New  York. — Snuff  and  to¬ 
bacco.  Bronze  medal. 

Maginnis,  A.  A.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Cotton  seeds. 

Meyer,  Victor,  parish  of  Concordia,  Louisiana. — Sample  of  cotton. 
Gold  medal. 

Missouri,  State  of. — Cotton,  hemp,  cashmere  wool. 

Montagne  &  Carlos,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Black  moss  for  uphol¬ 
sterers.  Honorable  mention. 

Richard  Richards,  Racine,  Wisconsin. — Specimen  of  wool.  -Bronze 
medal. 

St.  Louis  Lead  &  Oil  Co. — Seed  and  seed  oils. 

Sarrazin,  J.  R.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Samples  of  tobacco.  Bronze 
medal. 

Scherr,  T.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Bale  of  hops. 

These  hops  were  grown  on  the  grounds  of  Wilson  Flint,  esq.,  in  the 

Sacramento  valley,  and  were  of  superior  quality.  Samples  of  them  were 

freely  distributed  during  the  exhibition. 

Tamboury,  A.,  parish  of  St.  James,  Louisiana. — Samples  of  tobacco. 
Bronze  medal. 

Townsend,  J.,  Edisto  Island,  South  Carolina. — Superfine  sea  island 
cotton. 


CLASS  XLIV.]  UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  279 

Tracer,  Louis,  Black  Hawk  Point,  Louisiana. — Samples  of  cotton.  Gold 
medal. 

Williams,  Thomas  0.,  &  Co.,  Danville,  Yirginia. — Samples  of  tobacco. 
Bronze  medal. 

Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society. — Specimens  of  wool  and  of 
seed  oils.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  44. -CHEMICAL  AND  PHARMACEUTICAL  PRODUCTS. 

Babcock,  James  F.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Bosin  oil.  Bronze  medal. 

Becker,  H.  C.,  New  York. — Extracts  for  culinary  use. 

Belmont  Oil  Company,  333  Market  street,  Philadelphia,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania. — Crude  and  refined  petroleum,  benzine,  gazoline.  Bronze 
medal. 

Brandon  Kaolin  and  Paint  Company,  J.  W.  Prime,  president,  Bran¬ 
don,  Vermont. — Specimens  of  paints.  Honorable  mention. 

Butler,  T.  S.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Oil  blacking. 

California,  State  of. — Oils.  Samples  of  petroleum,  both  crude  and 
refined,  from  localities  in  various  parts  of  the  State. 

The  refined  oils  were  from  the  establishments  of  Messrs.  Hayward  & 

Coleman,  Stanford  Brothers,  and  Charles  Stott,  in  San  Francisco. 

Chicago  Glue  Works,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Samples  of  glue. 

Day,  Austin  G.,  Seymour,  Connecticut. — Samples  of  hard,  semi-hard, 
and  soft  India-rubber,  and  artificial  rubber.  Honorable  mention. 

Diehl,  J.  S.,  80  Broadway,  New  York. — Petroleum  ;  silicated  copper. 

Dundas,  Dick&  Co.,  110  Reade  street,  New  York. — Capsulated  medicines. 

Fries,  Alexander,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Flavoring  extracts.  Honorable 
mention. 

Glen  Cove  Starch  Manufacturing  Company,  W.  Duryea,  secretary, 
166  Fulton  street,  New  York. — Maize  starch. 

Glidden  &  Williams,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Soluble  Pacific  guano. 

Hale  &  Parshall,  Lyons,  New  York. — Oil  of  peppermint. 

Herzberg,  I.,  &  Brother,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Chronometer 
„  and  watch  oil. 

Hess,  Becker  &  Co.,  St.  Charles,  Missouri. — Sample  of  ultramarine. 

IIirsch,  Joseph,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Glycerine,  albumen,  &c.  Honorable 
mention. 

Holliday,  T.  &  C.,  194  Broadway,  New  York. — Dyes  made  from  aniline, 
pigments  and  colors,  chemicals.  Honorable  mention. 

Hotchkiss,  H.  G.,  Lyons,  New  York. — Samples  of  essential  oils.  Bronze 
medal. 

Hotchkiss,  L.  B.,  Phelps,  New  York. — Specimens  of  oils  of  peppermint 
and  spearmint.  Bronze  medal. 

Kieffer,  N.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Bitters. 

Louisiana  Petroleum  and  Mining  Company,  A.  L.  Fields,  secretary, 
New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Specimens  of  petroleum. 


280  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION.  [GROUP  V. 

Maginnis,  A.  A.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Cotton  seed  oil,  soap,  and 
oil  cake. 

Marietta  and  Gales  Fork  Petroleum  Company,  E.  K.  Shaw, 
director,  Marietta,  Ohio. — Crude  lubricating  petroleum.  Honorable 
mention. 

McEoberts  &  Dick,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Soap. 

Morgan’s,  E.,  Sons,  274  Washington  street,  New  York. — Family  soap. 

Pease,  F.  S.,  Buffalo,  New  York. — Illuminating  and  lubricating  oils, 
paraffine.  Silver  medal. 

Ehodes,  B.  M.,  &  Co.,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Superphosphate  of  lime 
for  manure. 

Smith,  E.  M.,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Befined  burning  and  lubricating 
petroleum  oils.  Honorable  mention. 

Standard  Soap  Company,  San  Francisco,  California. — Soap  and  wash¬ 
ing  powder. 

The  soap  is  represented  to  be  made  in  San  Francisco  exclusively  from 

materials  produced  in  the  State  of  California.  The  alkali  is  said  to  be 

made  from  the  ashes  of  the  ice  plant,  which  grows  in  Santa  Barbara 

county. 

Vanderburgh,  G.,  24  Vesey  street,  New  York. — Specimens  of  alkaline 
silicates. 

Van  Deusen  Brothers,  Kingston,  New  York. — Oil  of  wintergreen. 

Volcanic  Oil  and  Coal  Company,  of  Western  Virginia,  Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania;  H.  G.  Moehring,  agent. — Lubricating  mineral  oil. 
Honorable  mention. 

Wahl,  C.,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. — Specimens  of  glue. 

Weston,  H.,  706  Broadway,  New  York. — Concentrated  aqueous  solution 
of  iodine. 

West  Virginia,  State  of,  J.  H.  Diss  Debar,  agent. — Crude  and  refined 
petroleum.  Bronze  medal. 

White,  G.  E.,  New  York. — Swan  Island  guano. 

White,  M.  J.,  parish  of  Plaquemines,  Louisiana. — Extract  of  red  Tobasco 
pepper. 

Uren,  Dunstone  &  Blight,  Eagle  Eiver,  Michigan. — Water  proof 
safety  fuse. 

CLASS  45.— SPECIMENS  ILLUSTRATING  THE  CHEMICAL  PROCESSES  IN 
BLEACHING,  DYEING,  PRINTING,  AND  DRESSING  FABRICS. 

Holliday,  T.  &  C.,  194  Broadway,  New  York. — Woollen,  cotton,  and 
silk  goods,  dyed  and  printed  with  aniline  dyes. 

CLASS  46.— LEATHER  AND  SKINS. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Vulcanized  rubber. 

Browne,  D.  Jay,  Park  street,  Eoxbury,  Massachusetts — Enamelled 
leather,  manufactured  by  a  new  process.  Honorable  mention. 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


CLASS  XLVII,XLVIII.] 


281 


Gunther  &  Sons,  502  Broadway,  New  York. — Furs  for  ladies’  and  gen¬ 
tlemen’s  wear,  sleigli  robes. 

Korn,  Charles,  19  Ferry  street,  New  York. — Calfskin  leather.  Honor¬ 
able  mention. 

McDonald  &  Hurd,  Winchester,  Massachusetts. — Calfskin  leather. 

Meyer,  C.  F.  W.,  Union  Hill,  New  Jersey. — Piano  forte  buckskins. 

Page,  M.  W.,  Franklin,  New  Hampshire. — Samples  of  belt  lacing  made 
by  a  new  process  of  tanning. 

Schorr,  T.,  .New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Alligators’  skins  tanned  for  shoe 
leather. 

Smith,  Lyman,  &  Son,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Samples  of  leather  for 
cotton  factory  rollers. 

Wisconsin,  State  of. — Leather  and  skins. 


GROUP  VI. 


APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  THE  COMMON  ARTS. 

CLASS  47.— APPARATUS  AND  METHODS  OF  MINING  AND  METALLURGY. 

Elsberg,  L.,  123  West  Fifteenth  street,  New  York. — Model  peat  fuel 
machine. 

Gaujot,  R.  C.  E.,  Tamaqua,  Pennsylvania. — Apparatus  and  methods  of 
mining  and  metallurgy. 

Hallidie,  A.  S.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Samples  of  round  and  flat 
wire  cables  for  mining  and  other  purposes. 

Donated,  at  the  close  of  the  Exposition,  to  the  Museum  of  the  Con¬ 
servatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers. 

Harrington,  J.  R.,  Brooklyn,  New  York. — Self  rarefying  tuyere. 
Haupt,  Herman,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Steam  drill  tunnelling 
machine.  Bronze  medal. 

This  machine  is  the  result  of  the  experience  of  ten  years.  The  attempt 
has  been  made  to  construct  a  machine  which  is  strong,  light,  compact, 
and  cheap ;  so  mounted  as  to  be  placed  and  secured  at  any  desired  eleva¬ 
tion,  and  which  does  not  occupy  a  great  space  in  the  tunnel  of  a  mine. 
All  these  desirable  qualities  are  claimed  for  this  machine. 

Steam  Stone  Cutter  Company,  G.  F.  W.  Wardwell,  superintendent, 
18  Wall  street,  New  York. — Stone  channelling  and  quarrying  ma¬ 
chine,  full  size  and  model  of  the  same. 

This  machine  was  exhibited  in  the  Annex,  in  the  Park,  near  the 
Avenue  Suflren,  and  received  a  silver  medal. 

CLASS  48.— IMPLEMENTS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  THE  CULTIVATION 
OF  FIELDS  AND  FORESTS. 

The  exhibits  in  this  class  were  placed  in  the  Annex,  in  the  Park,  near 
the  Avenue  Suflren. 

Alden,  M.,  &  Son,  Auburn,  New  York. — Horse  hoe. 


282 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  YI. 


Bid  well,  J.  0.,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Comstock’s  rotary  spader; 
ploughs. 

Brinkerhopf,  J.,  Auburn,  New  York. — Hand  Indian  corn  sheller,  sep¬ 
arator  and  cleaner. 

Brown,  J.  S.,  Washington,  D.  C. — Harpoon  fork,  for  lifting  hay. 
Collins  &  Company,  212  W all  street,  New  York. — Steel  ploughs.  Silver 
medal. 

The  special  good  qualities  claimed  for  these  ploughs  are,  that  the  soil 
does  not  adhere  to  them,  that  they  do  not  require  as  much  power  as  other 
ploughs,  and  that  they  last  longer.  Any  part  of  one  of  these  ploughs 
that  becomes  broken  or  worn  can  be  replaced  without  difficulty. 
Clipper,  Mower,  and  Reaper  Company,  189  Water  street,  New 
York. — Combined  clipper,  mower  and  reaper,  and  other  agricultural 
machines. 

Deere  &  Company,  Moline,  Illinois. — Steel  ploughs.  Bronze  medal. 
Emery  &  Company,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Hog  tamer. 

Emery,  H.  L.,  &  Son,  Albany,  New  York. — Horse  power. 

Free,  J.  W.,  Richmond,  Indiana. — Fanning  mill,  clover  sower. 

Fullam,  A.  T.,  Springfield,  Vermont. — Machine  for  shearing  sheep  and 
clipping  horses. 

Hall  &  Speer,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Iron  centre  plough. 

Hall,  J.  A.,  Columbus,  Ohio. — Cotton  clipper,  strawberry  cultivator  and 
drill. 

Herring,  S.  C.,  251  Broadway,  New  York. — Bullard’s  patent  hay  tedder. 
Langstrotii,  L.  L.,  Oxford,  Ohio. — Bee  hives. 

McCormick,  C.  H.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Reaping  and  mowing  machines. 

The  reaping  and  mowing  machines  of  Mr.  McCormick  are  well  known. 
Although  invented  as  early  as  1831,  they  were  not  brought  to  the  notice 
of  Europe  until  the  Universal  Exhibition  at  London,  in  1851,  when  the 
Council  medal  was  awarded  to  the  exhibitor.  In  1855  Mr.  McCormick 
received  the  medal  of  honor  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  and  in  1857  the 
gold  medal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  New  York.  He  has  also  re¬ 
ceived  prizes  at  London,  Lille,  and  Hamburg.  About  10,000  of  his  ma¬ 
chines  have  been  made  and  sold  in  two  years.  Several  machines  have 
been  purchased  for  use  on  the  Emperor’s  farms.  Gold  medal,  also,  Grand 
prize,  gained  in  the  field  trials  of  agricultural  machines.1 

Mr.  McCormick,  by  a  decree  of  the  Emperor,  was  created  Chevalier  of 
the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

Munroe,  H.  H.,  &  Company,  Rockland,  Maine. — Rotary  harrow. 
Partridge  Fork  Works,  Leominster,  Massachusetts. — Hay  forks? 

rakes,  potato  diggers.  (Palace.)  Bronze  medal. 

Perry,  John  G.,  Kingston,  Rhode  Island. — Mowing  machine.  Bronze 
medal. 

Seymour,  J.  B.,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Corn  planter. 

Seymour,  Morgan  &  Allen,  New  York. — Reaper. 


1  See  List  of  Awards. 


CLASS  XL VIII. J 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


283 


Wellington,  A.  H.,  &  Company,  Woodstock,  Vermont. — Boot  cutter. 
Wheeler,  Melick  &  Company,  Albany,  New  York. — Palmer’s  excel¬ 
sior  horse  pitchfork. 

Wood,  W.  A.,  Mowing  and  Reaping  Machine  Company,  Hoosick 
Falls,  New  York. — Mowing  and  reaping  machines. 

The  value  of  the  mowing  and  reaping  machines  of  Mr.  W.  A.  Wood  is 
shown  by  the  large  number  of  prizes  obtained  by  him  at  the  principal  exhi¬ 
bitions  in  England,  France,  and  America,  as  also  by  the  immense  number 
of  machines  sold — no  less  than  40,000  during  five  years,  to  1867.  He  has 
wisely  adhered  to  the  wooden  frame,  believing  that  it  renders  a  machine 
more  elastic  than  when  made  exclusively  of  iron.  By  the  admirable 
proportions  and  balance  of  his  machines  he  has  been  able  to  secure  that 
lightness  of  draught,  power  of  close  cutting,  and  portability,  for  which 
they  are  so  remarkable.  Several  machines  have  been  purchased  for  use 
on  the  Emperor’s  farms.  Gold  medal,  also,  a  gold  medal  with  a  work  of 
art.  This  last  medal  and  prize  was  gained  in  the  field  trials  of  agricul¬ 
tural  machines.1 

Mr.  Wood,  by  a  decree  of  the  Emperor,  was  created  Chevalier  of  the 
Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

Wooldrige,  S.  H.,  Venice,  Illinois. — Plough. 

AMERICAN  PLOUGHS  AT  THE  EXPOSITION. 

The  following  notice  of  American  ploughs  at  the  Paris  Exposition  was 
translated  for  the  monthly  report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture : 2 

u  American  ploughs  at  the  Paris  exhibition,  1867,  were  few  in  number, 
but  furnished  a  complete  illustration  of  the  excellent  construction  and 
solid  execution  of  farming  implements  in  the  United  States.  With  but 
few  exceptions  all  the  ploughs  were  furnished  with  beams  and  handles  of 
wood,  but  this  was  of  such  excellent  quality  that  wood  in  this  instance, 
on  account  of  its  extraordinary  toughness,  withstanding  the  utmost 
amount  of  tear  and  toil,  is  to  be  preferred  to  iron  most  decidedly.  With 
us,  such  an  excellent  material  (white  oak  and  hickory)  is  wanting  entirely, 
otherwise  it  ought  to  be  substituted  for  iron  at  once. 

u  The  form  of  the  American  smoothing  board  has  been  applied  with  us 
long  ago,  and  wherever  the  soil  is  too  cohesive  for  the  Ruchadlo  plough, 
it  always  has  proved  to  be  the  best,  as  it  holds  a  middle  place  between 
the  long,  sharp,  and  screw-like  English  board  and  that  of  the  Ruchadlo 
plough,  composed  of  two  straight  sides  uniting  above  in  form  of  a  tri¬ 
angle.  As  the  English  board  excels  in  heavy,  tough  clay  soil,  while  the 
latter  is  adapted  best  to  loose,  falling  ground,  the  American  share  is  the 
best  for  a  medium  soil  to  be  turned  entirely  upside  down.  All  these 
ploughs  exhibited  were  swing  ploughs,  sometimes  with  a  stilting- wheel 
attached  to  the  fore  part  of  the  beam,  as  also  frequently  used  with  us, 
while  fore-carts,  (running  on  two  wheels  to  rest  the  beam,)  such  as  are 

1  See  List  of  Awards. 

2  Monthly  Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  May  and  June,  1868,  p.  286. 


284 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  VI. 


used  in  England  and  on  the  continent,  seem  to  be  but  of  little  use  in 
America. 

u  The  cutter  is  peculiar  in  most  American  ploughs  ;  either  a  common 
cutter  like  ours,  attached  to  the  beam  or  to  the  share,  in  form  of  a  ver¬ 
tical  blade,  as  high  as  the  plough  is  to  go  down  into  the  ground,  one 
piece  with  the  share  itself  5  or  at  last  a  revolving  cutter,  attached  below 
the  beam.  The  latter  arrangement  seems  excellent  to  cut  turf  and  roots 
in  marshy  ground  that  is  to  be  broken  up. 

u  The  most  interesting  ploughs  from  America  were  exhibited  by : 

“  1.  Collins  &  Company,  Hartford,  Connecticut.  Collins  &  Company’s 
ploughs  are  of  different  sizes,  from  three  inches  to  one  and  a  half  feet  in 
depth,  otherwise  built  on  the  very  same  plan $  thus  the  connecting  irons, 
screws,  etc.,  of  one  size  will  do  for  all  the  others.  Their  steel  smoothing- 
boards,  cast,  according  to  statements,  in  polished  forms,  are  highly  pol¬ 
ished,  so  as  to  warrant  easy  work.  Their  extraordinary  lightness  is 
another  advantage,  those  for  seven  inches  depth  weighing  forty,  and 
those  ploughing  fourteen  inches  deep  no  more  than  ninety-five  pounds. 

u  2.  Deere  &  Company,  Moline,  Illinois.  The  same  as  the  former, 
except  as  to  double  or  Ruchadlo  shares  with  some  numbers,  on  the  Bohe¬ 
mian  plan,  of  German,  probably  Westphalian  steel,  as  the  manufacturers 
assure  us.  Sometimes  the  whole  lower  part  of  the  share  and  both  smooth¬ 
ing-boards  are  formed  of  one  single  piece.  Their  depth  is  very  uniform, 
from  12  to  14  inches,  (destined  for  prairie  soil.) 

u3.  Hall  &  Speer,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania,  whose  ploughs  showed 
some  essentially  different  qualities  from  those  of  other  firms  $  rod-iron 
strongly-bent  beams,  shares  with  attached  blade  for  cutter,  and  also  a 
peculiar  connection  of  the  beam  with  the  body  of  the  plough,  giving 
great  firmness  to  the  latter.  The  connection  of  all  these  parts  is  effected 
by  means  of  screws,  the  heads  of  which  are  sunk  so  as  to  afford  an  even 
surface.  These  ploughs  .are  constructed  of  very  different  sizes,  ranging 
from  60  to  150  pounds  each,  and  from  10£  to  17  dollars,  respectively. 

u  4.  Canadian  ploughs,  by  Mahaffy  in  Brampton,  Gray  in  Edmondville, 
and  Duncan  in  Markham,  all  having  rod-iron  or  cast-steel  smoothing- 
boards,  more  like  the  English  than  like  the  American  patterns,  and 
instead  of  being  concave  they  were  convexed  like  those  by  Hornsby  in 
England,  and  had  very  long  handles.  Those  ploughs  exhibited  by 
Mahaffy  and  Gray  had  wooden  handles  and  beams,  while  Duncan’s  were 
entirely  composed  of  iron.  Concerning  their  construction  and  technical 
execution,  these  Canadian  ploughs  were  by  no  means  inferior  to  those 
from  the  United  States ;  their  workmanship  every  way  being  worthy  of 
imitation.” 

CLASS  49.— APPARATUS  AND  INSTRUMENTS  FOR  FISHING,  HUNTING,  AND 
FOR  COLLECTING  NATURAL  PRODUCTS. 

Oneida  Community,  J.  H.  Noyes,  agent,  Oneida,  New  York. — Traps. 


CLASS  L.  J 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


285 


CLASS  50.—  MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  OF  AGRICULTURAL  WORKS  AND 
OF  ALIMENTARY  INDUSTRY.  * 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Cracker,  bread,  and  cake  ma¬ 
chinery  ;  (in  the  bakery,  Park.)  Honorable  mention. 

The  principal  parts  of  this  apparatus,  which  is  capable  of  preparing  5,000 
pounds7  weight  per  day,  is  protected  by  European  patents  and  comprises : 
1.  A  mechanical  revolving  oven  capable  of  receiving  and  holding  a  contin¬ 
uous  supply  of 600  pounds  of  bread  or  crackers.  It  is  claimed  that  this  oven 
with  a  given  amount  of  fuel,  time,  space,  and  labor,  will  bake  at  least  twice 
as  much  as  any  oven  in  Europe.  2.  A  smoke  and  gas  consuming  furnace, 
the  invention  of  Jonathan  Amory,  of  Boston,  which  has  been  put  into 
practical  operation  by  Mr.  Bacon.  The  combustion  is  so  perfect  that  no 
smoke  issues  from  the  chimney.  3.  Various  machines  used  in  mixing, 
kneading,  and  cutting.  4.  A  sectional  steam  generator,  exhibited  by  T. 
S.  Ologston  &  Gompany,  of  Boston.  This  generator  consumes  only  48 
pounds  of  coke  per  day,  and  will  bear,  if  required,  a  pressure  of  900 
pounds  per  square  inch.  This  generator  supplies  the  Root  trunk  engine 
which  drives  the  machinery  in  Mr.  Bacon’s  establishment.  5.  Clark’s 
steam  and  fire  regulator.  6.  Grate  bars  by  L.  B.  Tupper,  Hew  York, 
which,  from  their  peculiar  shape,  effect  a  saving  in  cost  of  one-fifth  com¬ 
pared  with  the  ordinary  grate  bar.  7.  Root’s  trunk  engine,  from  J.  B. 
Root,  of  Hew  York. 

Baker,  George  R.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Dough-kneading  machine. 
Honorable  mention. 

Bassett,  J.  B.,  &  Go.,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota. — Wooden  buckets. 
Champlin,  J.  R.,  &  Go.,  Laconia,  Hew  Hampshire. — Ice  cream  freezer. 
(In  the  American  restaurant.) 

Colby,  D.  G.,  Washington,  D.  O. — Flour  sieve;  coffee  mill  and  can. 
Elting  Bolt  and  Duster  Company,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Bolt  and  duster 
machine. 

Goodell,  D.  H.,  Antrim,  Hew  Hampshire. — Apple  parer.  Bronze  medal. 
Hudson,  O.  H.,  5  Barclay  street,  Hew  York. — Washing  machine. 

Low,  D.  W.,  Gloucester,  Massachusetts. — Ice  crusher.  (In  the  Ameri¬ 
can  restaurant.) 

Metropolitan  Washing  Machine  Company,  R.  C.  Browning,  agent, 
32  Courtland  street,  Hew  York. — Clothes  wringers.  Honorable 
mention. 

Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Wringing 
machine.  Bronze  medal. 

Palmer,  S.  W.,  &  Co.,  Auburn,  Hew  York. — Clothes  wringers,  mangles, 
and  ironers. 

Purrington,  G.,  Jr.,  5  Barclay  street,  Hew  York. — Carpet  sweeper. 
Honorable  mention. 

Sargent,  E.  H.,  Boonton,  Hew  Jersey. — Alarm  coffee  boiler. 
Sedgebeer,  J.,  Painesville,  Ohio. — Grinding  mills  for  corn  and  spices. 


286 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  VI. 


Somers,  D.  M.,  Washington,  D.  C. — Self-acting  tumbler  washer.  (In 
the  American  restaurant.) 

Tilden,  Howard,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Flour  and  sauce  sifter;  R. 
Smith’s  tobacco  cutter;  champion  egg  beater.  Honorable  mention. 

Ward,  J.,  &  Co.,  457  Broadway,  New  York. — Clothes  wringer.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

Windle  &  Co.,  56  Maiden  Lane,  New  York. — Carpet  sweeper. 

CLASS  51.— CHEMICAL,  PHARMACEUTIC,  AND  TANNING  APPARATUS. 

Butler,  J.  L.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Soda  water  fountain.  (In  the  Annex.) 

Dows,  Clark  &  Van  Winkle,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Ice  cream  soda 
water  apparatus  and  fountains,  carbonic  acid  gas  generators. 

Hoglen  &  Graflin,  Dayton,  Ohio. — Tobacco-cutting  machine.  Bronze 
medal. 

Metropolitan  Washing  Machine  Company,  R.  C.  Browning,  agent, 
32  Courtland  street,  New  York. — Doty’s  clothes  washer.  Honorable 
mention. 

Prentice,  J.,  Sixth  avenue,  New  York. — Cigar-making  machine.  (Shown 
in  the  Annex  in  the  Park.)  Honorable  mention. 

Schultz  &  Warker,  New  York. — Soda  water  apparatus  and  fountains. 
Silver  medal. 

One  of  the  fountains  was  tested  by  a  pressure  of  15  atmospheres. 

Ward,  J.,  &  Co.,  457  Broadway,  New  York. — Washing  machine.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

CLASS  52  AND  53.— MACHINES  AND  MECHANICAL  APPARATUS  IN  GENERAL. 

American  Steam  Gauge  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — (In  M. 
Bacon’s  bakery,  Park.)  Pressure  steam  gauge;  Bourdon’s  patent 
with  T.  W.  Lane’s  improvement.  Honorable  mention. 

Andrews,  William  D.,  &  Brother,  414  Water  street,  New  York. — 
Centrifugal  pump  and  oscillating  engine.  Honorable  mention. 

Automatic  Boiler  Feeder  Company,  G.  A.  Riedel,  director,  945  Ridge 
Avenue,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  —  Automatic  boiler  feeder. 
Bronze  medal. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — (In  the  bakery,  Park.)  “Anti- 
incrustator,”  for  steam  boilers. 

Broughton  &  Moore,  41  Centre  street,  New  York.  —  Oilers,  cocks, 
&c.  Honorable  mention. 

Bryant,  F.,  Brooklyn,  New  York. — Grinding  mill. 

Bryant,  J.,  Brooklyn,  New  York. — Bushing  for  ship’s  blocks;  anti-fric¬ 
tion  journal  boxes. 

Clark’s  Steam  and  Fire  Regulator  Company,  New  York. — (In  M. 
Bacon’s  bakery,  Park.)  Steam  and  fire  regulator.  Honorable  mention. 

Clogston,  T.  S.,  &  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — (In  M.  Bacon’s 
bakery,  Park.)  Cast-iron  sectional  steam  generator,  steam  indicator 
and  fire  regulator  combined. 


CLASS  LIIL]  UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  287 

Cochrane,  James,  64  West  Tenth  street,  New  York. — Model  balancing 
slide  valve,  showing  method  of  lubricating. 

Columbian  Metal  Works,  J.  P.  Pirrson,  President,  40  Broadway, 
New  York. — Seamless  copper  and  brass  tubes. 

Corliss  Steam  Engine  Company,  G.  H.  Corliss,  president,  Providence, 
Bliode  Island. — Steam  engines.  Gold  medal. 

The  30-horse  power  steam  engine  exhibited  by  this  company  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  objects  in  this  class.  It  was  much  admired  and 
appreciated,  not  only  for  its  elegant  and  elaborate  finish,  but  its  perfect 
and  noiseless  automatic  motion  and  the  wonderful  sensitiveness  of  its 
“cut-off.”  Its  proportions  and  features  were  closely  studied  by  many 
noted  European  engine  builders. 

Crosby,  Butterfield  &  Haven,  22  Dey  street,  New  York. — Boper’s 
hot  air  engine. 

Dart,  Henry  C.,  &  Co.,  New  York. — Behren’s  patent  rotary  engine  and 
pump.  Honorable  mention. 

This  remarkable  invention  may  be  used  either  as  a  motor  or  pump. 
It  consists  of  three  principal  parts:  a  cylinder  and  cylinder  head,  two 
pistons  with  their  shafts,  and  two  gear  wheels  to  connect  the  pistons.  It 
is  not  liable  to  break  down  or  get  out  of  order,  and,  as  the  pump  is  without 
either  valves  or  air-chamber,  it  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  feeding, 
bilge,  air,  and  wrecking  purposes.  This  engine  can  be  worked  by  com¬ 
pressed  air  or  explosive  gases.  As  it  measures  accurately  the  quantity 
of  water  passing  through  it  at  every  revolution,  it  may  be  used  as  a 
water  meter. 

Douglass,  W.  &  B.,  Middletown,  Connecticut. — Pumps  of  various 
descriptions.  Bronze  medal. 

Dwight,  George,  Jr.,  &  Co.,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. — Steam. 
Honorable  mention. 

Fairbanks  E.  &  T.,  &  Co.,  St.  Johnsbury,  Vermont. — Weights  and 
weighing  machines.  (In  the  Annex.)  Silver  medal. 

The  weighing  machines  shown  by  this  company  were  of  all  sizes  and 
descriptions,  from  letter-balances  and  apothecaries’  scales  up  to  those 
used  for  weighing  canal  boats  and  loaded  trains. 

Harrison,  C.  H.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Steam  pump. 

This  pump  is  used  chiefly  for  wrecking,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  large 
quantity  of  water  it  will  raise  in  a  given  time.  It  was  kept  running  dur¬ 
ing  the  Exhibition,  and  was  a  conspicuous  object  at  the  entrance  to  the 
building  by  the  Bue  d’Afrique. 

Hicks  Engine  Company,  C.  D.  Kellog,  treasurer,  88  Liberty  street, 
New  York. — Steam  engines.  Honorable  mention. 

A  report  and  description  in  detail  will  be  found  in  the  Beport  on  the 
Steam  Engineering  of  the  Exposition.  The  following  notice  is  extracted 
from  the  company’s  circular: 


288 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  VI. 


“  This  engine,  invented  by  Mr.  William  0.  Hicks,  is  patented  in  the 
United  States,  (February  21,  1865,  and  May  22,  1866,)  and  in  nearly  all 
European  countries  and  their  dependencies. 

“It  has  many  advantages  over  any  engine  now  in  use,  its  chief  feature 
being  its  intrinsic  and  matchless  simplicity.  While  retaining  the  entire 
principle  and  action  of  the  best  approved  reciprocating-piston  engines, 
and  doing  no  violence  to  the  convictions  of  our  most  intelligent  engi¬ 
neers  that  this  principle  and  action  cannot  be  superseded  as  long  as  the 
present  mode  of  applying  steam  continues,  the  details  are  so  far  simpli¬ 
fied  that  the  pistons  connected  directly  to  the  crank  form  the  only  moving 
parts,  and  these  with  the  cylinders  compose  the  whole  machine.  This  is 
done  by  making  the  pistons  of  suitable  form  and  arrangement  to  enable 
them  to  perform  also  the  offices  of  valves  and  cut-offs,  dispensing  not 
only  with  these  contrivances,  but  also  with  the  whole  array  of  valve-rods, 
eccentrics,  rock- shafts,  packing-boxes,  slides,  levers,  cross-heads,  and 
external  attachments  of  every  kind  which  they  necessitate.  The  action 
of  the  pistons  is  alike  simple  and  uniform,  each  being  a  slide-valve  for 
the  one  beside  it.  This  invention,  therefore,  forms  the  most  radical  and 
entire  change  in  steam  engines  which  has  occurred  since  the  days  of 
Watt,  and  enables  us  to  offer  a  better  machine,  simple,  compact,  light, 
durable,  accurate,  and  economical  in  operation  beyond  all  comparison 
with  the  past,  and  at  far  less  original  cost  than  ever  before  attained. 

“Four  single-acting  pistons  working  in  the  four  cylinders  marked  B,  B, 
B,  B,  are  all  connected  to  cranks  on  one  shaft  by  suitable  connecting 
rods,  each  piston  taking  steam  before  the  next  succeeding  one  has  fin¬ 
ished  its  stroke,  thereby  insuring  a  uniform  and  continuous  motion,  and 
avoiding  the  dead  points  which  render  ordinary  engines  so  variable  in 
their  motions  and  difficult  to  start,  if  stopped  or  caught  on  the  centre. 
This  is  in  fact  a  double  cut-off  engine,  without  the  friction  of  a  double 
set  of  valves  with  their  multiform  attachments. 

“  The  pistons  are  provided  with  proper  ports  and  passages,  which  act  in 
combination  with  ports  and  passages  in  the  cylinders,  to  admit  and 
release  the  steam,  thus  combining  a  slide-valve  with  the  piston  in  one 
and  the  same  piece,  each  piston  admitting  and  exhausting  the  steam  for 
its  neighbor  cylinder,  as  well  as  cutting  off  its  own  supply  of  steam  from 
the  boiler  at  any  desired  point.  By  this  means  the  expansive  force  of 
the  steam  is  used,  and  the  exhaust  allowed  to  remain  open  during  the 
entire  return  stroke. 

“These  ports  and  passages  are  arranged  opposite  each  other  in  such  a 
manner  that  a  perfect  balance  to  the  pressure  of  the  steam  is  effected, 
and  the  ordinary  wear  and  friction  of  cylinders,  pistons,  and  valves  almost 
entirely  obviated.  It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  motions  of  the  valve 
and  cut-off  are  equal  in  rapidity  to  the  speed  of  the  piston,  and  that  the 
cut-off  works  in  the  closest  possible  proximity  to  the  piston. 

“  The  pistons  are  effectually  packed  by  a  simple  and  convenient  method, 
and  can  be  tightened  at  pleasure.  All  the  working  parts  are  encased  in 


CLASS  Lin.]  UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  289 

one  casting,  and  are  in  no  way  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  weather,  or 
to  an  accumnlation  of  dirt. 

u  The  number  of  parts  and  the  wearing  surface  being  so  vastly  reduced, 
tends  of  course  to  the  same  decrease  of  wear  and  tear,  and  of  the  risks 
and  costs  of  repairs.  In  this  connection,  the  facility  of  repairs  deserves 
especial  notice,  every  part  being  accessible  by  the  removal  of  a  few  bolts, 
and  the  whole  machine  being  capable  of  dissection  and  reconstruction  in 
a  few  minutes $  and  the  parts  also  being  interchangeable,  any  portion  can 
be  quickly  and  cheaply  replaced. 

u  The  reduction  of  friction  ;  the  diminished  length  of  the  steam-ports  and 
clearances ;  the  decrease  of  the  surface  exposed  5  the  facility  for  casing 
the  whole  engine  5  the  accuracy  and  perfection  of  the  valve  motions  and 
cut-offs  j  the  extent  to  which  the  expansion  of  the  steam  may  be  carried 
to  advantage — all  combined,  necessarily  give  an  unequalled  economy  in 
the  consumption  of  steam.” 

Hill,  W.  E. — Furnace  grate  bars. 

Howe  Scale  Company,  Brandon,  Vermont. — Scales  of  various  sizes. 
(Also  in  the  Annex.)  Bronze  medal.  A  large  and  excellent  assort¬ 
ment  of  well-finished  and  useful  instruments. 

Jenkins,  N.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Globe  valves,  cocks,  faucets,  &c. 
Jones,  T.  J.,  chief  engineer,  United  States  navy,  Brooklyn  navy  yard, 
New  York. — Piston  packing  spring. 

Judson,  J.,  Bochester,  New  York. — Graduating  governor  for  steam 
engines. 

Olmstead,  L.  H.,  Stamford,  Connecticut. — Friction  clutch  pulley. 
Bronze  medal. 

Pease,  F.  S.,  Buffalo,  New  York. — Pump  for  petroleum.  Honorable 
mention. 

Pickering  &  Davis,  New  York. — Marine  and  stationary  engine  regu¬ 
lators.  Bronze  medal. 

Platt,  J.  L.,  Kewanee,  Illinois. — Coal  chute. 

Bobinson,  J.  A.,  164  Duane  street,  New  York. — Ericsson’s  hot  air  engine. 
Honorable  mention. 

Boot,  J.  B.,  New  York,  (in  M.  Bacon’s  bakery,  Park.) — Boot’s  trunk 
engine.  Bronze  medal.  See  a  notice  under  “  Boston  Cracker 
Bakery.” 

Boots,  P.  H.  &  F.  M.,  Connersville,  Indiana. — Botary  blower.  Bronze 
medal. 

Sellers  W.,  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Injectors,  dies,  stocks, 
&c. 

Shaw,  Philander,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Hot  air  engine.  (Special 
installation  in  the  Park.)  Bronze  medal. 

This  engine  is  made  with  two  vertical  cylinders,  with  single  acting  trunk 
pistons,  hung  from  the  extremities  of  an  overhead  working  beam.  The 
beam  centre  on  the  side  next  the  furnace  is  sufficiently  prolonged  to  receive 
a  fixed  arm,  from  which  the  connecting  rod  runs  to  the  crank  of  the  main 


290 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  VI. 


shaft.  From  the  furnace,  which  is  hermetically  closed,  the  heated  air 
and  products  of  combustion  pass  over  to  the  cylinders  (to  which  they  are 
admitted  by  suitable  valves)  with  an  average  pressure  of  14  pounds  per 
square  inch.  While  one  piston  is  making  the  upward  stroke,  its  annular 
face  acts  as  an  air  pump  for  forcing  cold  air  into  a  heater,  whence  the  air 
passes  under  the  grate  to  sustain  combustion.  The  succeeding  down 
stroke  draws  cold  air  into  the  annular  space,  and  expels  the  gases  just 
used  through  the  tubes  of  the  heater  to  the  stack.  By  an  ingenious  ar¬ 
rangement  the  fine  cinders  are  prevented  from  cutting  the  cylinders,  and 
the  cylinders  are  kept  sufficiently  cool. 

Mr.  Shaw’s  engine,  though  not  constructed  with  that  regard  to  hand¬ 
some  finish  and  elaborate  polish  which  characterize  many  of  the  machines 
forwarded  from  the  United  States,  was  nevertheless  much  admired  and 
esteemed  for  its  originality. 

Sheldon,  J.,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Water-pressure  regulator. 
Honorable  mention. 

Steam  Syphon  Company,  H.  S.  Lansdell,  superintendent,  48  Dey  street, 
New  York. — Steam  syphon  pump,  and  model  of  a  railroad  station 
pump.  Honorable  mention. 

Stillwell,  D.,  Fall  Biver,  Massachusetts. — Brushes  for  cleaning  tubular 
boilers. 

Tupper,  L.  B.,  New  York,  (also  in  Mr.  Bacon’s  bakery,  Park.) — Furnace- 
grate  bars.  (See  notice  under  head  of  Bacon’s  cracker  bakery. ) 
Webster  &  Co.,  17  Dey  street,  New  York. — Webster’s  patent  ordinary 
wrench. 

CLASS  54.— MACHINE  TOOLS. 

American  Tool  and  Machine  Company,  G.  H.  Fox,  president,  Boston, 
Massachusetts. — Fox’s  screw-cutting  lathe,  with  Nason’s  screw  at¬ 
tachment. 

Bement  &  Dougherty,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Bolt  and  nut¬ 
threading  machine,  with  opening  dies.  Silver  medal. 

#  Bergner,  T.,  co-operator,  engineer  of  Messrs.  Sellers  &  Company,  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa. — Exhibitors  of  machine  tools,  who  received  a  gold 
medal  for  their  exhibition  of  tools ;  a  silver  medal  was  awarded  to 
Mr.  Bergner  as  co-operator. 

Brown  J.  E.,  &  Sharpe,  Providence,  Bhode  Island. — Bevolving  head 
screw  machine ;  milling  machine.  Silver  medal. 

It  was  stated  that  five  or  more  of  these  machines  were  sold  in  Europe 
during  the  Exhibition  in  Paris. 

Cool,  Ferguson  &  Co.,  Glen’s  Falls,  New  York. — Barrel  machines. 
Silver  medal. 

Gregg,  Isaac,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Model  of  a  brick  machine, 
and  specimen  bricks. 

A  full-sized  machine  in  operation  was  shown  in  the  Annex  of  the  Exhi¬ 
bition,  Nos.  100  and  102  Avenue  Suffren,  and  was  said  to  be  capable  of 


CLASS  LIV.]  UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  291 

making  from  35,000  to  40,000  bricks  in  ten  liours.  A  bronze  medal  was 
awarded. 

Harris,  D.  L.,  &  Co. — Improved  engine  lathe,  with  Van  Horne’s  patent 
tool  elevator  and  screw  cutter.  Bronze  medal. 

Justice,  P.  S.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Power  hammer.  Bronze 
medal. 

It  is  claimed  that  this  hammer,  with  half-a-horse  power,  will  work  faster 
and  better  than  those  of  the  old  style  requiring  the  power  of  ten  horses. 
It  is  a  very  compact  machine ;  the  hammer  is  suspended  by  a  flexible 
attachment  to  a  cast-steel  spring  moving  between  guides  and  receiving 
an  alternate  movement  from  a  crank. 

Lyon  &  Isaacs,  9  Jane  street,  NTew  York. — Self-feeding  hand  and  power 
drill. 

Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Pipe-cutting 
machines.  Honorable  mention. 

Olmstead,  L.  H.,  Stamford,  Connecticut. — Machine  tools.  Honorable 
mention. 

Sellers,  William,  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Machine  tools. 
Gold  medal. 

This  house  exhibits  perhaps  the  finest  collection  of  machine  tools  to  be 
found  in  the  Exposition.  Their  large  planer  is  24  feet  long  and  8  feet 
broad,  with  a  carriage  8  feet  high  ;  it  cuts  one  way  only,  and  the  car¬ 
riage  goes  back  with  double-quick  motion.  The  novelty  in  principle  is 
that  the  bed  is  fixed,  and  the  frame  or  carriage  carrying  the  cross-head 
and  two  lateral  tool-posts  travels  on  Y  slides,  and  is  moved  by  racks  and 
pinions  actuated  by  two  worm  wheels  from  above.  The  forward  and 
backward  movements  are  given  by  racks  and  pinions  along  the  sides  at 
the  end  of  the  strokes ;  the  reversal  of  motion  takes  place  by  a  ring,  at 
the  end  of  the  worm  shaft,  being  driven  in  by  a  projecting  stud  from  the 
wall,  the  lever  gearing  thus  throwing  off  the  drawing  belt  from  a  large 
wheel  to  a  small  one,  and  vice  versa ,  as  the  motion  is  required  to  be  quick 
backwards  or  slow  forwards,  for  the  cut  of  the  tools,  which  are  all  three 
(one  vertical  and  two  lateral)  self-acting. 

The  length  of  the  stroke  is  given  in  a  very  ingenious  way  by  a  mova¬ 
ble  jam-nut  on  a  vertical  screw-shaft. 

A  small  planing  machine,  with  moveable  plate  seven  feet  long,  planes 
the  whole  length  of  its  table  ;  and  this,  like  all  the  rest  of  Mr.  Seller’s 
machines,  has  an  automatic  outlift  of  the  tool,  so  that  in  the  backward 
motion  it  travels  clear,  and  the  point  is  not  ground  by  trailing  along  the 
work.  The  feed  motion  is  peculiar,  the  limits  of  motion  being  attained 
by  means  of  a  segment  piece  attached  by  a  rod  to  the  crank,  and  adjust¬ 
able  by  a  screw  from  central  to  any  degree  of  eccentricity — the  amount 
of  eccentricity  being  the  limit  of  the  feed  motion.  The  change  of  move¬ 
ment  from  the  quick  to  the  slow  is  effected  by  two  pivoted  levers  travers¬ 
ing  within  an  irregularly  shaped  iron  circular  ring,  by  means  of  which 
each  of  the  belts,  working  in  opposite  directions,  is  turned,  as  required, 


292 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  VI. 


over  one  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  vertical  driving  pulley.  The  two 
outside  pulleys  run  free ;  the  middle  one  actuates  the  travelling  plate, 
which  works  in  Y  slides,  and  is  moved  by  bevel  gearing  actuating  a 
worm  wheel  set  diagonally  to  the  length  of  the  plate.  The  rack  is  cut 
diagonally  to  suit  the  thread  of  the  worm. 

The  automatic  gear  cutter  is  adapted  for  cutting  cylindrical  as  well  as 
bevel  wheels  of  any  size,  from  the  smallest  in  ordinary  use  to  wheels  five 
feet  in  diameter.  The  cuts  are  made  by  interchangeable  tools  of  the 
required  dimensions  for  the  tooth.  The  machine  is  fixed  in  an  L-shaped 
frame  upon  the  carriage,  on  which  the  wheel  to  be  cut  is  pivoted.  The 
cut  is  made  by  a  milling  tool,  and  after  each  operation  the  wheel  is 
turned  automatically  to  the  required  pitch  for  the  cut,  and  so  on,  one 
cut  at  a  time,  turning  out  a  finished  tooth. 

The  25-inch  lathe  has  the  peculiarity  of  friction  disks  for  moving  the 
carriage  for  ordinary  turning,  and  for  cutting  special  gear,  which  can 
be  put  in  or  out  of  contact  at  the  will  of  the  operator ;  also,  a  rest  for 
long,  thin  work,  which  requires  support  to  prevent  vibration.  The  face 
plates  are  cast  solid,  in  one  piece,  and  further  stiffened  by  ribbing  at  the 
back,  so  that  there  is  never  any  spring. 

Mr.  Sellers  also  exhibits  an  excellent  500  pounds’  weight  hammer,  of 
which  he  is  the  lessee,  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  easy  manage¬ 
ment.  By  means  of  a  handle  a  workman  may  instantly  alter  the  height, 
rapidity,  or  force  of  the  blow,  or  render  the  valve  motion  manual  or  self¬ 
acting. 

The  self-adjusting  injector  is  an  improvement  upon  that  of  Giffard, 
and  is  provided  with  a  handle  which  regulates  the  steam  supply,  the 
increase  or  decrease  of  which  corresponds  to  that  of  the  water  delivery. 
The  water  supply  also  corrects  itself  at  all  variations  of  steam  pressure 
independent  of  the  handle  movement. 

Mr.  Sellers  exhibits  in  addition  a  variety  of  shafting,  hangers,  and 
couplings,  which  show  a  direct  saving  of  first  cost,  from  their  dimin¬ 
ished  weight,  as  well  as  perfection  in  construction.  The  double  cone 
vice-couplings  are  easy  of  detachment,  with  double-traced  ball  and 
socket  hangers,  the  bearings  of  which  are  light  and  easily  adjustable ; 
the  journal  boxes  are  long,  with  uniform  pressure  and  length  of  bearing. 
Iron,  not  brass,  is  used  in  the  pulley  castings.  The  whole  presents  a 
very  neat  appearance. 

Union  Yice  Company,  A.  H.  Brainard,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Cast 
iron  vices. 

Wickersham  Hail  Company,  A.  L.  Wood,  treasurer,  Boston,  Massa- 
sachusetts. — Hail  cutting  Machine.  Bronze  medal. 

It  is  claimed  that  this  machine  can  be  worked  at  a  less  cost  than  other 
machines  now  in  use,  while  at  the  same  time  it  produces  a  nail  superior  in 
its  holding  property  to  those  generally  manufactured.  As  the  nail  is  pointed 
like  a  chisel  and  tapers  gradually  through  its  whole  length,  it  is  easily 
driven  and  does  not  break  the  grain  of  the  wood  like  a  blunt  or  roughly 


CLASS  LV-LVII.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


293 


jointed  nail.  In  the  second  place  this  machine,  instead  of  manufacturing 
one  nail  at  a  time,  as  is  done  by  machinery  now  in  use,  can  cut  from  a 
20-inch  iron  plate  eight  two  and  a  half  inch  nails  at  one  blow,  and  can 
make  three  blows  per  second,  thus  giving  24  nails  headed  and  jointed  in 
a  second.  The  same  machine  will  make  160  half-inch  brads  per  second, 
40  at  a  time,  or  about  3,600  pounds  per  day,  including  all  sizes  of  small 
finishing  nails.  As  a  comparison  between  the  Wickersham  machine 
and  those  ordinarily  in  use  at  other  factories,  it  is  said  that  a  large  fac¬ 
tory  with  50  machines  will  produce  50,000  kegs  of  nails  per  annum, 
whereas  50  Wickersham  machines  will  make  the  enormous  quantity  of 
75,000  per  annum. 

Winsor,  H.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Shot  and  shell  polishing 
machine. 

CLASS  55.— APPARATUS  AND  METHODS  OF  SPINNING  AND  ROPE-MAKING. 

Bates,  Hyde  &  Co.,  Bridgewater,  Massachusetts. — Power  cotton  gin ; 
hand  cotton  gin. 

Emery,  H.  L.,  &  Son,  Albany,  New  York. — Cotton  gin. 

Goddard,  C.  L.,  3  Bowling  Green,  New  York. — Mestizo  burring  picker. 
Bronze  medal. 

Hall  Manufacturing  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Bazin’s  cord 
twisting  machine. 

Southern  Cotton  Gin  Company,  Bridgewater,  Massachusetts.— Saw 
and  roller  cotton  gins.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  56.— APPARATUS  AND  METHODS  OF  WEAVING. 

Crompton,  George,  Worcester,  Massachusetts. — Loom  for  weaving 
fancy  woollen  casimeres,  two  yards  in  width.  Silver  medal. 

This  machine  will  make  82  picks  per  minute  while  the  others  rarely 
exceed  65. 

Lamb,  J.  W.,  Rochester,  New  York. — Knitting  machine.  Silver  medal. 
Opper,  M.,  Convex  Weaving  company,  New  York. — Power  loom.  Silver 
medal. 

Prouty,  A.  B.,  Worcester,  Massachusetts. — Card  setting  machine. 
Shaw,  C.  A.,  Biddeford,  Maine. — Card  grinding  machine  and  model  of 
the  same. 

CLASS  57.— APPARATUS  AND  PROCESSES  OF  SEWING  AND  MAKING  CLOTHES. 

American  Buttonhole  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — But¬ 
tonhole,  cording,  braiding,  and  embroidery  sewing  machines.  Silver 
medal. 

Bartlett  Sewing  Machine  Company,  569  Broadway,  New  York. — 
Sewing  machines. 

Bartram  and  Fanton  Manufacturing  Company,  Danbury,  Connecti¬ 
cut. — Sewing  machines.  Bronze  medal. 

20  u  E 


294  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION.  [GROUP  VI. 

Bruen  Manufacturing  Company,  J.  L.  Lilly,  secretary,  371,  Broad¬ 
way,  New  York. — Sewing  machine  attachments. 

Continental  Manufacturing  Company,  E.  H.  Smith,  secretary, 
18  Beekman  street,  New  York. — Sewing  machines. 

Elliptic  Sewing  Machine  Company,  543  Broadway,  New  York. — 
Sewing  machines. 

Empire  Sewing  Machine  Company,  T.  J.  MacArtliur,  secretary,  536 
Broadway,  New  York. — Sewing  machines.  Honorable  mention. 
Florence  Sewing  Machine  Company,  505  Broadway,  New  York. — 
Sewing  machines.  Silver  medal. 

Folsom,  J.  S.,  Winchenden,  Mass. — Sewing  machines. 

Griswold  &  Sheldon,  New  York. — Hat  blocking  machine. 

Hooper,  N.  B.,  Newark,  New  Jersey. — Hat  finishing  machine. 

Howe,  A.  B.,  437  Broadway,  New  York. — Sewing  machines.  Bronze 
medal. 

Howe  Machine  Company,  E.  G.  Sterling,  secretary,  629  Broadway, 
New  York. — Sewing  machines. 

A  gold  medal  was  awarded  to  Mr.  Elias  Howe,  jr.,  as  promoter,  and  by 
a  decree  of  the  Emperor  he  was  created  a  Chevalier  of  the  Imperial 
Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

Mttmfort,  Foster  &  Company,  Detroit,  Michigan. — Boot  trees  and 
lasts.  Bronze  medal. 

Siiaw,  C.  A.,  Biddeford,  Maine. — Knitting  machine.  Bronze  medal. 
Union  Buttonhole  and  Embroidery  Company,  Boston,  Massachu¬ 
setts. — Button  hole  and  embroidery  machine.  Bronze  medal. 

Weed  Sewing  Machine  Company,  506  Broadway,  New  York. — Sew¬ 
ing  machines.  Silver  medal. 

Wheeler  and  Wilson,  625  Broadway,  New  York. — Buttonhole  ma¬ 
chines  )  sewing  machines.  Gold  medal. 

Bronze  medals  were  also  awarded  to  Messrs.  A.  J.  House  and  A.  H. 
House  as  co-operators. 

It  is  useless  here  to  review  the  history,  progress,  and  advantages  of 
sewing  machines.  Every  one  understands  their  importance  and  appre¬ 
ciates  their  services.  The  various  modes  of  construction  exhibited  by 
American  manufacturers  at  the  Champ  de  Mars  have  already  been 
presented  in  preceding  Universal  Exhibitions,  and  have  been  explained 
and  discussed  either  in  the  reports  of  the  juries  or  in  industrial  publica¬ 
tions.  To  Mr.  Elias  Howe  redounds  the  credit  of  the  original  invention 
from  which,  with  progressive  variations,  all  the  other  systems  are  derived. 

Mr.  Howe’s  invention,  in  its  relation  to  labor,  is  analogous  to  that  of 
the  Jacquard  loom,  effecting  an  enormous  saving  of  hand  labor,  and 
although,  like  the  loom  in  question,  looked  upon  at  first  with  distrust  by 
the  working  classes,  it  has  in  the  course  of  time  equally  proved  itself  one 
of  the  greatest  benefits  ever  offered  them ;  the  increased  facility  of  labor 
more  than  making  up  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  diminution  in  the  price 


CLASS  LV-LVII.J 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


295 


of  the  article  manufactured — a  benefit  falling  in  turn  to  the  lot  of  the  con¬ 
sumer — so  that  Mr.  Howe  may  be  considered  not  only  in  the  light  of  a 
promoter  of  industry,  but  as  a  benefactor  of  humanity  in  general. 

The  original  machine,  for  which  Mr.  Howe  has  obtained  the  gold 
medal,  decreed  by  the  international  jury  in  honor  of  his  long  and  useful 
researches  in  this  line,  was  exhibited.  The  improvements  made  up  to 
this  time  refer  rather  to  perfection  of  form  than  to  any  great  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  actual  principle.  Mr.  Howe,  although  possessing  the  exclu¬ 
sive  patent  for  all  sewing  machines  during  a  certain  period  of  time,  has 
generously  allowed  the  right  of  fabrication  to  all  parties  inventing 
remarkable  improvements  in  special  branches. 

Since  1855,  the  sewing,  embroidering,  and  braiding  machines  have 
been  considerably  simplified  and  perfected.  The  only  really  new  inven¬ 
tions  since  1862  are  those  for  making  button  holes.  These  complete  the 
revolution  operated  by  sewing  machines.  The  machines  for  button  holes 
are  of  two  kinds,  designated  under  the  heads  of  special  and  mixed.  The 
special  ones  are  represented  by  two  systems,  both  of  which  are  auto¬ 
matical. 

1st.  The  system  of  Wheeler  &  Wilson,  invented  by  two  brothers,  James 
and  Henry  House,  all  the  mechanism  of  which  is  enclosed  in  a  case  placed 
underneath  the  work  table,  and  moved,  like  all  sewing  machines,  either 
by  the  treadle  or  steam.  The  machine  on  exhibition  operates  with  won¬ 
derful  rapidity ;  the  needles  moving  backwards  and  forwards  along  the 
button  hole  until  the  work  is  completed.  Under  the  eyes  of  the  jury  it 
made  three  button  holes,  on  heavy  winter  cloth,  in  the  short  space  of  24 
seconds.  Its  advantages  over  many  other  machines  consist  in  avoiding 
the  necessity  of  turning  or  moving  the  cloth  along  by  hand.  It  makes 
button  holes  of  every  size  and  form ;  and  by  an  ingenious  arrangement 
can  be  adapted  to  sewing  tents,  sacks,  and,  in  a  word,  all  work  which 
requires  the  solid  and  uniform  stitching  of  two  straight  or  curved  borders. 

The  second  system  is  that  exhibited  by  the  u  Union  Button  Hole  and 
Embroidery  Company, ”  Boston.  In  this  machine  the  upper  or  superior 
needles  move  vertically,  while  the  lower  mechanism  makes  the  button 
hole  stitch.  The  system  is  the  inverse  of  Wheeler  &  Wilson ’s;  the  cloth 
or  material  moving  and  turning,  and  the  needle  operating  in  a  fixed 
place.  The  cloth  is  attached  upon  a  turning  plate  which,  first,  by  a  rec¬ 
tilinear,  then  rotary,  and,  lastly,  another  rectilinear  movement,  brings  all 
the  parts  of  the  button  hole  under  the  vertical  needle.  It  is  a  very  inge¬ 
nious  machine,  and  makes  excellent  button  holes  of  all  sizes.  The  only 
inconveniences  which  have  been  spoken  of  respecting  it  are,  that  it  is 
heavy  and  complicated,  and  requires  the  cloth  or  garment  to  be  turned 
and  put  in  movement  during  the  work. 

The  mixed  machines  are  ordinary  Sevang  machines  which,  by  a  change 
of  certain  pieces,  or  by  certain  transmissions,  can  be  transformed  into 
button  hole  machines.  There  are  three  systems  under  this  class : 

1st.  Wheeler  &  Wilson’s,  which  is  also  due  to  the  invention  of  Messrs. 


296 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  YI. 


House,  consisting  in  replacing  the  platform  of  the  ordinary  sewing 
machine  by  a  particular  plate,  which  has  a  double  movement  of  oscilla¬ 
tion  and  translation.  The  oscillating  movement,  combined  with  the 
action  of  the  upper  needle,  serves  to  form  the  button  hole  stitch,  while 
the  translatory  movement  advances  the  work  under  the  same  needle. 
The  button  holes  thus  obtained  are  made  fast  at  the  two  ends,  and  are 
similar  to  those  made  in  linen  drapery.  With  this  system  buttons  may 
be  secured  on  garments,  not,  however,  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  guar¬ 
antee  much  economy  of  hand  labor. 

2d.  The  system  of  Bertram  &  Fanton  applied,  and  applicable  exclu¬ 
sively,  to  the  sewing  machines  of  Wheeler  &  Wilson.  The  plate  or 
button  hole  guide  undergoes  the  same  movements  before  mentioned,  but 
by  different  transmissions. 

3d.  The  system  of  the  u  American  Button  Hole  Company,”  of  Phila¬ 
delphia.  The  machine  exhibited  by  this  company  is  so  made  that  it  can 
be  used  either  for  ordinary  sewing  or  for  button  hole  making.  This 
machine  makes  very  good  button  holes  for  the  use  of  tailors,  &c.,  but 
cannot  be  employed  in  linen  drapery. 

For  various  improvements  and  modifications  of  sewing  machines  we 
may  notice  among  the  exhibitors  the  names  of  the  Florence  Sewing 
Machine  Company,  New  York;  the  Bruen  Manufacturing  Company,  New 
York;  the  Weed  Sewing  Machine;  the  Continental  Manufacturing  Com¬ 
pany;  the  Bartlett  Sewing  Machine  Company,  and  the  Empire  Sewing 
Machine  Company,  of  New  York ;  as  also  J.  S.  Folsom,  Massachusetts. 

Special  machines  for  shoemaking  are  contributed  by  two  houses :  The 
Howe  Machine  Company,  which  has  obtained  a  silver  medal  for  its 
machines,  and  the  house  of  A.  B.  Howe,  New  York,  to  which  the  jury 
decreed  a  bronze  medal.  These  machines,  in  the  construction  of  which 
the  Howe  type  is  the  most  generally  adopted,  are  used  for  all  kinds  of 
sewing  on  leather. 

In  comparing  the  execution  of  the  sewing  machines  exhibited  at  the 
Champ  de  Mars,  one  is  particularly  impressed  with  the  superior  finish 
and  the  uniform  accuracy  of  every  part  of  the  American  machines.  This 
is  due  to  two  causes : 

1st.  To  the  immense  impetus  which  has  been  given  to  the  manufacture 
of  sewing  machines  in  the  United  States. 

2d.  To  the  system  of  manufacture  there  observed.  Every  piece  is 
separately  made  by  machinery,  so  that  any  two  complete  machines  of 
the  same  calibre  are  strictly  identical  in  size  and  form  in  almost  every 
particular,  and  the  pieces  of  one  accord  perfectly  with  those  of  the  other. 

Statistics  of  the  progressive  march  of  this  industry  would  be  interest¬ 
ing  ;  unfortunately,  however,  the  committee  is  not  in  possession  of  any¬ 
thing  like  complete  documents  on  the  subject.  The  following  table,  show¬ 
ing  the  number  of  machines  made  by  only  one  establishment,  may  serve 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  importance  of  this  industry  in  America. 


CLASS  LVIII.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


297 


The  house  of  Messrs.  Wheeler  &  Wilson  have  manufactured  sewing- 
machines  as  follows : 


Years. 

Machines. 

Years. 

Machines. 

Years. 

Machines. 

1853 . 

799 

956 

1, 171 

2,210 

4,591 

1858 . 

7, 978 
21,306 
25, 102 

18, 556 
28, 202 

1863 . 

29, 778 
40,  062 
39, 157 
50,  132 

1854 . 

1859 . 

1864 . 

1855 . 

I860 . 

1865 . 

1 856 . . 

1861 . 

1866 . 

1857 . 

1862 . 

All  the  machines  sent  from  the  United  States  possess  indisputable 
merits,  and  establish  the  fact  that  the  country  is  still  far  in  advance  of 
Europe  in  the  construction  and  improvement  of  these  great  labor-saving- 
inventions. 

CLASS  5«—  APPARATUS  AND  METHODS  USED  IN  MAKING  FURNITURE  AND 

HOUSEHOLD  OBJECTS. 

American  Saw  Company,  S.  W.  Putnam,  secretary,  2  Jacob  street, 
New  York. — Emerson’s  patent  saw. 

Davenport,  H.,  New  York. — Armstrong’s  dovetailing  machine. 

Eenn  &  Eelber,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — W.  Zimmermann’s  mortising  and 
slotting  machine. 

Granier,  Emile. — Dovetailing  machine 

Miller,  W.  P.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Adjustable  teeth  for  saws. 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  there  is  no  one  tool  used  in  the  mechanical 
arts  of  more  practical  utility  than  the  circular  saw.  Notwithstanding 
their  high  cost  and  the  daily  expense  incurred  in  keeping  them  in  order, 
they  are  used  almost  without  limit. 

Formerly  all  saws  were  made  by  forming  solid  teeth  on  the  periphery 
of  the  plate.  Teeth  thus  made  do  good  work,  but  are  liable  to  be,  and 
frequently  are,  broken  off.  There  is  no  means  of  restoring  them  when 
broken,  except  by  reducing  all  the  other  teeth  to  the  same  radius. 

A  circular  saw,  thirty  inches  in  diameter,  presents  a  cutting  edge  more 
than  seven  and  a-half  feet  in  extent.  To  reduce  the  saw  one-eighth  of 
an  inch,  and  relieve  the  teeth  the  same  as  before,  necessitates  the  filing 
away  of  a  strip  of  steel  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  width,  by  the  thickness 
of  the  plate,  and  seven  feet  and  ten  inches  in  length,  and  by  such  operation 
the  saw  will  be  reduced  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Each  filing  of 
a  solid  tooth  saw  is  attended  with  a  like  corresponding  expend iture  of 
labor  and  files. 

To  obviate  this  difficulty,  several  plans  for  attaching  teeth  to  saw 
plates  have  been  devised  and  put  in  use,  but  with  little  or  no  success, 
for  the  following  reasons:  First,  all  insertable  teeth  heretofore  used 
require  a  thicker  plate  to  support  them  than  do  the  solid  teeth.  And, 
secondly,  what  is  saved  in  labor  and  files  by  the  use  of  insertable  teeth 


298 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  VI. 


is  absorbed  in  their  purchase.  For  the  above,  and  other  reasons  inci¬ 
dental  therewith,  insertable  teeth  are  not  much  used  except  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  large  saws,  and  it  is  asserted  by  practical  saw  makers,  and  not 
a  few  mill  men  and  sawyers,  that  there  is  no  economy  in  the  use  of 
insertable  teeth  as  heretofore  made  and  applied. 

Miller’s  saw  teeth  are  annular  disks  with  a  portion  cut  out  so  as  to 
make  a  cutting  edge  or  point  to  the  tooth.  The  teeth  thus  have  the  shape 
of  a  flattened  ring  with  a  portion  removed.  They  are  inserted  in  circular 
openings,  or  sockets,  made  in  the  periphery  of  the  saw.  This  circular 
socket  allows  the  teeth  to  be  turned  outward  or  backward  within  the 
outer  edge  of  the  saw  plate. 

Among  the  many  advantages  claimed  for  these  teeth  above  all  others 
the  following  may  be  cited:  They  are  stronger  even  than  solid  teeth 
formed  on  the  plate  ;  there  is  more  room  for  the  chips  5  the  saws  require 
less  power,  and  will  make  from  eight  to  ten  per  cent,  more  of  inch  boards 
from  a  log  than  can  be  made  by  other  insertable  teeth  saws ;  the  teeth 
are  self  adjusting;  being  round,  they  may  be  turned  in  a  lathe  and  be 
easily  duplicated ;  they  can  be  quickly  inserted ;  they  cannot  be  thrown 
out  of  their  sockets,  and,  finally,  they  will  last  longer  and  thus  accom¬ 
plish  more  work  than  other  forms. 

Rogers  C.  B.,  &  Co.,  Norwich,  Connecticut. — Wood  working  machines. 
Gold  medal. 

Whitney,  Baxter,  D.,  Winchendon,  Massachusetts. — Wood  working 
machines.  Silver  medal. 

Winslow,  J.  B.,  110  East  Twenty-ninth  street,  New  York. — Serpentine 
wood  moulding  machine.  Honorable  mention. 

Winsor,  H.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Model  of  a  machine  for  sawing 
timber  for  ships. 

Wright  &  Smith,  Newark,  New  Jersey. — Scroll  sawing  machine. 

CLASS  59. -APPARATUS  AND  METHODS  OF  PAPER-MAKING,  COLORING, 

AND  STAMPING. 

Degener  &  Weiler,  111  Fulton  street,  New  York. — Printing  presses. 
Bronze  medal. 

Forms  may  be  corrected  on  this  press  without  being  removed.  It  can 
be  worked  by  the  foot  or  by  steam  power.  From  1,000  to  2,500  impres¬ 
sions  can  be  taken  from  this  press  in  an  hour,  according  to  the  capa¬ 
bility  of  the  workman. 

Galloupe,  ^Nicholson  &  Woodbury,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Paper 
collar  machinery. 

McLaughlin,  R.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Morse’s  improved  bed  plate 
for  paper  making  machinery. 

Sweet,  J.  E.,  Syracuse,  New  York. — Composing  machine.  Bronze  medal. 
Welch,  Patrick,  356  East  Fourth  street,  New  York. — Improved  lower 
case  for  compositors. 


CLASS  LX-LXIIL] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


299 


CLASS  60.— MACHINERY,  INSTRUMENTS,  AND  METHODS  USED  IN  VARIOUS 

WORKS. 

Smith,  H.,  Salem,  Massachusetts. — Spring  power  machines. 

Van  Denburgh,  G.,  24  Yesey  street,  New  York. — Emery  wheels. 
Welch,  Patrick,  356  East  Fourth  street,  New  York. — Machine  for 
dressing  printing  types.  Gold  medal. 

CLASS  61.— CARRIAGES,  WAGONS,  AND  WHEELWRIGHTS’  WORK. 

Blanchard,  A.  Y.,  &  Co.,  Palmer,  Massachusetts. — Bent  wood. 

Hall,  James,  &  Son,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Top  buggy.  Silver 
medal. 

Rucker,  Major  General,  Washington,  D.  C. — United  States  army  wagon, 
harness,  &c. 

Schuttler,  P.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Lumber  wagon. 

This  wagon  is  capable  of  bearing  a  load  of  4,000  pounds.  The  box 
may  be  removed  and  a  rack  placed  upon  the  wagon  that  will  hold  a  large 
load  of  hay  or  straw.  Loads  of  timber  or  lumber  can  be  drawn  without 
box  or  rack.  It  is  furnished  with  a  spring  seat,  which  is  moveable,  and 
can  be  placed  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  driver.  The  ends  of  the 
box  may  be  removed  when  desired,  and,  lastly,  the  wood  of  the  wagon  is 
of  the  very  best  seasoned  and  most  durable  material. 

Scott,  J.,  Ocala,  Florida. — Carriage  wheel. 

Stephenson,  John,  &  Co.,  47  East  Twenty-seventh  street,  New  York. — 
Street  railway  carriage.  Honorable  mention. 

This  beautiful  and  highly  finished  vehicle,  intended  for  India,  has  the 
wheels  placed  underneath,  and  is  so  constructed  as  to  bear  with  ease  and 
safety  a  very  great  weight.  The  carriage,  which  is  fitted  up  in  rich  style 
with  exquisitely  painted  panels,  is  capable  of  containing  from  30  to  40 
persons. 

Wood  Brothers,  596  Broadway,  New  York. — Phaeton  and  buggy. 
Silver  medal. 

CLASS  62.— HARNESS  WORK  AND  SADDLERY. 

Smith,  T.  S.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — New  system  of  bit. 

Stattman,  C.,  Natchez,  Mississippi. — Ladies’  saddles. 

Wellmann,  C.,  932  Broadway,  New  York. — Ladies’  saddles ;  gentle¬ 
men’s  saddles.  Honorable  mention. 

CLASS  63.— MATERIALS  FOR  RAILROADS  AND  CA£S. 

Creamer,  W.  G.,  15  Platt  street,  New  York. — Railroad  brake  and  ven¬ 
tilator. 

Eastman,  Z.,  United  States  consul  at  Bristol,  England. — Model  of  street 
railway  and  carriage  track. 

Fairbanks,  E.  &  T.,  &  Co.,  St.  Johnsbury,  Yermont. — Railroad  scale. 
Bronze  medal.  See  a  notice,  also,  in  Class  51. 


300  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION.  rGROUP  VI. 

Foster,  A.,  50  John  street,  New  York. — Graham’s  locomotive  spring 
balance. 

Hall,  T.  S.,  Stamford,  Connecticut. — Electric  switch  alarm. 

This  invention  is  intended  to  remedy  the  mischief  which  too  frequently 
occurs  on  railways  in  consequence  of  the  misplacement  of  a  switch.  It 
has  an  alarm  and  a  signal,  and  is  worked  by  electricity.  When  the 
switch  is  on  the  main  line  the  electric  current  is  broken,  but  if  displaced 
the  circuit  is  complete  and  an  alarm  is  given  by  the  vibration  of  a  hammer 
against  a  gong.  In  addition  to  this  the  lines  are  connected  with  a  mag¬ 
net,  which  operates  a  red  and  white  signal,  as  the  switch  is  right  or 
wrong,  displaying  in  the  night  time  a  red  or  white  light.  Both  the  alarm 
and  the  signal  operate  at  the  same  time  by  the  movement  of  the  switch, 
thus  affording  a  double  security  by  an  alarm  for  the  switch  tender  and  a 
signal  for  the  engineer. 

Myers,  G.,  Upper  Sandusky,  Ohio. — Bailroad  journal  boxes  of  “silicated 
copper.” 

Star  Metal  Company,  E.  E.  Childs,  president,  New  York. — Star  metal 
railroad  journal  boxes. 

The  Grant  Locomotive  Works,  Paterson,  New  Jersey. — In  the  Annex, 
Park.  Locomotive  and  tender,  the  u  America.”  Gold  medal. 

The  weight  of  the  engine,  in  running  order,  is  27}  tons,  of  the  tender, 
when  empty,  9  tons,  or  18  tons  when  loaded.  The  engine  frame  is  com¬ 
posed  of  the  best  American  iron,  and  is  light  and  strong.  The  truck  of 
the  engine  is  simply  used  to  guide  it,  and  at  the  same  time  carry  the 
small  amount  of  overhanging  weight.  The  driving  wheels  bear  the  main 
weight  of  the  engine,  and,  by  means  of  equalizing  levers,  distribute  it 
equally  upon  each  wheel,  giving  the  entire  adhesive  power  of  the  engine. 
The  side  valves  are  what  are  termed  roller  valves  ;  the  boiler  is  com¬ 
posed  of  5-16th  iron,  and  is  double  riveted.  The  usual  load  for  this  class 
of  engine  is  200  tons  at  a  speed  of  40  to  50  miles  an  hour.  An  engine 
built  by  the  Grant  works  and  similar  to  the  u  America,”  has  drawn  400 
tons  at  a  speed  of  25  miles  per  hour  during  the  last  14  months  without 
as  yet  requiring  repair.  All  the  various  operations  required  in  the  con¬ 
duct  of  the  engine  can  be  carried  on  in  the  apartment  of  the  engineer 
and  fireman  5  and  the  engine,  even  if  running  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  per 
minute,  can  be  reversed,  the  reversing  brake  being  capable  of  being 
managed  by  a  child.  A  signal  bell  communicates  with  the  conductor 
as  usual  in  American  railways,  and  a  powerful  reflecting  light  is 
placed  in  front  of  the  engine,  and  can  be  seen,  it  is  said,  at  five  miles 
distance.  The  wheels  of  the  engine  are  of  cast-iron  and  hollow,  and  its 
grate  bars  are  composed  of  hollow  iron  tubes  through  which  the  water 
passes. 

Warner,  H.  W.,  Greenfield,  Massachusetts. — Cast-iron  railroad  rail 
chair. 


CLASS  LXIV.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


301 


CLASS  64.— APPARATUS  AND  METHODS  OF  TELEGRAPHING. 

Caton,  J.  D.,  Ottawa,  Illinois. — Pocket  field  telegraph  apparatus. 

This  instrument  consists  of  a  pair  of  helices,  each  two  inches  long  and 
three-fourths  inch  in  diameter,  incased  in  a  thin  cylinder  of  hard  rubber. 
They  are  wound  with  No.  36  insulated  copper  wire.  The  armature  is  If 
inch  long,  ^  inch  thick,  and  \  inch  wide.  The  sounding  lever,  of  brass, 
is  1J  inch  long,  is  placed  horizontally,  from  the  centre  of  which  drops  a 
perpendicular  arm  to  which  the  armature  is  attached.  The  free  end  of 
the  sounding  lever  plays  between  the  milled  heads  of  two  set  screws,  the 
upper  of  which  is  inserted  in  the  lower.  This  connects  with  a  branched 
anvil,  the  two  legs  of  which  rest  upon  a  brass  sounding  board,  If  inches 
diameter,  which  is  concave  beneath  and  is  attached  with  three  screws  to 
the  bottom  of  the  case,  a  diminutive  adjusting  spring,  actuated  by  a 
milled  headed  adjusting  post  with  milled  headed  connecting  screws. 
At  the  opposite  end  of  the  magnet  is  a  key  of  very  thin  tempered  brass, 
J  inch  wide  and  If  inch  long,  with  ivory  finger  piece,  connecting  points 
of  platinum,  and  a  current  breaker  with  ivory  handle.  This  completes 
the  mechanical  contrivances,  and  the  whole  is  enclosed  in  a  hard  rubber 
case,  with  a  cover  like  a  snuff  box. 

The  external  dimensions  when  shut  are,  length  5  inches,  breadth  2J 
inches,  height  1^  inch.  The  ends  of  the  box  are  semi-circular.  The 
case  stands  upon  four  brass  legs,  f  inch  diameter  and  f  inch  long.  Entire 
weight  lOf  ounces. 

Here  are  all  the  instruments  necessary  for  a  complete  telegraph  office 
where  the  operator  receives  by  sound,  which  is  now  almost  universally 
the  case  in  this  country.  No  local  circuit  is  required,  but  it  is  operated 
on  the  main  circuit.  The  report  is  as  clear,  distinct,  and  audible  as  that 
of  an  ordinary  sounder  actuated  by  a  local  circuit.  It  is  designed  for 
use  in  the  field  or  out  of  doors.  A  telegrapher  will  attach  it  to  the  main 
line  anywhere  in  the  country  in  five  minutes,  when  he  can  send  and 
receive  messages  with  the  same  facility  and  accuracy  that  he  can  in  a 
regular  telegraph  office.  During  the  war  Mr.  Caton  supplied  the  govern¬ 
ment  with  a  large  number  of  these  instruments,  but  was  unable  to  fill  all  of 
the  orders  of  General  Stager,  who  had  charge  of  the  government  tele¬ 
graph  department.  Nearly  all  telegraph  superintendents  are  supplied 
with  them,  as  well  as  very  many  operators,  Avho  never  travel  without 
them.  Their  invaluable  services  in  case  of  railroad  accidents  may  be 
readily  appreciated,  and  at  the  West  they  are  in  constant  use.  An 
account  of  their  services  thus  rendered  each  year  would  fill  a  volume, 
and  really  no  train  should  ever  move  without  one  in  the  hands  of  a  com¬ 
petent  operator.  These  instruments  are  only  made  at  Ottawa,  Illinois, 
under  the  superintendence  of  that  accomplished  mechanic,  Mr.  Robert 
Heming. 

Coston,  Mrs.  M.  J., Washington,  D.  C. — Costoifs telegraphic  night  signals. 
Farmer,  M.  G.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Thermo-electric  battery. 


302  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION.  [GROUP  VI. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  The  Anglo-American  Company,  New  York. — 
Transatlantic  telegraph.  Grand  prize. 

Hughes,  David  E.,  New  York. — Printing  telegraph.  Grand  prize. 

Morse,  S.  E.  and  G.  L.,  Harrison,  New  Jersey. — Model  of  a  new  mode  of 
laying  and  raising  submarine  cables. 

Ward,  A.  F.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Combination  of  colors  for 
signals. 

CLASS  65.— CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  PUBLIC  WORKS,  AND  ARCHITECTURE. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  1010  Washington  street,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Door 
fastener. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Challenge  lock. 

Banker  &  Carpenter,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Paints,  for  buildings. 

Belcher  Brothers,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Plan  of  an  artesian  well  at 
St.  Louis. 

Board  of  Public  Works  of  Chicago,  A.  W.  Tinkham,  secretary, 
Chicago,  Illinois. — Drawing  of  a  tunnel  constructed  under  Lake 
Michigan.  Silver  medal. 

Bradstreet,  J.  K.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Bubber  mouldings  and 
weather  strips. 

Chapin  &  Wells,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Model  of  swing  bridge.  Silver 
medal. 

Dana,  J.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Faced  or  pressed  brick. 

Day,  H.  H.,  23  Courtland  street,  New  York. — Model  of  a  system  of  canals 
without  locks,  for  steamers,  &c. 

Derrom,  A.,  Paterson,  New  Jersey. — Model  trestle  bridge. 

Dodds,  Macneale  &  Urban,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Bank  locks. 

Gregg,  Isaac,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Brick-making  machine,  in 
operation,  to  be  seen  in  the  Annex  of  the  Exhibition,  Nos.  100  and 
102,  Avenue  Suffren.  Silver  medal. 

Herring,  Farrel  &  Sherman,  New  York. — Fire  and  burglar-proof 
safes.  Bronze  medal. 

Hustin,  A.,  Bristol,  Massachusetts. — Mitre  box,  with  scale. 

Johnson,  J.,  Saco,  Maine. — Dredging  and  excavating  machine. 

Johnson’s  Rotary  Lock  Company,  18  John  street,  New  York. — F.  G. 
Johnson’s  rotary  locks. 

Johnson,  W.,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. — Bank  lock. 

La  Mothe,  J.  B.,  5  Wall  street,  New  York. — Model  of  a  house  with 
tube  frame. 

Louisville  Cement  and  Waterpower  Company,  Louisville,  Ken¬ 
tucky. — Cement. 

Milwaukee  Brick  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. — Building  bricks. 

Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. — Steam-coils,  pipes, 
&c. 

Newmann,  H.  J.,  Andover,  Massachusetts. — American  woods  painted 
in  oil  and  distemper. 


CLASS  LXVI.  ] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


303 


Nicholson,  S.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Model  of  wooden  pavement. 
Pease,  C.  F.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Spring-balance  curtain  fixture. 
Bobinson,  E.,  &  Son,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Metallic  roofing. 

Smith,  H.,  255  East  Thirtieth  street,  New  York. — Window  blind  and 
shutter  fasteners. 

Vanderburgh,  G.  E.,  24  Vesey  street,  New  York. — Artificial  building- 
blocks. 

Washburn,  B.  D.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Kingman’s  paint  roofing. 

Exhibited  in  Mr.  Bacon’s  bakery  in  the  Park. 

Webster,  W.,  Rochester,  New  York. — Plans  of  parks. 

Weston  &  Putnam,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Graining,  in  imitation  of 
American  woods. 

Yale  and  Winn  Manufacturing  Company,  Sherbune  Falls,  Massa¬ 
chusetts. — Locks.  Silver  medal. 

CLASS  66.— NAVIGATION,  LIFE-BOATS,  YACHTS,  AND  PLEASURE  BOATS. 

Beckwith,  E.  P.,  New  London,  Connecticut. — Model  of  a  fishing  smack. 
Brown  &  Level,  Wall  street,  New  York. — Tackle  for  disengaging  ship’s 
boats.  Bronze  medal. 

This  apparatus  has  been  adopted  upon  many  vessels  and  steamer  lines 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  simple,  reliable,  cheap,  and  can  be  easily 
adapted  to  boats  without  change  of  rig.  By  its  aid,  one  man,  standing 
in  the  centre  of  a  loaded  boat,  can  detach  it  instantaneously  from  the 
ship,  even  while  it  is  under  full  speed. 

Daboll,  C.  L.,  New  London,  Connecticut. — Fog  whistle.  In  the  Annex, 
Park.  Silver  medal. 

Duffy,  J.,  Paterson,  New  Jersey. — Sectional  model  of  iron-clad  ship 
containing  various  improvements. 

Hudson,  Captain  J.  M. — The  ship  u  Red,  White  and  Blue.” 

This  little  vessel,  constructed  by  Mr.  Ingersoll,  of  New  York,  which 
crossed  the  Atlantic  with  the  two  daring  men,  Captain  Hudson  and 
Captain  Fitch,  was,  by  special  permission  of  the  Emperor,  installed  in 
the  Park.  It  was  rigged  as  a  three-master,  26  feet  long,  6  feet  beam,  and 
registered  2  tons  28  cwt. 

Lepelly,  N.  D.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. — New  construction  of  rudder. 
Manley,  W.  R.,  New  York. — Model  of  a  paddle  wheel  for  steamers,  with 
vertical  floats. 

Page,  E.  W.,  69  West  street,  New  York. — Oars.  Honorable  mention. 
Perry,  E.  F.,  New  York. — Life-saving  raft. 

Pratt,  H.  D.  J.,  Washington,  D.  C. — Model  of  a  propelling  apparatus 
attached  to  a  small  metallic  vessel. 

The  propelling  screw  in  this  apparatus  is  placed  under  the  keel. 

Reed,  J.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Model  of  a  life  boat. 

Reim,  W.  O.,  Springfield,  Ohio. — Hydrostatic  scale. 


304 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  VII. 


Rolle,  H.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Model  of  a  propelling  apparatus 
for  steamships. 

Vandeusen,  J.  B.,  274  Seventh  street,  New  York. — Model  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  yacht  u  Fleetwing.”  Bronze  medal. 

GROUP  VII. 

FOOD,  FRESH  OR  PRESERVED,  IN  VARIOUS  STAGES  OF 

PREPARATION. 

CLASS  67.— CEREALS  AND  OTHER  FARINACEOUS  EDIBLES,  WITH  THEIR 

DERIVATIVES. 

The  cereal  productions  of  the  United  States  on  exhibition  were  by  no 
means  sufficient  to  give  one  an  adequate  idea  of  the  great  grain-growing 
capabilities  of  the  country.  A  resolution  passed  by  both  Houses  of 
Congress  in  January,  1867,  instructed  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
u  to  collect  and  prepare,  so  far  as  practicable,  and  with  as  little  delay  as 
possible,  suitable  specimens  of  the  cereal  productions  of  the  several  States 
of  the  Union  lor  exhibition  at  the  Paris  Exposition.” 

It  was  naturally  expected  that  such  a  proposed  exhibition  of  the  finest 
samples  of  the  best  varieties  of  wheat,  corn,  and  other  cereals,  would 
command  the  admiration  of  Europe,  as  it  would  assuredly  arouse  the 
pride  of  all  Americans. 

Notwithstanding  the  commendable  activity  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  the  short  time  authorized  for  making  the  collection,  and 
the  multitude  of  unforseen  difficulties  which  presented  themselves,  pre¬ 
vented  the  assembling  of  such  an  imposing  variety  of  cereals  as  was 
desired  and  originally  intended. 

Agriculture,  Department  of,  Washington,  D.  C. — Products  from  the 
following  States :  Wheat  from  Ohio,  Indiana,  Minnesota,  Virginia, 
Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Washington,  Vermont,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  Michigan  winter  wheat ;  wheat  from  Boyer  valley,  Maine, 
Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  Nebraska;  barley  from 
Maryland  and  Connecticut;  cotton  seeds  from  Georgia;  wheat  from 
North  Carolina,  Minnesota,  Texas,  Kansas,  Massachusetts,  and 
Georgia ;  oats  from  Baltimore  county,  Maryland ;  peas  from  Illinois, 
Michigan,  and  Vermont ;  beans  from  New  York  and  Maine.  Bronze 
medal. 

Babillon,  Hinchman  &  Co.,  Detroit,  Michigan. — Indian  corn  meal, 
white  and  yellow. 

California,  State  of. — Cereals.  Silver  medal. 

The  exhibition  of  cereals  of  California  production  was  made  by  Mr. 
Campbell,  of  San  Francisco,  Mr.  Peters,  of  Stockton,  and  Mr.  Perkins,  of 
Oakland.  The  two  former  exhibited  samples  of  remarkably  fine  wheat. 
A  silver  medal  was  awarded  to  the  State,  as  above. 

Campbell,  J.  W.  H.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Cereals. 

A  large  sack,  about  two  bushels,  of  California  u  high  mixed  white 


CLASS  LXVIII.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


305 


wheat,”  weighing  about  120  pounds.  This  wheat  attracted  much  atten¬ 
tion  and  was  greatly  desired  for  seed  by  agriculturists.  Agreeably  to 
the  directions  of  the  exhibitor,  it  was  donated,  at  the  close  of  the  Exhi¬ 
bition,  to  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England. 

Carpenter,  William  S.,  Harrison,  New  York. — Indian  corn  in  the  ear. 
Bronze  medal. 

Glen  Cove  Starch  Manufacturing  Co.,  W.  Duryea,  secretary,  106 
Fulton  street,  New  York. — u  Maizena,”  a  preparation  of  Indian  corn 
for  puddings,  custards,  &c.  Silver  medal. 

Maizena  is  made  from  the  Indian  corn  grown  in  the  Atlantic  States. 
It  is  remarkable  as  well  for  its  nutritive  qualities  as  for  the  many  dif¬ 
ferent  and  useful  ways  in  which  it  may  be  employed.  The  exports  of 
this  article  to  Australia  are  said  to  amount  $60,000  annually,  while 
England  demands  as  much  more,  and  on  the  continent  it  is  rapidly 
coming  into  favor  as  an  article  for  table  use.  Large  quantities  are  also 
shipped  to  Japan  and  other  portions  of  the  world.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  exportation  of  maizena  now  amounts  to  $400,000  a  year,  while  in  the 
United  States  perhaps  even  more  is  consumed.  Three  articles  are  manu¬ 
factured  from  the  corn :  1st,  the  fine  flour  called  maizena ;  2d,  com 
starch;  3d,  a  starch  made  from  the  refuse,  and  employed  for  laundry 
purposes. 

Illinois,  State  of. — Cereals,  grain  in  the  ear,  and  flour.  Bronze  medal. 
Iowa,  State  of. — Cereals  and  flour.  Honorable  mention. 

Kansas,  State  of. — Cereals  and  flour.  Bronze  medal. 

Minnesota,  State  of. — Cereals.  Honorable  mention. 

Missouri,  State  of. — Corn,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  corn  in  the  ear. 

Ohio,  State  of. — Cereals.  Bronze  medal. 

Perkins,  D.  L.,  Oakland,  California. — A  collection  of  seeds  of  cereals 
and  vegetables  grown  in  California,  120  varieties  in  all,  classified 
and  labelled,  and  packed  in  glass. 

Donated  at  the  close  of  the  Exposition  to  the  Imperial  Societe  de  Accli- 
matation.  This  collection  was  accompanied  by  a  photograph  showing 
the  variety  of  vegetables  grown  in  California. 

Peters,  J.  D.,  San  Joaquin  county,  California. — Specimens  of  wheat 
grown  in  California. 

Samory,  H.,  Gentilly,  Louisiana. — Pecan  nuts. 

Urquhart,  J.  M.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Samples  of  rice. 

Warder,  J.  A.,  Hamilton,  Ohio. — Samples  of  various  kinds  of  Indian 
corn. 

Western  Yirginia,  State  of. — Cereals. 

Wisconsin,  State  of. — Cereals  and  flour.  Bronze  medal. 

CLASS  68.— BREAD  AND  PASTRY. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  1010  Washington  street,  Boston,  Mass. — Crackers;  bread 
and  cakes;  aerated  bread,  Dauglish’s  system.  Establishment  in  the 
Park.  See  a  notice  under  Class  50. 


306 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  vn. 


CLASS  69.— FATTY  SUBSTANCES  USED  AS  FOOD,  MILK  AND  EGGS. 

CLASS  70. — MEAT  AND  FISH. 

Borden,  Gail,  36  Elizabeth  street,  New  York. — Extract  of  beef.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

Bray  &  Hayes,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Preserved  lobster.  Honorable 
mention. 

Cape,  Culver  &  Co.,  New  York. — Manhattan  hams.  Silver  medal. 

Culbertson,  Blair  &  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Packed  beef,  pork,  and 
lard.  Silver  medal. 

Duffield,  Charles,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Salt  cured,  and  smoked  hams. 
Silver  medal. 

Portland  Packing  Company,  Portland,  Maine. — Preserved  oysters 
and  lobsters.  Honorable  mention. 

Townsend  Brothers,  79  Water  street,  New  York. — Canned  oysters. 
Honorable  mention. 

CLASS  71.— VEGETABLES  AND  FRUITS. 

Mott,  E.  C.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Sample  of  file,  powdered  sassa¬ 
fras  root ;  gumbo  powder  for  soups. 

Oneida  Community,  J.  A.  Noyes,  agent,  Oneida,  New  York. — Preserved 
fruits.  Honorable  mention. 

Portland  Packing  Company,  Portland,  Maine. — Preserved  vegetables. 

Squire,  John  J.,  New  London,  Connecticut. — Preserved  fruits  and  vege¬ 
tables.  Bronze  medal. 

Townsend  Brothers,  79  Water  street,  New  York. — Canned  fruits. 

CLASS  72.— CONDIMENTS  AND  STIMULANTS,  SUGAR  AND  SPECIMENS  OF 

CONFECTIONERY. 

Avery,  I).  D.,  Petite  Anse,  Louisiana. — Crushed  rock  salt.  Honorable 
mention. 

Davidson,  J ohn,  St.  Bernard  Parish,  Louisiana. — Befined  yellow  sugar. 
Honorable  mention. 

Germania  Sugar  Company,  Chatsworth,  Illinois. — Beet  sugar. 

Iowa,  State  of. — Sorghum  syrup  and  sugar. 

Johnson,  Bradish,  Louisiana. — Sugar.  Bronze  medal. 

Laurence,  E.,  Louisiana.— Sugar.  Silver  medal. 

Lopez,  D.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Chocolate. 

Peck,  O.  E.,  Vermont. — Maple  sugar. 

Sabatier,  G.,  Plaquemines  Parish,  Louisiana. — Sugar.  Honorable  men¬ 
tion. 

Stanford,  W.  L.,  Plaquemine  parish,  Louisiana. — Clarified  sugar. 

Thompson,  A.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Samples  of  powdered  and 
crushed  sugar,  and  golden  syrup. 

Townsend  Brothers,  79  Water  street,  New  York. — Canned  fruits. 

Waltemeyer,  Jacob,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Preserved  fruits.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 


CLASS  LXXIIL]  UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  307 

Walter  Baker  &  Co.,  Dorchester,  Massachusetts. — Cocoa  and  choco¬ 
late.  Silver  medal. 

Williams,  C.  C.,  314  Dean  street,  New  York. — Hermetically  sealed  fruit 
in  syrup.  Honorable  mention. 

Wisconsin,  State  of. — Sorghum  syrup  and  sugar. 

CLASS  73.— FERMENTED  DRINKS. 

American  Wine  Company,  Saint  Louis,  Missouri. — Wines.  Honorable 
mention. 

Anderson,  W.  F.  &  J.  P.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Longworth’s  sparkling  and 
still  Catawba,  Catawba  brandy,  red  wine  from  Norton  seedlings. 
Honorable  mention. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  &  D.  Jay  Browne,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Sorghum 
brandy,  and  brandy  made  from  American  wines  and  wild  grapes. 
Bottler,  Charles,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Dry  and  sparkling  wines.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 

Brehm,  F.  C.,  Waterloo,  New  York. — Wines  and  brandies. 

Buena  Vista  Vinicultural  Society,  San  Francisco,  California. — 
Sparkling  Sonoma  wine. 

Two  cases  of  quart  bottles,  sample  of  the  wine  put  up  by  this  society  at 
its  establishment  in  Sonoma  valley.  This  wine  was  much  liked  by  the 
committees  and  experts,  and  received  the  diploma  of  honorable  mention. 
The  company  commenced  operations  in  1863,  and  in  1866  they  put  up 
40,000  bottles,  and  in  1867,  90,000  bottles.  The  California  grape  is  used. 
Honorable  mention. 

Cozzens,  Frederic  L.,  73  Warren  street,  New  York. — Wines  and  liquors. 
Dows,  Guild,  Clark  &  Van  Winkle,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 
American  bar  and  restaurant.  Kestaurant  gallery. 

Griffith,  W.  M.,  North  East,  Pennsylvania. — American  red  and  white 
wines ;  brandies  made  from  wine  and  lees. 

Hellman,  A.,  202  Broadway,  New  York. — Sparkling  Catawba,  made 
from  grapes  growing  in  the  State  of  New  York. 

Husmann,  G.,  Hermann,  Missouri. — Wines. 

Illinois,  State  of. — Wines. 

Keller,  M.,  Bising  Sun  and  Los  Angeles  vineyards,  California. — Cali¬ 
fornia  wines,  brandy  and  bitters. 

Kohler  &  Frohling,  San  Francisco,  California. — Wines.  White  and 
red  wines  produced  from  the  California  grape  at  the  vineyards,  Los 
Angeles,  California. 

Le  Franc,  C.  H.,  New  Almaden,  California. — Bed  and  white  vines. 

Four  cases,  of  12  bottles  each,  of  wine  made  by  Mr.  Le  Franc  at  his  vine¬ 
yards  seven  miles  south  of  San  Jose,  upon  the  road  to  New  Almaden. 
Leick,  G.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. — Wines. 

Meta  ye,  F.,  Jeiferson  parish,  Louisiana. — Bum. 


308 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  X. 


Pleasant  Yalley  Wine  Company,  C.  D.  Champlin,  secretary,  Ham- 
monclsport,  New  York. — Sparkling  wines  and  brandy.  Honorable 
mention. 

Rowley,  J.  &  S.,  Hastings-on-the-Hudson,  New  York. — Hastings  wine. 

St.  Louis  Park  of  Fruits,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Catawba  wine. 

Sansevain  Brothers,  Los  Angeles,  California. — Wines. 

Red  and  wliite,  of  several  vintages,  made  from  grapes  grown  in  their 

vineyards  in  Los  Angeles  county. 

Smith,  McPherson  &  Donald,  West  Eighteenth  street,  New  York. — 
Pale  ale,  porter,  and  brown  stout.  Bronze  medal. 

Sylvester,  E.  W.,  Lyons,  New  York. — Wine  made  from  the  Americau 
Oporto  grape. 

Underhill,  R.  T.,  Clinton  Hall,  7  Astor  Place,  New  York. — Wines. 

Werk,  M.,  &  Son,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Dry  and  sparkling  wines.  Hon¬ 
orable  mention. 


CLASS  74  TO  89. 

(No  exhibitors.) 

GROUP  X. 

ARTICLES  EXHIBITED  WITH  THE  SPECIAL  OBJECT  OF 
IMPROVING  THE  PHYSICAL  AND  MORAL  CONDITION 
OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

CLASS  89. -MATERIALS  FOR,  AND  METHODS  OF,  TEACHING  CHILDREN. 

Howe,  S.  G.,  Director  of  the  Perkins,  Institute  for  the  Blind,  Boston, 
Massachusetts.  —  Books  and  apparatus  for  the  use  of  the  blind. 
Silver  medal. 

Illinois,  State  of. — Specimen  of  a  western  primary  school  and  school 
furniture. 

The  United  States  school  house  was  intended  to  be  an  exact  reproduc¬ 
tion  of  one  of  the  numerous  free  primary  schools  which  are  erected  in 
the  country  districts  of  Illinois.  It  was  about  32  by  50  feet,  with  an 
entrance  porch,  and  a  place  for  hanging  up  hats  and  bonnets,  and  could 
accommodate  50  pupils.  This  modest  structure  attracted  great  attention 
from  those  interested  in  popular  education,  and  it  was  specially  noticed 
by  M.  H.  Ferte,  late  chief  of  primary  instruction  in  Paris,  in  a  contribu¬ 
tion  to  the  Manuel  General  de  Hnstruction  Primaire,  from  which  the 
following  descriptive  extract  is  translated :  u  Let  us  enter  this  modest 
structure  of  which  we  have  spoken.  We  find  a  large  room,  which  at  first 
appears  like  all  those  built  for  educational  purposes  j  but  let  us  exam¬ 
ine  the  details  attentively,  and  we  soon  notice  the  excellent  conditions 
under  which  it  is  established.  First,  the  ceiling  is  twelve  feet  above  a 
good  floor — very  necessary  in  a  place  where  many  children  are  to  be 


CLASS  XC.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


309 


gathered.  In  the  second  place,  the  ventilation  is  perfectly  provided  for 
by  means  of  sash  windows  upon  each  side  and  at  the  ends,  which  we 
designate  in  France  as  1  guillotine  f  but  however  they  may  be  called, 
these  windows  have  the  immense  advantage  over  ours  that  they  give 
ventilation  at  pleasure,  from  the  top  or  bottom,  as  may  be  found  desirable. 
Besides,  they  allow  a  free  circulation,  which,  among  us,  is  prevented  by 
our  poor  system  of  windows,  opening  inside,  and  which  take  off  for  this 
reason  nearly  two  feet  of  passage  room.  Let  us  add  that  with  the 
American  windows  the  breaking  of  glass  is  made  less  frequent,  and  that 
the  drafts  produced  with  ours  by  the  windows  opening  in  the  middle,  by 
their  arrangement  are  easily  avoided.  If,  after  the  windows,  we  exam¬ 
ine  the  desks  for  the  teachers  and  pupils,  we  find  them  very  much 
preferable  to  those  in  use  in  France.  While  we  have  long  tables  accom¬ 
panied  by  long  benches  for  accommodating  ten  or  twelve  pupils,  who 
crowd,  elbow,  and  hinder  each  other  ;  in  this  American  school  we  find 
the  desks  or  tables  neatly  arranged  for  either  one  or  two  scholars,  with 
a  seat  having  a  support  for  the  back  of  the  pupil.  The  teachers  who 
read  this  will  understand  at  once  the  advantages  of  such  an  arrange¬ 
ment.  Does  a  scholar  need  to  leave  his  seat,  he  can  do  so  without  dis¬ 
turbing  his  neighbor,  or  without  being  obliged,  to  the  great  detriment 
of  discipline,  to  pass  before  seven  or  eight  of  his  fellow  students,  who 
never  fail  to  make  good  such  an  occasion  for  mischief.  It  would  be 
highly  desirable  to  have  these  American  desks  introduced  in  our  schools. 
The  discipline  would  be  benefited  by  it,  the  children  could  prosecute 
their  studies  without  disturbance,  and  be  very  much  more  comfortable. 
We  wish  the  same  for  the  introduction  of  the  inkstand  with  which  each 
table  is  provided.  The  calculators,  geometrical  figures,  globes,  charts, 
and  other  school  apparatus  resemble  much  those  in  our  best  schools. 
Among  the  books  we  have  examined  we  find  many  deserving  of  high 
commendation.  We  notice  improved  methods  of  teaching  penmanship, 
excellent  and  simple  spelling,  reading  and  drawing  books,  quite  superior 
in  every  respect,  and  also  conveniences  for  cleaning  blackboards,  carry¬ 
ing  books,  and  methods  of  object  teaching,  quite  unknown  with  us.  The 
desks,  maps,  globes,  books,  and  school  apparatus  exhibited  we  find  were 
contributed  by  the  Messrs.  Sherwood  and  A.  H.  Andrews,  two  large  and 
enterprising  dealers  in  these  articles  in  Chicago,  the  principal  city  of 
Illinois  and  the  northwest.”  * 

Missouri,  State  of,  J.  L.  Butler,  agent. — Collection  of  books,  papers, 
photographs,  maps,  &c.,  illustrating  the  resources  of  the  State  of 
Missouri.  (In  the  Illinois  cottage.) 

CLASS  90.— LIBRARIES  AND  APPARATUS  USED  IN  THE  INSTRUCTION  OF 
ADULTS  AT  HOME,  IN  THE  WORKSHOP,  OR  IN  SCHOOLS  AND  COL¬ 
LEGES. 


21  U  E 


(No  exhibitors.) 


310 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


[GROUP  X. 


CLASS  91.— FURNITURE,  CLOTHING,  AND  FOOD  FROM  ALL  SOURCES,  RE¬ 
MARKABLE  FOR  USEFUL  QUALITIES  COMBINED  WITH  CHEAPNESS. 

(No  exhibitors.) 

CLASS  92.— SPECIMENS  OF  THE  CLOTHING  WORN  BY  THE  PEOPLE  OF 
DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES. 

(No  exhibitors.) 

CLASS  93.— EXAMPLES  OF  DWELLINGS  CHARACTERIZED  BY  CHEAPNESS, 
COMBINED  WITH  THE  CONDITIONS  NECESSARY  FOR  HEALTH  AND 
COMFORT. 

Flint  &  Hall,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Sectional  building,  containing 
M.  Bacon’s  bakery  establishment. 

Gottheil,  Edward,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Portable  cottage  build¬ 
ing,  made  of  Louisiana  woods. 

Illinois,  State  of. — Specimen  of  a  western  farmer’s  house.  Silver 
medal. 

In  the  section  of  the  Park  assigned  to  the  United  States  the  State  of 
Illinois  exhibited  the  western  farmer’s  home,  or  u  American  cottage.”  It 
was  constructed  by  Colonel  Lyman  Bridges,  of  Chicago,  from  plans  fur¬ 
nished  by  O.  L.  Wheelock,  esq.,  architect,  of  that  city,  and  was  forwarded 
in  sections  by  railway  to  New  York,  and  was  installed  among  other  types 
of  residences  and  palaces  in  the  Champ  de  Mars. 

The  object  was  to  show  the  kind  of  dwelling  much  used  in  the  agricul¬ 
tural  regions  of  the  United  States — a  dwelling  which,  while  combining 
beauty  and  comfort,  is  within  the  reach  of  all  prudent  and  industrious 
persons.  It  was  intended  also  to  make  known  the  fact  that  the  farming 
population  of  the  United  States  may,  and  do  very  generally,  own  a  sim¬ 
ilar  or  comfortable  home,  and  that  the  laws  give  them  liberal  protection 
in  the  ownership. 

The  building  did  not  conform  to  any  special  order  of  architecture. 
The  plan  was  such  that  one  of  the  rooms  on  the  ground  floor  could  be 
first  constructed  and  occupied  as  a  temporary  home  by  a  new  settler  at 
an  expense  of  not  over  $300,  and  so  that  the  other  rooms  and  the  spacious 
hall  could  be  added  after  at  the  convenience  of  the  owner.  It  was  con¬ 
structed  of  Wisconsin  and  Michigan  pine  lumber,  in  part  generously 
contributed  by  two  companies,  represented  by  Hon.  W.  B.  Ogden,  and 
by  Messrs.  Wood  &  Lawrence.  The  capacity  of  the  house  was  sufficient 
for  a  family  of  six  or  eight  persons,  it  having  three  rooms  on  the  first 
floor  and  five  chambers  on  the  second  floor. 

The  cottage  occupied  a  conspicuous  and  favorable  position  in  the  Park, 
and  a  low  terrace  around  it  was  adorned  with  shrubs.  It  became  a 
centre  of  attraction  also  by  the  distribution  of  documents  and  informa¬ 
tion  there  relating  to  the  extent  and  resources  of  the  United  States. 
The  walls  were  lined  with  maps  and  photographic  views  of  prominent 
places,  and  many  statistical  works  relating  to  the  productions  and  agri¬ 
culture  and  geology  of  the  country  were  ranged  upon  the  shelves  of  one 


CLASS  XCIII.] 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


311 


of  tlie  rooms.  Information  of  this  nature  was  eagerly  sought  by,  and 
was  freely  given  to,  thousands  of  European  visitors. 

This  interesting  and  valuable  addition  to  the  United  States  section 
was  secured  through  the  exertions  of  James  H.  Bowen,  of  Chicago,  United 
States  commissioner. 


INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION  OF  WEIGHTS,  MEASURERS 

AND  COINS. 

IN  THE  PAVILLION  IN  THE  CENTRE  OF  THE  CENTRAL  GARDEN. 

The  United  States  Treasury  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. — 
Weights,  measures  and  coins,  (in  the  central  pavillion,)  scales,  (in 
the  Palace.) 

INTERNATIONAL  SANITARY  DEPARTMENT. 

Collection  of  objects  from  the  United  States  made  by  Dr.  T.  W.  Evans. 
(See  also  classes  11  and  38.) 

The  United  States  Sanitary  Commission. — Material  used  in  the  late 
war.  Grand  prize. 

During  the  terrible  civil  war  which  desolated  the  United  States  for 
four  long  and  bloody  years,  public  feeling  was  forcibly  aroused  to  the 
necessity  of  devising  effective  means  for  mitigating  the  sufferings  and 
improving  the  sanitary  condition  of  our  armies.  Laudable  and  philan¬ 
thropic  efforts  were  set  on  foot  for  the  realization  of  that  noble  purpose. 
All  parts  of  the  country  were  interested  in  the  construction  of  apparatus, 
and  the  assembling  of  material  which  should  contribute  to  the  attainment 
of  the  desired  end,  and  render  the  scenes  and  sufferings  of  the  battle 
field  less  terrible.  As  a  natural  consequence  of  these  efforts  the  United 
States  sanitary  societies  and  commission  sprung  into  existence  and  ren¬ 
dered  incalculable  services  to  the  nation. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  arrive  at  a  just  appreciation  of  the  great 
good  accomplished  by  the  sanitary  and  relief  societies  of  the  United 
States.  They  mark  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  world,  as  organizations 
based  upon  acts  and  impulses  of  the  noblest  philanthropy  ever  conceived 
by  humanity. 

The  happy  influence  of  these  institutions  has  been  felt  in  the  Old 
World,  and  relief  societies,  animated  with  the  same  noble  and  generous 
feelings,  have  been  established  in  Europe  upon  the  exact  model  of  those 
existing  in  America,  and  have  also  rendered  immense  services  during  the 
late  wars. 

Many  of  the  objects,  apparatus,  and  inventions  used  by  the  United 
States  sanitary  societies  were  collected  together  after  much  effort,  and 
exhibited  on  the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  the  name  of  the  United  States  Sani¬ 
tary  Commission. 


312 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


To  mention  in  detail  the  many  very  useful  objects  composing  this  col¬ 
lection  would  fill  of  itself  a  considerable  volume,  only  brief  notices  of  some 
of  the  leading  articles  will  therefore  be  given. 

Under  the  head  of  Ambulances  of  Transport,  may  be  noticed: 

1.  The  Howard  ambulance $  made  from  plans  furnished  by  Dr.  Benjamin 
Howard,  of  New  York.  It  is  a  light,  two-horse,  four-wheeled  carriage, 
designed  to  carry  four  persons  besides  the  driver,  two  recumbent  and  two 
sitting,  or  eight  persons  sitting.  The  body  of  the  ambulance  is  mounted 
on  elliptic  springs,  and  the  stretcher  mattresses  are  furnished  with  infe¬ 
rior  and  lateral  counterpoise  springs,  which  modify  or  altogether  prevent 
concussions,  and  contribute  greatly  to  the  safety  and  comfort  of  the 
patients  transported.  There  is  also  connected  with  it  a  special  mechani¬ 
cal  contrivance — a  u  sling” — for  the  suspension  of  wounded  limbs  when 
necessary. 

2.  An  ambulance  known  as  the  Wheeling  ambulance,  improved  by 
T.  Morris  Perot,  of  Philadelphia.  This  is  a  light,  two-horse,  four- 
wheeled  vehicle,  intended  to  convey  four  persons  besides  the  driver,  two 
recumbent,  two  sitting,  of  eight  persons  sitting.  Perot’s  improvement 
consists  in  the  employment  of  springs  of  caoutchouc.  It  is  claimed  that 
this  improvement  secures  for  the  carriage  an  easy  and  agreeable  move¬ 
ment,  and  an  almost  entire  absence  of  concussion,  even  over  the  rough¬ 
est  roads.  Aside  from  Perot’s  improvement,  the  ambulance  is  similar  in 
its  construction  to  those  which,  under  the  same  name,  were  extensively 
used  by  the  United  States  government  during  the  late  war. 

3.  An  ambulance  made  by  G.  Brainard,  Boston.  This  ambulance  is 
intended  to  carry  six  persons  besides  the  driver,  four  recumbent,  two 
sitting,  or  eight  persons  sitting.  The  body  is  mounted  on  u  platform 
springs the  mattresses  and  seats  are  arranged  on  what  is  known  as 
the  u  Pucker  plan,”  the  back  of  the  seats  being  hinged  on  the  top,  feo  as, 
when  opened  inward,  and  locked,  to  form  an  upper  tier  of  mattresses. 
The  ambulance  on  exhibition  was  employed  during  the  war  in  the  hos¬ 
pital  service  for  several  months. 

4.  An  ambulance,  one  of  30  of  similar  construction,  given  by  the  citi¬ 
zens  of  Philadelphia  to  as  many  fire  companies  of  that  city,  and  employed 
in  the  late  war  in  conveying  sick  and  wounded  soldiers  across  the  city 
from  station  to  station.  Not  less  than  3,000  soldiers  were  thus  trans¬ 
ported  in  this  ambulance. . 

5.  A  model  of  a  railway  ambulance,  or  hospital  car,  made  by  Messrs. 
Cummings  &  Sons,  Jersey  City,  from  plans  furnished  by  Dr.  Elisha 
H  arris,  of  New  York.  This  model  is  a  fac  simile  of  the  hospital  cars 
employed  during  the  war  by  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission,  on 
the  railway  between  Washington  and  New  York,  as  well  as  on  several 
other  military  railways  in  other  portions  of  the  country.  The  model, 
constructed  on  a  scale  of  one-fourth,  shows  in  detail  every  thing — couches, 
dispensary,  wine  closet,  water  closet,  systems  of  ventilation  and  heating, 
&c.,  employed  in  the  construction  and  equipment  of  the  sanitary  com- 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


313 


mission  cars,  while  at  the  same  time  externally  it  perfectly  represents 
the  construction  of  an  ordinary  American  passenger  car.  To  it  is  attached 
a  patent  safety  break,  as  well  as  a  set  of  self-acting  ventilators,  furnished 
by  W.  Creamer,  of  New  York. 

The  Evans  ambulance,  constructed  at  Paris  by  Dr.  Thomas  W.  Evans, 
was  made  with  the  view  of  uniting  a  possible  capacity  for  four  persons 
recumbent,  with  lightness,  easiness  of  movement,  facility  of  loading  and 
unloading,  and  simplicity.  It  was  not  finished  until  the  last  of  August, 
so  late  as  to  be  even  hors  de  concours  in  the  competition  for  the  special 
prizes  ofifered  for  the  best  ambulance  by  the  Societe  de  Secours  aux 
Blesses.  Nevertheless,  such  were  its  merits  that  the  jury  of  the  society 
saw  fit  to  award  to  it  a  second  prize  of  500  francs,  accompanied  with  an 
expression  of  regret  that  they  were  unable,  in  consequence  of  the  fixed 
condition  of  the  concours ,  to  award  it  the  first  prize. 

This  ambulance  can  carry  ten  persons  seated,  besides  the  driver  and 
one  or  two  attendants,  or  four  lying  down  and  two  seated,  besides  the 
driver  and  attendants,  as  in  the  first-named  instance.  The  seats  can  be 
used  each  as  a  mattress  upon  the  floor  of  the  wagon,  the  iron  wheels  with 
which  they  are  furnished  resting,  when  in  position,  upon  springs  beneath 
the  floor,  the  object  being  to  place  these  supplementary  springs  out  of 
the  way,  and  where  when  once  fixed  they  would  be  secured  against  acci¬ 
dents.  For  the  upper  tier  four  rings  of  caoutchouc  are  attached  in  front 
and  rear  to  the  sides  of  the  wagon,  two  feet  nine  inches  from  the  floor, 
two  rings  to  an  upright  in  the  centre  of  the  wagon,  immediately  behind 
the  seat  of  the  driver,  and  two  rings  to  a  hook  which  may  be  dropped 
from  the  rear  centre.  By  means  of  this  arrangement,  so  very  simple  as 
scarcely  to  be  observed,  unless  special  attention  is  directed  to  it,  two 
ordinary  French,  English,  or  American  stretchers  can  be  suspended 
whenever  necessary,  and  two  additional  wounded  transported  in  the  most 
comfortable  manner.  This  ambulance,  weighing  about  1,300  pounds,  is 
slightly  heavier  than  the  other  American  ambulances.  The  forward 
wheels  turn  readily  under  the  body  of  the  wagon ;  the  top  is  covered  with 
enamelled  cloth,  and  folding  seats  are  placed  at  the  rear  end,  outside,  for 
one  or  two  attendants.  It  is  furnished  with  a  double  tank  for  ice  and 
water,  and  a  box  for  a  few  necesssary  supplies.  Two  stretchers  are  car¬ 
ried  overhead  inside  and  a  supplementary  one  outside. 

AMBULANCES  OF  SUPPLY. 

1.  A  medicine  wagon,  known  as  Autenreith’s,  the  fixtures  having  been 
furnished  by  G.  Autenreith,  of  New  York.  The  wagon  is  intended  to 
carry  lor  field  service  a  full  complement  of  the  medicines  authorized  by 
the  “supply  table”  of  the  medical  bureau;  also  a  set  of  hand  litters,  as 
well  as  a  light,  compact  amputating  table.  Wagons  of  this  kind  were 
.favorably  regarded  and  extensively  employed  by  the  United  States  gov¬ 
ernment  during  the  war. 

2.  A  medicine  wagon,  known  as  Perot’s,  constructed  by  T.  M.  Perot, 


314 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Philadelphia.  In  this  wagon  the  drawers  and  compartments  are  adapted 
to  carrying  medicines  in  bulk,  in  parcels,  and  in  bottles;  the  system  of 
packing  being  such  as  to  secure  the  latter  against  fracture,  in  certain 
instances  by  the  employment  of  springs,  in  others  by  the  employment 
of  columns  of  compressible  air,  obtained  by  a  simple  device.  A  set  of 
hand  litters  is  carried,  as  also  a  strong  amputating  table. 

3.  An  ambulance  kitchen,  invented  by  Mr.  Pinner,  of  New  York.  The 
special  purpose  of  this  kitchen  is  to  furnish  soldiers,  particularly  the  sick 
and  wounded,  while  on  the  march,  or  on  the  battle  field,  with  hot  coffee, 
soup,  and  cooked  food  of  various  kinds.  While  possessing  all  the  neces¬ 
sary  apparatus  of  a  well  organized  kitchen,  it  can  be  used  with  great 
advantage  at  all  temporary  encampments  and  hospital  stations,  and  is  so 
made  and  furnished  as  to  be  used,  if  needed,  as  an  ambulance  of  trans¬ 
port. 

4.  A  coffee  wagon,  invented  by  J.  Dunton,  of  Philadelphia.  The 
wagon  exhibited  designs  to  furnish  the  soldier  on  the  march  and  on  the 
field  of  battle  with  hot  coffee  and  tea,  was  one  of  several  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States  Christian  Commission  during  the  last  months  of 
the  war,  furnishing  hot  coffee  and  tea  to  the  wounded  of  both  armies. 

HOSPITAL  TENTS. 

Several  square  tents  are  exhibited,  similar  to  those  generally  used  by 
the  United  States  army. 

The  hospital  tent,  called  the  u  umbrella  tent,”  made  by  William  Rich¬ 
ardson,  Philadelphia,  is  claimed  to  occupy  less  space  when  packed,  to  be 
more  readily  unpacked  and  erected,  and  when  erected  to  be  more  con¬ 
venient  and  secure,  than  either  the  square  wall  or  Sibley’s  tent,  which 
have  hitherto  been  regarded  with  most  favor. 

An  officers’  u  umbrella  tent,”  made  by  N.  Walton,  St.  Louis,  is  also  ex¬ 
hibited,  and  claims  to  possess  the  same  advantages  as  the  one  already 
mentioned.  Its  height  is  11  feet,  diameter  at  base  13J  feet,  form  octa¬ 
gonal.  It  is  supported  by  a  telescopic  centre  pole,  slender  T-iron  rafters, 
and  eight  light  wooden  props. 

In  this  collection  appear  a  number  of  horse  and  hand  litters  on  im¬ 
proved  principles;  pack  saddles,  old  and  new  pattern;  models,  plans  and 
lithographic  views  of  various  hospitals ;  a  great  variety  of  beds,  stools, 
tables,  mess  chests,  mess  kits,  surgical  instruments  and  apparatus,  in¬ 
valid  beds,  mess  panniers,  hospital  and  field  knapsacks,  splints,  fracture 
and  amputating  apparatus,  artificial  limbs,  clothing  used  by  the  com¬ 
mission,  food  of  all  kinds,  liquors,  &c.,  bandages,  comforts,  cotton  bat¬ 
ting,  crutches,  and,  in  a  word,  everything  necessary  for  the  comfort  and 
convenience  of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldier. 

Under  the  head  of  material,  historical  and  co-ordinate,  are  exhibited  a 
number  of  books,  pamphlets,  and  documents  relating  to  the  sanitary 
work,  &c.,  &c. 

A  grand  prize  was  awarded  by  the  international  jury,  which  was  handed 
over  to  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commission. 


LIST  OF  AWARDS 


BY  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURIES  TO  EXHIBITORS  AND 
OTHERS,  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  THE  PARIS  UNI¬ 
VERSAL  EXPOSITION  OF  1867. 

For  convenience  of  reference  this  list  of  awards  has  been  alphabet¬ 
ically  arranged.  In  the  French  official  catalogue1  the  names  are  not 
placed  in  alphabetical  order. 

Each  medal  issued  was  accompanied  by  a  framed  diploma,  which  certi¬ 
fied  that  a  medal  had  been  awarded.  When  two  or  more  awards  of 
medals  were  made  to  one  person  or  association  the  number  of  diplomas 
issued  corresponded  with  the  number  of  awards,  but  only  one  medal 
was  issued,  and  this  medal  was  always  of  the  highest  denomination 
decreed  to  the  exhibitor.  No  medals  were  issued  with  the  diplomas  of 
Honorable  Mention. 

NEW  ORDER  OF  RECOMPENSES. 

For  persons,  establishments ,  or  localities ,  which ,  by  organizations  or  special 
institutions ,  have  developed  harmony  among  co-operators ,  and  produced , 
in  an  eminent  degree ,  the  material ,  moral ,  and  intellectual  well-being  of  the 
workmen. 

Agricultural  Society  of  Vineland,  Charles  K.  Landis,  New  Jer¬ 
sey. — An  Honorable  mention,  unaccompanied  by  a  medal. 

Chapin,  William  C.,  Lawrence,  Mass. — Grand  Prize,  a  Gold  Medal  of 
the  value  of  1,000  francs,  and  9,000  francs  in  gold. 

ARTISTS’  MEDAL. 

Church,  F.  E.,  New  York  city. — The  Artists’  Medal,  with  500  francs  in 
gold. — Landscape  paintings  in  oil. 

GRAND  PRIZES. 

Field,  Cyrus  W.,  and  Anglo-American  Transatlantic  Telegraph  Com¬ 
pany. — Transatlantic  cable. 

Hughes,  David  E.,  New  York. — Printing  telegraph. 

McCormick,  C.  H.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Reaping  machines.  See,  also, 
Gold  Medal. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Emperor,  Mr.  McCormick  was  created  Chevalier  of 
the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

1  Catalogus  officiel  des  Exponants  Rdcompennes  par  le  Jury  International.  8vo.  Paris  : 
E.  Deutu,  Libraire-Editeur  de  la  Commission  Imperiael. 


316  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

United  States  Sanitary  Commission. — Ambulances,  materials,  instru¬ 
ments,  &c.,  for  the  relief  of  the  wounded,  used  in  the  late  war.  See, 
also,  Honorable  Mention. 

GOLD  MEDAL,  WITH  WORK  OF  ART. 

Wood,  Walter  A.,  Hoosick  Falls,  New  York. — Mowing  machines. 
See,  also,  Gold  Medal. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Emperor,  Mr.  Wood  was  created  Chevalier  of  the 
Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

GOLD  MEDALS. 

Chickering  &  Son,  New  York  and  Boston. — Pianos. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Emperor,  Mr.  C.  F.  Chickering  was  created  Chev¬ 
alier  of  the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

Corliss  Steam  Engine  Company,  Providence,  Rhode  Island. — The 
Corliss  engine. 

Fire-arm  Manufacturing  Industry  of  the  United  States. — 
Fire-arms. 

Grant  Locomotive  Works,  Paterson,  NT.  J. — Locomotive  and  tender. 
Howe,  Elias,  Jr. — u  Promoter  of  the  sewing  machine.” 

By  a  decree  of  the  Emperor,  Mr.  Howe  was  created  Chevalier  of  the 
Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France. 

McCormick,  C.  H.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Reaping  and  mowing  machines. 

According  to  the  rule  of  the  Imperial  Commission  this  medal  is 
absorbed  in  the  Grand  Prize. 

Meyer,  Victor,  Parish  of  Concordia,  Louisiana. — Short  staple  cotton. 
Rogers,  C.  B.,  &  Co.,  Norwich,  Connecticut. — Wood-working  machines. 
Sellers,  William,  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. — Machine  tools. 

Steinway  &  Son,  1  New  York  city.— Pianos. 

Trager,  Louis,  Blackkawk  Point,  Louisiana. — Short  staple  cotton. 
Walbridge,  Wells  D.,  New  York  city. — Gold  and  silver  ores  from 
Idaho. 

Welch,  Patrick,  New  York  city. — Type-dressing  machine. 

Wheeler  &  Wilson  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York  city. — Sewing 
and  button-hole  machines. 

White,  Samuel  S.,  Philadelphia. — Artificial  teeth,  and  dentists’  instru¬ 
ments  and  furniture. 

Whitney,  J.  P.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Silver  ores  from  Colorado. 
Wood,  Walter  A.,  Hoosick  Falls,  New  York. — Reaping  and  mowing 
machines. 

1  By  the  adoption  of  the  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  names  in  this  list,  already  ex¬ 
plained,  the  name  of  the  firm  of  Steinway  and  Sons  is  here  made  to  follow  that  of  Chickering 
&  Sons,  but  in  the  French  official  catalogue  of  awards  the  sequence  is  the  reverse. 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  317 

According  to  the  rule  of  the  Imperial  Commission  this  medal  is  ab¬ 
sorbed  in  the  first  accompanied  with  a  work  of  art. 

SILVER  MEDALS. 

Alabama,  State  of. — Short  staple  cotton.  See  Honorable  Mention. 

American  Button-hole  Company,  Philadelphia. — Sewing  and  button¬ 
hole  machines. 

Baker,  Walter,  &  Co.,  Dorchester,  Massachusetts. — Chocolates. 

Barnes,  Surgeon  General  J.  K.,  United  States  army,  Washington. — 
Surgical  instruments,  hospital  apparatus,  &c. 

Bement  &  Douoherty,  Philadelphia. — Machine  tools. 

Bergner,  Theodore,  Philadelphia. — Co-operator — engineer  of  Messrs. 
William  Sellers  &  Co. 

Bidwell,  J.  C.,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Comstock’s  rotary  spader. 

Bigelow,  H.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Copper  and  minerals  from  Lake 
Superior. 

,  Blake,  William  P.,  San  Francisco,  California. — California  minerals. 

Bond,  William,  &  Son,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Astronomical  clock 
and  chronograph. 

Brown,  J.  R.,  &  Sharpe,  Providence,  Rhode  Island. — Screw-cutting 
and  milling  machines. 

Burt,  Edwin  C.,  New  York  city. — Machine  sewed  boots  and  shoes. 

California,  State  of. — Cereals. 

Cape,  Culver  &  Co.,  Hew  York  city. — Hams. 

Chapin  &  Wells,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Model  of  a  swing  bridge. 

Chicago  Board  of  Public  Works,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Design  of  the 
lake  tunnel. 

Clark  Thread  Company,  Newark,  Hew  Jersey. — Cotton  yarns. 

Collins  &  Co.,  Hew  York  city. — Steel  ploughs. 

Colt’s  Patent  Fire-arms  Manufactuing  Company,  Hartford,  Con¬ 
necticut. — Fire-arms. 

Cool,  Furguson  &  Co.,  Glen’s  Falls,  Hew  York. — Barrel  machines. ' 

Crompton,  George,  Worcester,  Massachusetts. — Loom  for  cloths. 

Culbertson,  Blair  &  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Salted  meats. 

Daboll,  C.  L.,  Hew  London,  Connecticut. — Fog-signal. 

D’Aligny,  H.  F.  Q. — Co-operator  in  the  organization  of  the  United 
States  section. 

Darling,  Brown  &  Sharpe,  Bangor,  Maine,  now  of  Providence,  Rhode 
Island. — Steel  measures. 

Delpit,  A.,  &  Co.,  Hew  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Snuff. 

Dixon,  Joseph,  &  Co.,  Jersey  city,  Hew  Jersey. — Plumbago  crucibles. 

Douglas  Axe  Manufacturing  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 
Edge  tools. 

Duffield,  Charles,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Hams. 

Fairbanks,  E.  &  T.,  &  Company,  St.  Johnsbury,  Vermont.  —  Scales. 
See,  also,  under  Bronze  Medals. 


318 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Florence  Sewing  Machine  Company,  New  York  city. — Sewing  ma¬ 
chines. 

Fournier,  S.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Electric  clocks. 

Glen  Cove  Starch  Manufacturing  Company. — New  York  city. — 
“Maizena  ”  and  starch. 

Gottheil,  Edward,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Co-operator,  services 
rendered  to  agriculture  in  Louisiana. 

Gregg,  Isaac,  Philadelphia. — Brick-making  machine.  See,  also,  Bronze 
Medal. 

Gunther,  C.  G.,  &  Sons,  New  York  city. — Furs. 

Hall,  James,  &  Son,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Buggy. 

Howe,  Dr.  Samuel  G.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Works  for  the  blind. 

Howe  Machine  Company,  New  York  city. — Sewing  machines. 

Illinois  Central  Bailroad  Company,  Chicago,  Hlinois. — Agricul¬ 
tural  products. 

Illinois,  State  of.— Collection  of  minerals ;  farmer’s  house;  school- 
house.  See,  also,  Bronze  Medal. 

Jackson,  Dr.  Charles  T.,  co-operator. — Discovery  of  emery. 

Lamb,  J.  W.,  Bochester,  New  York;  now  of  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan. — 
Knitting  machine. 

Lawrence,  E.,  Louisiana. — Sugars. 

Mason  &  Hamlin,  New  York  and  Boston. — Cabinet  organs. 

Nevada,  State  of. — Silver  and  copper  ores. 

New  York  Mills,  New  York. — Muslins. 

Opper,  Morris,  New  York. — Loom  for  corsets. 

Park  Brothers  &  Company,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Cast  steel  and 
edge  tools. 

Partridge  Fork  Works,  Leominster,  Massachusetts. — Steel  hayforks, 
rakes,  &c.  See,  also,  Bronze  Medal. 

Pease,  F.  S.,  Buffalo,  New,  York. — Petroleum  oils.  See,  also,  Honor¬ 
able  Mention. 

Perry,  John  G.,  Kingston,  Bhode  Island. — Mowing  machine. 

This  prize  was  gained  in  the  field  trials  of  agricultural  machines.  See, 

also,  Bronze  Medal. 

Pigne,  Dr.  J.  B.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Minerals. 

Providence  Tool  Company,  Providence,  Bhode  Island.— Peabody’s 
patent  fire-arms. 

Bemington,  E.,  &  Sons,  Ilion,  New  York. — Fire-arms. 

Butherford,  Lewis  M.,  New  York  city. — Astronomical  photographs. 

Schultz  &  Warker,  New  York  city. — Mineral  water  apparatus. 

Schuttler,  Peter,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Wagon. 

Slater  Woollen  Mills,  Webster,  Massachusetts.— Woollen  fabrics. 

Smith  &  Wesson,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. — Fire-arms  and  car¬ 
tridges. 

Spencer  BepeatingBifle  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts.— Spencer 
rifles. 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION.  319 

Taut,  John  B.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Emery  from  Chester,  Massa¬ 
chusetts. 

Tiemann,  George,  &  Co.,  New  York. — Surgical  instruments. 

Tolles,  E.  F.,  Canastota,  New  York. — Microscopes. 

Tucker,  Hiram,  &  Company,  Boston. — Iron  ornaments,  imitation  of 
bronze. 

United  States  Government. — Specimen  of  frame  house  for  settlers. 

Waxes,  William,  Fort  Lee,  New  Jersey. — Optical  instruments. 

Ward  well,  George  J.,  Eutland,  Vermont. — Stone-quarrying  machine. 

Washington  Mills,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Woollen  fabrics.  See, 
also,  Honorable  Mention. 

Weed  Sewing  Machine  Company,  New  York  city. — Sewing  machines. 

Whitney,  Baxter  D.,  Winchendon,  Massachusetts. — Wood  working 
machines. 

Windsor  Manufacturing  Company,  Windsor,  Vermont. — Balks  patent 
fire-arms. 

Wood  Brothers,  New  York  city. — Phaeton. 

Yale  &  Winn  Manufacturing  Company,  Shelburne  Falls,  Massachu¬ 
setts. — Yale  locks. 


BEONZE  MEDALS. 

Abbey,  Charles,  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. — Dentists’  gold  foil. 

American  Lead  Pencil  Company,  New  York  city. — Lead  pencils. 

Appleton,  D.,  &  Company,  New  York. — Books. 

Babcock,  James  F.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Eosin  oil. 

Baltimore  and  Cuba  Smelting  and  Mining  Company,  Baltimore, 
Maryland. — C  opper. 

Barlow,  Milton,  Bichmond,  Kentucky. — Planetarium. 

Bartram  &  Fanton  Manufacturing  Company,  Danbury,  Connec¬ 
ticut. — Sewing  and  button-hole  machines. 

Beer,  Sigismund,  New  York  city. — Stereoscopic  views. 

Belmont  Oil  Company,  Philadelphia. — Oils. 

Brigham,  E.  D.,  treasurer  Portage  Lake  Smelting  Works,  Boston,  Mas¬ 
sachusetts. — Lake  Superior  copper. 

Brown  &  Level  Life-saving  Tackle  Company,  New  York  city. — 
Disengaging  tackle  for  boats. 

Carpenter,  William  S.,  New  York  city. — Collection  of  corn. 

Carroll,  John  W.,  Lynchburg,  Virginia. — Smoking  tobacco. 

Cummings,  William,  &  Son,  Jersey  City,  New  Jersey. — Model  of  a 
hospital  car. 

Day,  Austin  G.,  Seymour,  Connecticut. — Indelible  pencils  and  lead  pen¬ 
cils  in  India-rubber  cases.  See,  also,  Honorable  Mention. 

Deere  &  Co.,  Moline,  Illinois. — Steel  ploughs. 

Degener  &  Weller,  New  York  city. — Printing  presses. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. — Collection  of  cereals. 

Diss  Debar,  J.  H.,  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia. — Petroleum  oils. 


320 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Douglass  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York  city. — Edge  tools. 
Douglas,  W.  &  B.,  Middletown,  Connecticut. — Pumps. 

‘Fairbanks,  E.  &  T.,  &  Co.,  St.  Johnsbury,  Vermont. — Railroad  scale. 
See,  also,  under  Silver  Medals. 

Fairchild,  Le  Roy  W.,  &  Co.,  New  York  city. — Gold  pens  and 
cases. 

Gemunder,  George,  New  York  city. — Stringed  instruments. 
Goddard,  C.  L.,  New  York  city. — Mestizo  burring  picker. 

Goodell,  D.  H.,  Antrim,  New  Hampshire. — Apple  parer. 

Goodenough  Horseshoe  Company,  New  York  city. — Horseshoes. 
See,  also,  Honorable  Mention. 

Gregg,  Isaac,  Philadelphia. — Model  of  a  brick  machine.  See,  also, 
Silver  Medal. 

Hadley  Company,  Holyoke,  Massachusetts. — Sewing  cotton. 

Harris,  D.  L.,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. — Engine  lathe. 

Haupt,  Herman,  Philadelphia. — Tunneling  machine. 

Herring,  Parrel  &  Sherman,  New  York  city. — Fire  and  burglar  proof 
.safes. 

Hoglen  &  Grafflin,  Dayton,  Ohio. — Tobacco-cutting  machine. 
Hotchkiss,  H.  G.,  Lyon,  New  York. — Oils  of  peppermint,  &c. 
Hotchkiss,  L.  B.,  Phelps,  New  York. — Oils  of  peppermint,  &c. 
Houghton,  H.  O.,  &  Co.,  Riverside  Press,  Cambridge,  Massachusetts. — 
Books. 

House,  Henry  A.,  Bridgeport,  Connecticut. — Co-operator  in  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  Wheeler  &  Wilson. 

House,  James  A.,  Bridgeport,  Connecticut. — Co-operator  in  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  Wheeler  &  Wilson. 

Howe,  Amasa  B.,  New  York  city. — Sewing  machines. 

Howe  Scale  Company,  Brandon,  Vermont. — Scales. 

Hudson,  E.  D.,  New  York  city. — Artificial  limbs. 

Humphres,  John  C.,  parish  of  Rapides,  Louisiana. — Short  staple  cot¬ 
ton. 

Illinois,  State  of. — Cereals  and  flours.  See  silver  medals. 

Jessup  &  Moore,  Philadelphia. — Papers. 

Johnson,  A.  J.,  New  York  city. — Johnson’s  Family  Atlas. 

Johnson,  Bradisii,  Louisiana. — Sugars. 

Johnson  &  Lund,  Philadelphia. — Artificial  teeth. 

Justice,  Philip  S.,  Philadelphia. — PoAver  hammer. 

Kansas,  State  of. — Collection  of  cereals. 

Lilienthal,  C.  H.,  New  York  city. — Snuff  and  tobacco. 

Lilienthal,  Theodore,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Photographic  views. 
Louisiana,  State  of. — Portable  cottage. 

Lyon,  James  B.,  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. — Pressed  glassware. 
Merriam,  G.  &  C.,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. — Webster’s  Illustrated 
Dictionary. 

Mission  Woollen  Mills,  San  Francisco,  California. — Woollen  fabrics. 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


321 


Moody,  S.  N.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Shirts. 

Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. — Wringing  machine. 

Mumford,  Poster  &  Co.,  Detroit,  Michigan. — Boot-trees,  lasts,  &c. 
Murphy’s,  William  F.,  Sons,  Philadelphia. — Blank  hooks. 

Ohio,  State  of. — Collection  of  cereals. 

Olmstead,  L.  H.,  New  York. — Friction  clutch  pulley.  See,  also,  Honor¬ 
able  Mention. 

Partridge  Fork  Works,  Leominster,  Massachusetts. — Agricultural 
hand  tools.  See,  also,  Silver  Medal. 

Pennsylvania,  State  of. — Anthracite  coal. 

Perry,  John  G.,  Kingston,  Rhode  Island. — Mowing  machine.  See,  also, 
Silver  Medal. 

Pickering  &  Davis,  New  York  city. — Engine  governors. 

Pratt  &  Wentworth,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Heating  apparatus. 
Randall,  Samuel  H.,  New  York  city. — Mica. 

Riedel,  G.  A.,  Philadelphia. — Automatic  boiler  feeder. 

Richards,  Richard,  Racine,  Wisconsin. — Wool. 

Roots,  F.  M.  &  P.  H.,  Connersville,  Indiana. — Rotary  blower. 

Roots,  John  B.,  New  York  city. — Steam  engine. 

Sachse,  F.,  &  Son,  Philadelphia. — Shirts. 

Sarrazin,  J.  P.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Tobacco. 

Schedler,  Joseph,  Hudson  city,  New  Jersey. — Terrestrial  globes. 
Schreiber,  Louis,  New  York  city. — Brass  instruments. 

Secombe  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York  city. — Ribbon  hand 
stamps. 

Shaw,  Charles  A.,  Biddeford,  Maine. — Knitting  machine. 

Shaw,  Philander,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Hot-air  engine. 

Slater,  Samuel,  &  Son,  Webster,  Massachusetts. — Cotton  fabrics. 
Smith,  McPherson  &  Donald,  New  York  city. — Ales  and  porter. 
Southern  Cotton-gin  Company,  Bridgewater,  Massachusetts. — Cot¬ 
ton-gins. 

Squire,  John  J.,  New  London,  Connecticut. — Preserved  fruits  and  vege¬ 
tables. 

Stursberg,  H.,  New  York  city. — Beaver  cloths. 

Sweet,  John  E.,  Syracuse,  New  York. — Composing  machine. 
Tamboury,  A.,  parish  of  St.  James,  Louisiana. — Tobacco. 

Tiffany  &  Co.,  New  York  city. — Silverware. 

Townsend,  Wisner  H.,  New  York  city. — Oil-cloths. 

Union  Button-hole  and  Embroidery  Company,  Boston,  Massachu¬ 
setts. — Button-hole  machine. 

Van  Deusen,  J.  B.,  New  York  city. — Model  of  the  yacht  Fleetwing. 
Warner,  G.  F.,  &  Co.,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Malleable  iron  cast¬ 
ings. 

Watkins,  C.  E.,  San  Francisco,  California. — Photographs,  landscapes. 
W icke r sham  Nail  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Nail-cutting 
machine. 


322 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Williams,  Thomas  0.,  &  Co.,  Danville,  Virginia. — Chewing  and  smok¬ 
ing  tobacco. 

Wisconsin  State  Agricultural  Society. — Agricultural  products. 
Wisconsin,  State  of. — Collection  of  minerals. 

Wisconsin,  State  of. — Collection  of  cereals  and  flours.  # 

Wright,  R.  &  G.  A.,  Philadelphia. — Perfumery. 

HONORABLE  MENTIONS. 

Alabama. — Short  staple  cotton.  See  No.  30. 

Allen,  John,  &  Son,  New  York  city. — Artificial  teeth. 

American  Steam  Gauge  Company,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Steam 
gauges. 

American  Wine  Company,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Sparkling  wines. 
Andrews,  William  D.,  &  Brother,  New  York  city. — Oscillating  steam 
engine. 

Avery,  D.  D.,  Petite  Anse,  Louisiana. — Rock  salt. 

Bacon,  S.  T.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Cracker  machinery. 

Baker,  George  R.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Dough-kneading  machine. 
Bates,  R.,  Philadelphia. — Instruments  to  cure  stammering. 

Bell  Factory,  Huntsville,  Alabama. — Cotton  fabrics. 

Buena  Vista  Vinicultural  Society,  San  Francisco,  California. — 
Sparkling  Sonoma  wine. 

Borden,  Gail,  New  York  city. — Extract  of  beef. 

Bottler,  Charles,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Sparkling  Catawba  wine. 
Bourgeois,  E.,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Tobacco. 

Brandon  Kaolin  and  Paint  Company,  Brandon,  Vermont. — Speci¬ 
mens  of  paints. 

Bray  &  Hayes,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Preserved  lobster. 
Broughton  &  Moore,  New  York  city. — Oilers,  cocks,  &c. 

Browne,  D.  Jay,  Roxbury,  Massachusetts. — Enamelled  leather. 
Chipman,  George  W.,  &  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Carpet  lining. 
Clark  Steam  and  Fire  Regulator  Company,  New  York  city. — 
Steam  and  fire  regulator. 

Cohn,  M.,  New  York  city.— Crinoline. 

Cozzens,  Frederick  S.,  New  York  city.— Cigars. 

Dart,  Henry  C.,  &  Co.,  New  York  city. — Rotary  steam  engine. 
Davidson,  George,  Washington.— Sextant. 

Davidson,  John,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Sugars. 

Day,  Austin  G.,  Seymour,  Connecticut. — Artificial  India-rubber.  See, 
also,  No.  120. 

Duffy,  Joseph,  Paterson,  New  Jersey. — Designs  for  improvements  in 
iron-clad  vessels. 

Dwight,  George,  Jr.,  &  Co.,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. — Steam  pump. 
Edson,  William,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Hygrodeik. 

Elsberg,  Dr.  Louis,  New  York  city.— Specimens  of  peat  fuel. 

Empire  Sewing  Machine  Company,  New  York  city.— Sewing  machines. 


UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


323 


Fries,  Alexandre,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Flavoring  extracts. 

Glass,  Peter,  Barton,  Wisconsin. — Mosaic  tables. 

Goodenough  Horseshoe  Company,  New  York  city.— Horseshoes. 

See,  also,  Bronze  Medal. 

Gould,  J.  D.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — Mica. 

Herring,  Silas  C.,  New  York  city. — Bullard’s  hay  tedder. 

Hicks  Engine  Company,  New  York  city. — Steam  engine. 

Hirsch,  Joseph,  Chicago,  Illinois. — Albumen,  glycerine,  &c. 
Holliday,  T.  &  C.,  New  York  city. — Aniline  colors. 

Howard,  Dr.  Benjamin,  New  York  city. — Ambulance,  &c. 

Howell  &  Brother,  Philadelphia. — Wall  papers. 

Iowa,  State  of. — Collection  of  cereals. 

Jackson,  J.  H.,  New  York  city. — Minerals  and  fossils. 

Kaldenberg  &  Son,  New  York  city. — Meerschaum  pipes. 

Korn,  Charles,  Wurtsboro’,  New  York. — Calf  skin  leather. 

Balance  &  Grosjean,  New  York  city. — House-furnishing  hardware. 
Linthicum,  W.  O.,  New  York  city. — Cloth  clothing. 

Longworth’s  Wine-house,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Sparkling  wines. 
McCormick,  J.  J.,  Williamsburg,  New  York. — Skates. 

Marietta  &  Gale’s  Fork  Petroleum  Company,  Marietta,  Ohio. — 
Petroleum  oil. 

Metropolitan  Washing  Machine  Company,  New  York  city. — 
Clothes  wringers. 

Metropolitan  Washing  Machine  Company,  New  York  city. — Wash¬ 
ing  machines. 

Minnesota,  State  of. — Collection  of  cereals. 

Moehring,  H.  G.,  agent  of  the  Volcanic  Oil  and  Coal  Company  of  West 
Virginia,  Philadelphia. — Volcanic  lubricating  oil. 

Montagne  &  Carlos,  New  Orleans,  Louisiana. — Black  moss  for  uphol¬ 
sterers. 

Morris,  Tasker  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. — Pipe-cutting  machine. 

New  Haven  Clock  Company,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Clocks. 
Olmstead,  L.  H.,  New  York. — Machine  tools.  See,  also,  Bronze  Medals. 
Oneida  Community,  Oneida,  New  York. — Preserved  fruits. 

Page,  E.  W.,  New  York  city. — Oars. 

Paul,  J.  F.,  &  Co.,  Boston. — Specimens  of  wood. 

Pease,  F.  S.,  Buffalo,  New  York. — Pneumatic  pump.  See,  also,  No.  82. 
Perot,  Morris  T.,  Philadelphia. — Medicine  wagon. 

Pleasant  Valley  Wine  Company,  Hammondsport,  New  York. — 
Brandy. 

Portland  Packing  Company,  Portland,  Maine. — Preserved  lobster 
and  vegetables. 

Prentice,  J.,  New  York  city. — Cigar  machine. 

Purrington,  George,  Jr.,  New  York  city. — Carpet  sweeper. 
Robinson,  James  A.,  New  York  city. — Ericsson  hot-air  engine. 
Sabatier,  G.,  Plaquemine  parish,  Louisiana. — Sugars. 


324 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Selpho,  William,  &  Son,  New  York  city. — Artificial  limbs. 

Shelden,  Joseph,  New  Haven,  Connecticut. — Water-pressure  regulator. 
Smith,  Robert  M.,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Petroleum  oils. 

Steam  Syphon  Company,  New  York  city. — Steam  syphon  pump. 
Stephenson,  John,  &  Company,  New  York  city. — Street  railway  carriage. 
Stockton,  Samuel  W.,  Philadelphia. — Artificial  teeth. 

Tallman  &  Collins,  Janesville,  Wisconsin — Perfumery. 

Taylor,  Charles  F.,  New  York  city. — Therapeutic  apparatus. 

Tilden,  Howard,  Boston. — Sifter,  tobacco-cutter,  and  egg-beater. 
Townsend  Brothers,  New  York  city. — Preserved  fruits  and  oysters. 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission. — Camp  material.  See  Gold 
Medal. 

Waltemeyer,  Jacob,  Baltimore,  Maryland. — Preserved  fruits. 

Ward,  J.,  &  Co.,  New  York  city. — Clothes  wringers. 

Ward,  J.,  &  Co.,  New  York  city. — Washing  machines. 

Washington  Mills,  Lawrence,  Massachusetts. — Shawls.  See,  also,  Sil¬ 
ver  Medals. 

Wellman,  C.,  New  York  city. — Saddles. 

Were,  M.,  &  Son,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. — Sparkling  wines. 

Wharton,  Joseph,  Philadelphia. — Nickel,  cobalt,  and  zinc. 

Willard  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York  city. — Photographic 
camera  tubes  and  lenses. 

Williams,  C.  0.,  New  York  city. — Fruits  preserved  in  syrup. 

Williams  Silk  Manufacturing  Company,  Bridgeport,  Connecticut. — 
Silk  twist  for  sewing  machines. 

Winslow,  J.  B.,  New  York  city. — Wood-moulding  machine. 

Young,  Isaac,  Leavenworth,  Kansas. — Specimens  of  wood. 

Zallee,  John  C.,  St.  Louis,  Missouri. — Clothing. 

SUMMARY. 


Grand  prizes .  5 

Artist’s  medal . >. .  1  v 

Gold  medals .  18 

Silver  medals .  76 

Bronze  medals .  98 

Honorable  mentions .  93 


Total  awards .  291 


CHEVALIER  OF  THE  LEGION  OF  HONOR. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Emperor  the  following  gentlemen  were  created 
Chevaliers  of  the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  of  France: 

C.  H.  McCormick,  Chicago,  Illinois. 

Walter  A.  Wood,  Hoosick  Falls,  New  York. 

Chickering,  C.  F.,  New  York. 

Elias  Howe,  Jr. 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION,  1867. 
REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


REPORT 


THE  FINE  ARTS. 


BY 


FRANK  LESLIE, 

UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONER. 


WASHINGTON: 
government  printing  office. 
1  S  6  8 . 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

The  Exposition  Building .  5 

Classification .  5 

Countries  Represented  and  Awards .  6 

The  Fine  Art  Department  not  Competitive .  7 

The  American  Gallery .  8 

The  French  Gallery .  16 

The  British  Gallery .  21 

Bavaria .  23 

Belgium .  24 

Holland .  25 

Prussia  and  Northern  Germany .  26 

Russia .  27 

Switzerland .  28 

Austria .  28 

Denmark .  29 

Sweden .  29 

Norway .  29 

Rome  and  Italy .  30 

Spain .  30 

Portugal,  Greece,  and  Other  Countries .  30 

General  Observations  on  the  Paintings .  31 

Sculpture .  33 

Engraving .  35 

The  Graphotype  Process .  36 

The  Copper  Process .  36 

The  Gillot  Process .  36 

The  Conte  Process .  37 

Appendix  A.— United  States:  List  of  Paintings,  Sculptures,  etc . .  38 

Appendix  B. — List  of  Awards .  41 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


EXTENT  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  EXHIBITION. 

THE  EXPOSITION  BUILDING. 

Tlie  building  in  which  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1867  was  held  in 
Paris  was  singularly  deficient  in  architectural  display  and  merit.  It 
can,  perhaps,  be  best  described,  in  homely  phrase,  as  a  series  of  vast 
sheds  ranged  concentrically  around  an  open  oval  court  or  garden,  and 
intersected,  at  regular  intervals,  by  avenues  radiating  from  the  central 
area  to  the  circumference.  Or,  it  may  be  compared  to  a  Eoman  amphi¬ 
theatre,  by  which,  it  is  possible,  it  was  suggested,  with  a  garden  for  the 
arena,  and  radiating  passages  answering  to  the  vomitories. 

There  was  consequently  nothing  salient  about  the  building ;  no  strik¬ 
ing  mass  standing  out  against  the  sky  to  mark  the  spot  where  the  indus¬ 
try  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  was  gathered,  nor  lofty  fa§ade  to  awe  or 
impress  the  visitor.  Built  on  curved  lines,  the  interior  was  equally  with¬ 
out  those  grand  vistas  and  imposing  effects  which  might  have  been 
obtained  in  a  rectangular  structure  of  equal  proportions. 

Yet  for  many,  if  not  all  the  practical  purposes  and  results  of  such  an 
Exposition,  the  plan  and  arrangements  of  the  building  could  hardly  be 
surpassed.  It  admitted  of  the  classification  of  the  articles  exhibited,  not 
only  in  respect  of  their  character,  but  their  nationality.  Each  gallery  or 
zone  was  set  apart  to  a  specific  group  or  class  of  art  or  manufacture. 
The  larger  products,  such  as  machinery  and  raw  materials,  bulky  and 
requiring  most  room,  occupied  the  larger  outer  galleries,  while  the  pro¬ 
ducts  of  the  liberal  and  fine  arts  found  the  narrower  areas  of  the  inner 
ellipses  sufficiently  roomy  for  their  exposition.  Thus  the  visitor  inter¬ 
ested  in  machinery  had  only  to  make  the  circuit  of  the  outer  gallery  to 
review  in  succession  the  achievements  of  each  nation  in  that  department. 
Or,  if  devoted  more  especially  to  the  fine  arts,  he  had  only  to  make  the 
circuit  of  the  gallery  dedicated  to  them.  On  the  other  hand,  if  desirous 
of  studying  the  collective  exhibition  of  any  single  nation,  he  could  do  so 
by  following  the  radiating  avenues  of  the  edifice,  which  cut  it  up  like  the 
folds  of  a  fan,  one  or  more  folds  being  assigned  to  each  nation,  accord¬ 
ing  to  its  requirements  or  the  extent  of  its  display. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Articles  and  objects  exhibited  under  the  classification  of  Group  I 
occupied  the  interior  galleries,  and  consisted  of  five  classes,  viz : 

Class  1. — Paintings  in  oil. 


6 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Class  2. — Other  paintings  and  drawings. 

Class  3. — Sculpture,  die-sinking,  stone  and  cameo  engraving. 

Class  4. — Architectural  designs  and  models. 

Class  5. — Engraving  and  lithography. 

The  space  assigned  to  this  group,  especially  in  respect  of  what  are 
generally  denominated  the  “fine  arts,”  (painting  and  sculpture,)  was 
well  filled,  nearly  every  country  represented  at  all  in  the  Exposition 
fully  occupying  the  room  conceded  to  it.  A  few  countries,  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  Holland,  and  Bavaria,  finding  their  space  in  the  main  edi¬ 
fice  inadequate  to  what  they  considered  a  fair  exposition  of  their  paint¬ 
ings,  erected  “annexes”  or  supplementary  buildings  for  that  purpose  in 
the  Park,  which  were  better  adapted  for  showing  the  pictures  to  advan¬ 
tage  than  the  main  structure. 

COUNTRIES  REPRESENTED  AND  AWARDS. 


In  the  department  of  painting,  the  following  countries  were  represented 
and  received  prizes  in  the  proportions  expressed  in  the  subjoined  table : 


Countries. 

No.  of  pictures. 

No.  of  artists. 

P 

'd 

fl 

cS 

c5 

rizes  a 

"oD 

£ 

warded 

<6 

a 

o 

05 

5Q 

Third. 

France  . 

626 

333 

4 

8 

10 

10 

Algeria . 

1 

1 

Holland .  .  . 

179 

77 

1 

1 

Belgium .  . 

186 

72 

1 

2 

1 

Prussia  and  Northern  Germany . 

98 

67 

1 

1 

1 

Hesse . 

2 

1 

Bavaria . 

211 

112 

1 

2 

2 

Baden . 

19 

19 

Wurtemburg . 

11 

g 

Austria . 

89 

56 

1 

1 

Switzerland . 

112 

58 

1 

Spain . 

42 

35 

1 

1 

2 

Portugal . 

12 

12 

Greece . 

14 

14 

Denmark . 

29 

19 

Sweden . 

54 

28 

Norway . 

45 

25 

5 

1 

Russia . 

63 

39 

1 

51 

42 

1 

1 

2 

Rome . 

25 

14 

United  States . 

75 

40 

1 

Turkey . 

7 

3 

Republics  of  South  America . 

3 

2 

Brazil . 

3 

2 

Great  Britain . 

156 

124 

J 

1 

2 

Total . 

2,004 

1,103 

8 

15 

20 

24 

The  jury  on  paintings  and  drawings  consisted  of  25  members — 12  from 
France  and  13  from  all  other  countries,  as  follows : 

France. — Bida,  Cabanel,  Frangais,  Fromentin,  Gerdme,  Meissonier, 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS 


7 


Pils,  T.  Rousseau,  Marquis  Maiton,  F.  Reiscli,  Paul  St.  Victor,  and 
Count  Welles  de  Lavalette. 

Belgium. — De  Lavelaye. 

Holland. — T.  Wittening. 

Prussia. — E.  Magnus. 

Bavaria. — Hersclilet. 

Austria. — Engerth. 

Switzerland. — Glevre. 

Spain. — Benito  Soriano  y  Murillo. 

Sweden. — De  Dardel. 

Italy. — Morelli  and  Bertani. 

England. — Lord  Hardinge  and  Spencer  Cowper. 

United  States. — W.  J.  Hoppin. 

Of  the  12  French  jurors,  eight  were  painters  and  competitors  for  prizes. 
Of  the  members  of  the  jury  not  French,  five  were  artists,  and  three  of 
them  competitors  for  prizes. 

There  were,  in  all,  67  prizes,  viz:  8  grand  medals;  15  first  prizes;  20 
second  prizes ;  24  third  prizes. 

Of  the  8  grand  medals,  4  were  awarded  to  France,  namely  to  Meissonier, 
Gerome,  Rousseau,  and  Cabanel,  all  of  whom  were  members  of  the  jury. 

Of  the  15  first  prizes,  8  were  awarded  to  France,  (4  to  the  four  French 
artists  on  the  jury  not  obtaining  a  grand  medal,  viz:  Pils,  Fromentin, 
Bida,  and  Frangais.) 

France  had  333  exhibitors  out  of  1,103,  and  secured  32  out  of  the  67 
awards. 

In  the  department  of  sculpture,  out  of  36  prizes,  23  were  awarded  to 
France ;  5  to  Italy ;  2  to  Prussia ;  2  to  Spain,  and  1  each  to  Greece, 
Switzerland,  Belgium,  and  Great  Britain. 

THE  FINE  ART  DEPARTMENT  NOT  COMPETITIVE. 

In  extent,  the  exhibition  of  paintings  was  one  of  the  largest  ever 
known,  but  it  has  very  justly  been  remarked  of  it  that  it  could  hardly 
be  considered  as  a  competition,  “which  can  only  be  fair  when  all  parties 
are  equally  well  represented,  and  enter  the  lists  with  the  intention  of 
competing,  and  with  a  careful  selection  of  pictures  by  their  ablest 
painters.” 

France  had  every  inducement  not  only  to  be  well  but  perfectly  rep¬ 
resented  in  the  exhibition,  and  she  had  furthermore  the  facilities  for  being 
so  represented.  She  had  all  the  advantages  of  proximity,  all  the  stim¬ 
ulus  of  glory  and  gain,  and  if  these  were  insufficient  to  call  out  and  dis¬ 
play  her  treasures  in  art,  there  existed  behind  an  authority  capable  of 
achieving  things  much  more  difficult.  Besides,  she  had,  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  painting,  and  in  that  alone,  a  committee  of  inspection,  com¬ 
posed  of  men  of  recognized  if  not  infallible  taste,  to  determine  what 
pictures  should  be  exhibited.  In  all  other  departments  the  meanest  and 
most  sordid  spirit  prevailed  toward  native  (French)  exhibitors,  and  a 


8 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


narrow  and  offensive  policy  characterized  the  management  of  the  whole 
affair.  The  privilege  of  placarding  on  the  enclosure  was  sold  for  650,000 
francs ;  the  privilege  of  placing  chairs  in  the  structure  was  sold  for 
70,000  francs ;  the  right  of  taking  photographs  and  of  making  drawings 
was  also  sold,  and  the  visitor  who  endeavored  to  assist  his  memory  by 
making  a  sketch  of  any  object,  however  trifling,  was  liable  to  arrest. 
Every  French  exhibitor  was  obliged  to  hire  the  space,  horizontal  and 
vertical,  that  he  occupied,  at  rates  varying  from  11  to  1,000  francs  the 
square  metre.  In  this  space  he  might  exhibit  almost  anything  he  chose, 
with  little  or  no  regard  to  its  quality  or  merits,  and  without  interference 
on  the  part  of  the  managers. 

But  in  the  department  of  painting,  as  already  said,  space  was  free,  and 
a  careful  criticism  and  sound  judgment  were  exercised,  with  excellent 
results. 

Some,  other  countries  besides  France,  Belgium  and  Russia,  for  instance, 
seem  to  have  had  a  competent  organization  sufficiently  early  to  exercise 
some  direction  in  the  choice  of  objects  that  were  proffered  to  be  exhib¬ 
ited  as  evidences  of  the  art  and  industry  of  their  people.  Most  European 
sovereigns  are  munificent  patrons  of  art,  and  have  under  their  control, 
outside  of  their  own  collections,  vast  public  galleries,  containing  the  best 
productions  of  modern  art.  From  these,  and  the  galleries  of  private 
collectors  proud  of  the  skill  of  their  countrymen  and  ambitious  of  national 
eclat,  it  was  comparatively  easy  to  select  a  sufficient  number  of  good 
paintings  to  make  the  national  exhibit  respectable,  if  not  competitive. 

THE  EXHIBITION  MADE  BY  VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

THE  AMERICAN  GALLERY. 

These  and  the  following  remarks  are  not  intended  to  deprecate  public 
judgment  as  regards  the  art  exhibition  of  the  United  States  in  Paris, 
which  received  so  slight  a  recognition  in  the  distribution  of  awards,  but 
to  show  that  circumstances  did  not  permit  of  the  United  States  entering 
as  an  art  competitor  in  the  Exhibition.  Every  picture  sent  from  here 
should  have  had  placed  over  it  u  hors  du  concourse  And  this  for  many 
reasons. 

In  the  first  place,  the  action  of  Congress,  as  regards  the  Exhibition,  was 
so  tardy  that,  almost  up  to  the  moment  when  all  entries  were  to  be  closed, 
it  was  doubtful  if  any  attempt  at  a  national  exhibit  would  be  made. 
The  little  that  was  done  was  in  an  informal  way,  and  even  when  the 
national  commissioners  were  authorized  and  appointed,  their  instructions 
did  not  warrant  an  exercise  of  their  functions  until  the  opening  of  the 
Exhibition  in  Paris.  As  a  consequence,  they  were  unable  to  render  that 
aid  in  the  organization  of  the  American  exhibition  here  which  they 
would  have  willingly  extended. 

The  arrangements  for  securing  works  to  be  sent  on  as  types  of  Amer¬ 
ican  art  were  left  to  the  overtasked  hands  of  the  forwarding  agent  of 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


9 


the  government  in  New  York,  who  appointed  a  committee  consisting  of 
local  patrons  of  art  and  dealers  in  pictures.  There  were  no  artists,  or 
recognized  authorities  on  art  matters  on  the  committee,  and  the  selection 
was  made  chiefly  from  the  galleries  or  sales-rooms  of  the  members  of  the 
committee  themselves.  Some  of  these  selections  were  good,  but  most  of 
them,  although  by  artists  of  acknowledged  merit,  were  not  their  latest  or 
best  productions. 

Here,  it  may  be  said  broadly,  there  are  no  galleries  of  national  art,  no 
public  collection  of  pictures  that  have  stood  the  test  of  exhibition  and 
criticism,  from  which  a  selection  of  either  original  or  characteristic 
paintings  could  be  made.  What  paintings  we  have  are  in  the  hands  of 
individuals,  scattered  over  a  country  as  large  as  all  Europe,  or  else  in 
the  hands  of  the  artists.  Now,  few  owners  of  pictures  of  recognized 
merit  were  ever  asked  to  contribute  towards  making  up  a  competitive  exhi¬ 
bition  of  American  art  in  Paris,  and  even  among  those  who  were  applied 
to,  few  were  willing  to  submit  to  the  annoyance  of  having  their  pictures 
removed,  or  to  incur  the  risks  of  having  them  sent  so  far  from  home, 
with  no  better  guarantee  than  the  word  of  a  committee  informally  organ¬ 
ized,  and  invested  with  no  responsible  authority. 

Notwithstanding  all  disadvantages,  seventy-five  pictures,  by  thirty- 
eight  artists,  were  sent  forward  from  the  United  States  and  placed  in 
the  Exposition.  Of  this  number  at  least  one-third  should  not  under  any 
pretence  or  influence  have  been  admitted  to  a  place.  It  is  doubtful  if 
they  could  have  obtained  room  in  any  local  exhibition  where  ordinary 
discrimination  is  exercised  in  the  choice  of  pictures.  Now,  we  have 
upwards  of  four  hundred  painters,  members  of  the  different  Academies 
of  Design  in  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  other  cities,  and  it  is 
idle  to  pretend  that  the  place  of  the  25  mediocre  or  utterly  worthless 
pictures  could  not  have  been  supplied  by  at  least  creditable  works  of  art. 
Many  such  works*  were  accessible.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  with 
credit  the  fine  pictures  by  Bradford,  drawn  after  careful  study  among 
the  icebergs  and  on  the  coast  and  among  the  natives  of  Labrador.  One 
of  these,  offered  by  the  artist,  he  was  obliged  himself  to  exhibit  in  Paris, 
where  it  speedily  found  a  sale,  while  the  eye  of  the  visitor  to  the  Exhi¬ 
bition  was  offended  by,  in  one  instance  certainly,  no  less  than  four  so- 
called  works  of  art,  from  a  single  unpracticed  and  obscure  hand. 

The  American  collection  occupied  one  end  of  the  British  gallery,  and 
the  walls  of  the  Avenue  WAfrique  dividing  this  gallery  from  the  Italian* 
This  passage  was  constantly  crowded,  so  that  the  lower  ranges  or  tiers 
of  pictures  could  seldom  be  seen,  or  if  at  all  at  a  great  disadvantage. 
Thus  Gifford’s  “Twilight  on  Mount  Hunter,”  Hubbard’s  “  View  of  the 
Adirondacks,”  and  McEntee’s  u  Virginia  in  1863,”  were  hung  in  very 
bad  light,  while  works  far  inferior  had  prominent  places  in  the  gallery 
itself. 

The  relative  proportion  of  space  occupied  by  us  in  the  fine  art  depart- 


10 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


rnent  is  shown  by  the  shaded  portion  in  the  outer  circle  of  the  sub¬ 
joined  diagram,  which  represents  the  two  inner  galleries  of  the  building : 


PLAN  OF  THE  INNER  GALLERIES  OF  THE  EXPOSITION  BUILDING. 


Not  only  was  the  American  exhibit  of  paintings  by  no  means  an  exhi¬ 
bition  of  the  various  styles  of  American  artists,  but  it  was  equally  defi¬ 
cient  as  a  type  or  representative  of  American  art  in  1867.  Few  of  the 
pictures  had  a  distinctive,  still  less  a  distinctively  American  character, 
except  Johnson’s  well-known  and  justly  appreciated  “Kentucky  Home,” 
which  compared  favorably  with  the  best  European  works  of  similar 
character,  and  attracted  much  attention  from  students.  Some  other 
small  pictures  by  the  same  competent  artist  could  hardly  be  called  fin¬ 
ished,  and  might,  judiciously,  have  been  left  out  of  the  exhibition.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  of  character,  or  genre,  pictures  we  had  so  few 
specimens,  since,  in  this  department,  always  the  most  popular,  we  might 
have  achieved  a  real  distinction. 

The  department  of  painting  in  which  the  United  States  may  lay  claim 
to  highest  excellence  is  undoubtedly  landscape,  and  as  was  to  be  expected 
the  largest  proportion  of  pictures  in  the  American  gallery  were  land¬ 
scapes — 28  in  all.  But  these  were  inadequate  representatives  of  the 
genius  of  our  painters  in  this,  their  favorite  branch  of  art.  They  were 
not  characteristic ;  for,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  work  by  Bierstadt 
with  his  broad  effects,  one  by  Church,  accurately  studied  and  well 
manipulated,  and  one  each  by  Gignoux  and  Gifford,  they  represented 
no  important  scene  or  combination  of  scenery  in  the  United  States, 
and  might  be  taken  as  presenting  views  in  almost  any  other  country. 
Our  autumn  and  winter  scenery  found  no  proper  representation,  although 
in  depicting  these  we  have  artists  of  real  merit.  It  may  be  said  generally 
that  our  landscapes  are  brighter,  more  cheerful  and  pleasing  than  those 
of  European  artists — a  not  unnatural  result  considering  our  clearer  and 
more  brilliant  sky  and  atmosphere.  Our  artists,  as  a  whole,  have  to  deal 
with  bolder  scenery,  and  are  consequently  often  more  effective  in  their 
results.  The  dull  skies,  long  twilights  and  generally  tame  outlines  of 
nature  in  European  countries  are  reproduced  in  pictures  also  dull, 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


11 


leaden  and  monotonous,  but  nevertheless  carefully  manipulated.  Yet, 
with  all  our  natural  advantages  of  subject  and  general  success  in  land¬ 
scape  painting,  it  is  humiliating  to  say  that  we  did  not  rank  any  higher 
in  the  Exposition  than  Prussia,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland. 

In  saying  this  it  is  not  meant  to  be  understood  that  the  Exposition,  as 
a  whole,  presented  many  remarkable  landscapes.  A  number  might  be 
called  good,  but  few  could  be  pronounced  excellent. 

And  here  it  may  be  observed,  in  parenthesis,  as  a  matter  worth  remem¬ 
bering  by  aspiring  artists,  that  landscapes  have  a  less  general  or  popu¬ 
lar  appeal  than  many  other  classes  of  paintings.  Authors  of  the  best 
works  in  this  department,  not  in  the  American  gallery  alone,  but  in  every 
other,  would  be  astonished  to  see  how  indifferently  their  productions 
were  passed  over  by  the  thousands  who  wandered  through  the  galleries 
of  the  great  Exhibition,  while  figure  subjects  and  representations  of 
active  or  historical  scenes,  never  missed  attracting  a  crowd  of  gazers, 
if  not  of  critics. 

The  natural  scenery  of  our  country,  its  variety  and  kaleidoscopic  effects 
cannot  be  surpassed.  Italian  sunsets  and  Alpine  scenery  have  become 
conventional  in  Europe  as  synonyms  artistically  of  the  tropics  and 
of  grandeur  in  vale  and  mountain ;  and  as  contrasted  with  the  dullness  of 
English  skies,  and  the  puny  altitudes  of  Wales  and  Scotland,  they  may 
be  justly  regarded  as  beautiful  and  grand.  But  Washington  is  in  a  lower 
latitude  than  Koine,  and  Florida  is  parallel  with  the  Desert  of  Sahara. 

Every  aspect  which  nature  exhibits,  from  the"  torrid  heats  of  Algeria 
to  the  bitter  cold  of  Norway,  is  to  be  found  in  our  own  country,  on  every 
scale  of  extent  and  grandeur.  Our  Atlantic  seaboard  stretches  over 
3,000  miles,  and  our  Pacific  line  from  the  headlands  of  California  to  the 
pole.  Our  field  of  art,  like  our  area  of  development,  is  almost  illimita¬ 
ble,  and  it  is  no  fault  of  ours  if  the  wilderness  in  one  instance  be  uncul¬ 
tivated,  or  in  the  other  nature’s  wonderful  combinations  unportrayed  on 
the  canvas.  It  has  taken  almost  500  years  to  rear  the  unfinished  Duomo 
of  Milan  to  its  present  proportions.  It  was  commenced  105  years  before 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus,  and  yet  scarcely  100  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  United  States  had  a  being. 

Nevertheless,  as  already  said,  we  have  an  art  material  that  ought  to 
inspire  and  develop  the  native  artist,  whatever  his  tastes  or  talents, 
whether  as  a  painter  of  lake,  river,  marine,  and  sea  shore  subjects,  of 
mountain,  prairie  or  forest  scenery,  or  of  the  thousand  striking  aspects 
and  episodes  of  busy  and  adventurous  life  of  which  the  United  States 
otters  so  many  illustrations.  The  stormy  Atlantic  and  the  placid  Pacific, 
the  broad  lakes  of  the  North  and  the  shadowy  lagoons  and  bayous  of  the 
South,  the  turbid  Mississippi,  crystal  Hudson,  swirling  and  plunging 
Niagara,  St.  Lawrence  and  Columbia,  and  the  Colorado  flowing  through 
the  deep  refts  of  plateau  and  mountain,  are  all  equally  subjects  for  the 
poet’s  pen  and  the  painter’s  pencil.  The  severe  landscapes  of  Maine, 
with  steel-colored  lakes  framed  in  by  dark  evergreens,  and  reflecting 


12 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


the  cold,  stern  hills,  afford  abundant  scope  for  a  taste  gloomy  and  severe. 
The  rich  valleys  of  the  middle  States,  green  with  growing  crops,  golden 
with  ripening  grain,  or  ruddy  with  autumnal  tints,  brightened  with  cities 
and  villages,  and  streaked  with  railways  and  canals ;  the  smoother 
expanses  of  the  South,  its  endless  wastes  of  pines,  broad,  dreamy  cotton 
plantations,  and  level  horizons  of  rice  fields,  its  orange  and  palm  trees — 
these,  too,  offer  their  thousands  of  combinations  to  the  eye  of  the  artist, 
and  their  inspirations  to  his  touch.  Our  meteroic  conditions  and  pheno¬ 
mena  are  equally  varied  and  grand,  and  we  have  the  characteristics, 
accessories  and  incidents  belonging  to  three  great  and  broadly  defined 
races  of  men  and  types  of  human  life  and  civilization. 

We  should  excel  in  landscape  painting  in  a  degree  corresponding  with 
the  variety  and  majesty  of  our  subjects,  and  with  the  exceptional  favor 
with  which  this  branch  of  art  is  regarded  in  our  country.  But  our  artists 
must  be  less  timid,  and  catch  more  of  the  boldness  and  vigor  which  made 
Norway  and  Sweden,  and  even  Bussia,  conspicuous  in  the  Paris  Exhibi¬ 
tion,  and  enabled  them  to  take  rank  as  our  superiors  in  landscape  paint¬ 
ing. 

As  shown  in  the  table  in  the  appendix,  but  one  picture  in  the  Ameri¬ 
can  gallery  was  honored  with  an  award,  namely,  Churches  “  Niagara.”1 
This  well-known  picture  has  an  established  American,  and  a  considera¬ 
ble  English  reputation,  and  is  a  faithful  and  effective  rendering  of  nature. 
The  second  and  perhaps  more  ambitious  picture  exhibited  by  the  same 
artist,  “The  Bainy  Season  in  the  Tropics,”  received  not  unmerited  criti¬ 
cism  for  the  dazzling  glow  of  its  rainbow,  a  meretricious  feature  which 
blinds  the  eye  to  the  fine  effects  of  cliff  and  mountain,  which  constitute 
the  chief  merit  of  the  picture.  The  next  largest,  and  perhaps  in  all 
respects  the  most  conspicuous  picture  in  the  American  gallery,  was 
Bierstadt’s  “Bocky  Mountains.”  In  arrangement  of  light  and  shadow, 
and  in  the  rendering  of  the  water,  its  purity  and  depth,  this  picture  was 
probably  unsurpassed  by  any  in  the  entire  exhibition.  And  it  derived 
signal  advantage  from  the  introduction  of  an  element,  too  often  neglect¬ 
ed,  even  when  admissible  in  a  landscape,  viz:  life  in  the  foreground. 
The  introduction  of  a  camp  of  explorers,  with  Indians,  etc.,  is  not  only 
effective,  but  appropriate,  and  gives  a  living  interest  to  the  picture  with¬ 
out  detracting  from  the  silent  majesty  of  the  natural  features  which  it 
was  the  great  object  of  the  painter  to  portray.  Had  the  solitary  award 
made  to  the  United  States  been  left  to  the  suffrages  of  the  mass  of  the 
lovers  and  appreciators  of  art  who  visited  our  gallery,  it  is  not  improbable 
that  that  doubtful  honor  might  have  been  conferred  on  “The  Bocky 
mountains.” 

“Mount  Washington,”  by  Gignoux,  is  a  good,  effective  picture,  but  by 
no  means  one  of  the  best  productions  of  that  artist,  and  lost  much  of  its 
real  effect  by  being  badly  hung  in  the  gallery.  Had  this  prolific  painter 
been  consulted  in  the  matter,  the  American  gallery  might  have  been 


lThe  artist’s  medal  with  500  francs  in  gold. 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


13 


greatly  enriched,  and  the  credit  of  American  art  much  elevated.  Gifford 
had  two  very  excellent  pictures  in  the  Exhibition,  but  one  of  them  was 
hung,  together  with  Hubbard’s  good  and  well  manipulated  “View  on  the 
Adirondacks,”  in  the  dim  passage  called  Avenue  d’Afrique ,  where  it  was 
difficult  to  see  it  at  all.  “Lake  George  in  Autumn,”  by  Kensett,  a  care¬ 
fully  studied  piece,  but  deficient  in  force  in  the  foreground,  attracted 
much  attention  and  was  well  appreciated.  “The  Symbol,”  by  Durand, 
Avas  generally  regarded  as  an  effective  picture  by  competent  foreign 
critics,  as  was  also  “Virginia  in  1863,”  by  Mac  Entee.  “Autumn  in  the 
Woods,”  by  the  artist  last  named,  is  by  no  means  one  of  his  best  works. 

These  were  the  principal  landscapes  exhibited  $  the  remainder  were 
either  mediocre  or  absolutely  poor,  and  if  their  place  could  not  have  been 
supplied  with  better  works,  they  might,  for  the  credit  of  American  art, 
have  been  omitted  from  the  gallery  altogether. 

The  second  department  of  painting,  in  which  American  artists  are 
presumed  to  excel,  and  to  which  it  is  alleged  that  nearly  all  are  obliged 
to  resort  as  a  means  of  support,  is  that  of  portraiture.  There  were  10 
portraits  exhibited  in  the  American  gallery,  of  which  three  only  were 
creditable  specimens  of  art,  while  the  remainder  ranged  between  bare 
mediocrity  and  absolute  caricature.  None  except  those  of  Elliott  and 
Baker  could  be  favorably  compared  with  works  of  the  same  character  in 
the  various  galleries,  and  even  these  did  not  rank  with  some  in  the  Bel¬ 
gian  and  Russian  exhibitions. 

In  figure  and  historical  composition,  the  highest  branch  of  painting, 
the  American  department  was  singularly  deficient.  There  were  but  four 
or  five  pictures  of  this  class  of  any  pretension,  and  these  were  overshad¬ 
owed  by  greatly  superior  works  in  almost  every  gallery  except  the 
Roman.  Figure  compositions,  to  be  effective,  require  scope  of  canvas, 
and  the  figures  themselves  should  be  of  size  approximating  to  that  of 
life.  It  is  only  on  this  scale  that  genius  in  conqmsition  can  fairly  exhibit 
itself.  Single  historical  pictures  in  the  French  gallery  covered  an  area 
almost  equal  to  that  occupied  by  all  our  pictures  combined. 

The  “Old  Kentucky  Home,”  by  Johnson,  and  “Marie  Stuart  hearing 
Mass,”  by  Leutze,  were  probably  the  best  pictures  of  the  class  under 
notice  in  the  American  gallery.  The  “Lear  and  Cordelia”  of  May  has 
some  of  the  essential  elements  of  a  figure  picture,  but  is  roughly  manip¬ 
ulated.  The  largest  picture  of  this  class  was  “The  Republican  Court” 
of  Huntington,  which,  however  faithful  in  respect  of  portraiture  and 
costume,  illustrates  no  event,  and  tells  no  story ;  it  is  nevertheless  care¬ 
fully  manipulated,  but  weak  in  color,  lacks  force  and  is  more  a  costume 
picture  than  a  historical  composition. 

“Lady  Jane  Gray  giving  her  Tablets  to  the  Governor  of  the  Tower  of 
London,”  by  May,  was  accepted  as  very  fair  in  composition,  but  crude 
and  roughly  handled. 

We  did  not  exhibit  a  single  animal  picture,  which  is  unfortunate  for 
our  reputation,  since  we  have  very  competent  animal  painters  whose 


14 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


works  would  have  taken  a  high  place  in  the  Exposition.  Among  ani¬ 
mals  we  have  a  peculiarity  in  the  bison,  so  little  known  in  Europe ;  and 
we  have  also  artists  who,  like  Hays,  have  spent  years  in  the  Far  West  in 
the  study  of  its  habits  and  peculiarities,  whose  large  pictures,  truthful 
in  drawing  and  color,  bold  and  effective,  would  have  been  a  feature  in 
our  collection,  and  compared  favorably  with  any  corresponding  works  in 
any  of  the  competing  galleries. 

Our  exhibit  of  marine  pictures  also  was  scant,  and  by  no  means  repre¬ 
sentative  ;  yet  among  our  artists  at  home  there  are  several  who  have 
made  marine  painting  a  specialty,  and  whose  works  would  be  an  honor 
to  any  country.  Their  pictures,  large  and  effective,  could  not  have  failed 
to  arrest  attention  and  command  admiration.  Of  those  exhibited  two 
were  by  Kensett,  very  good  little  pictures,  very  well  worked  up,  but  not 
effective,  and  one,  a  very  promising  work,  by  Dix.  This  department 
might  have  received  valuable  additions  from  the  easels  of  De  Hass, 
Hamilton,  and  others. 

We  did  not  present  a  single  strictly  genre  picture,  although  here,  as  in 
animal  and  marine  painting,  the  United  States  is  not  deficient  in  very 
competent  artists  such  as  Guy,  Brown,  and  Irving,  whose  unexhibited 
works,  in  this  branch  of  art,  are  equal  to  many  of  the  same  class  that 
were  conspicuous  in  the  Exposition.  In  their  manipulation  they  may 
not  perhaps  come  up  to  the  perfection  of  some  of  the  genre  pictures  in 
the  French  and  Belgian  galleries.  It  would  indeed  be  difficult  to  equal 
and  almost  impossible  to  excel  the  touch  and  handling  of  Meissonier. 
But  genre  painters  seldom  grapple  with  much  action  in  their  composition. 
Thus  Willems  and  Baugniet,  whose  works  are  numerous  in  the  Belgian 
gallery,  do  not  show  any  great  variety  in  choice  of  subjects,  nor  any 
great  amount  of  genius ;  but  their  representations  of  rich  draperies  and 
fine  satins  are  exceedingly  beautiful.  Their  works  may  be  described  as 
pleasing  pictures  of  modern,  fashionably  dressed  ladies,  shoving,  how¬ 
ever,  no  action  and  little  invention. 

Of  the  nude  and  classical,  and  in  drawing  and  color,  few  pictures  in 
the  entire  exhibition  surpassed  “The  Apple  of  Discord,”  by  Gray. 
Wier’s  “Cannon  Foundry  at  West  Point”  was  equally  unique,  striking, 
and  faithfully  studied,  and  was  among  the  few  pictures  in  the  American 
gallery  that  commanded  constant  attention  from  visitors. 

The  American  gallery  was  also  deficient  in  pictures  of  still-life,  fruits, 
and  flowers,  and  in  miniatures ;  although  in  all  these  branches  of  paint¬ 
ing  it  is  certain  we  could  have  made  a  good  exhibition. 

It  would  probably  be  deemed  to  be  outside  the  scope  of  a  report  like 
this,  as  well  as  a  difficult  and  dangerous  task,  to  undertake  to  analyze 
and  point  out  the  defects  in  American  painting  generally,  or  to  attempt 
to  indicate  the  causes  why  American  art  has  not  achieved  for  itself  a 
higher  position.  It  is  true  that  it  is  yet  young,  and  it  may  be  true  that 
it  does  not  find  adequate  and  constant  support  and  encouragement ;  that 
there  are  no  schools  of  art,  and  that  we  are  without  public  galleries  in 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


15 


which  accredited  worksvof  competent  masters  may  he  consulted  and 
studied.  But  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous  cause  of  our  acknowledged 
deficiency  is  the  absence  of  sound  and  judicious  criticism.  We  are  accus¬ 
tomed  to  pay  too  much  homage  and  deference  to  artists  and  the  works 
of  artists  who  succeeded  in  arresting  the  public  attention  in  the  infancy 
of  art  in  the  United  States,  or  whose  pictures  exhibited  singly,  surrounded 
by  green  cloth  and  other  adventitious  aids,  obtain  undeserved  and  sweep¬ 
ing  commendations  from  injudicious  friends,  who  discover  beauties  that 
do  not  exist,  and  ignore  or  overlook  defects  that  are  real.  It  is  only 
when  such  works  are  put  in  fair  competition  with  other  pictures,  without 
any  artificial  and  meretricious  surroundings,  that  their  relative  merit 
appears,  and  their  deficiencies  become  conspicuous.  Nothing  could 
exercise  a  more  wholesome  influence  in  American  art  than  the  necessity 
of  our  paintings  appearing  as  a  whole,  year  by  year  and  side  by  side, 
with  the  annual  productions  of  France,  Bussia,  or  even  Switzerland. 
Not  that  such  an  exhibition  would  not  be  without  a  degree  of  credit,  but 
because  it  would  rapidly  destroy  the  prevailing  system  of  indiscriminate 
praise,  by  which  artists  are  led  into  conceit  and  a  consequent  neglect  of 
that  study  and  attention  by  which  alone  their  real  powers  can  be  brought 
out  and  enlarged. 

All  great  painters  must  have  produced  works  in  the  early  periods  of 
their  careers,  or  at  inauspicious  periods,  which  they  would  gladly  cancel 
if  they  had  the  chance,  but  which  are  nevertheless  exhibited  to  us  as 
works  stamped,  and  correctly,  with  their  great  names,  yet  utterly  beneath 
their  genius,  and  which  they  would  feel  humiliated  to  have  placed  in 
competition  with  the  productions  of  minor  artists. 

As  regards  the  Paris  Exhibition  it  is  undoubtedly  true,  that  had  the 
American  artists  whose  works  appeared  there  been  consulted  iif  the  prem¬ 
ises,  a  number  of  them  would  have  objected  strongly  to  the  figure  they 
were  compelled  to  make.  They  would  have  refused  to  appear  at  all,  or 
insisted  that  their  matured  works,  the  results  of  their  later  taste,  judg¬ 
ment,  study  and  skill,  should  represent  them. 

The  majority  of  our  painters  are  landscape  artists,  and  such  they  must 
probably  long  remain,  unless  they  fall  into  the  easy  but  wonderful  style 
of  reproducing  lay  figures,  of  which  West  and  Alliston  were  masters, 
under  the  delusion  that  these  are  historical  compositions.  But  in  what¬ 
ever  direction  their  own  or  the  public  taste  may  lead  them,  there  can 
never  be  serious  dispute  of  the  proposition  that  figure  painting  is  the 
highest  effort  of  art.  In  this  the  old  masters  of  the  Italian  school 
excelled,  and  in  this  they  established  that  pre-eminence  they  have  held 
and  seem  destined  to  hold.  Precisely  in  this,  broadly  speaking,  Ameri¬ 
can  art  is  most  deficient.  It  is  possible  that  if  our  painters  were  able  to 
study  the  human  subject  as  easily  and  readily  as  they  are  able  to  study 
our  undoubtedly  grand  and  varied  scenery,  and  if  public  taste  were  edu¬ 
cated  in  this  department  up  to  the  same  critical  standard  that  it  pos¬ 
sesses  in  landscape,  figure  painting  might  receive  a  stimulus  and  obtain  a 


16 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


high,  if  not  the  first,  position  in  American  art.  Figure  painting,  outside 
of  composition,  and  apart  from  color  and  effect,  requires  much  careful 
and  laborious  study  for  outline  alone.  To  this  point  the  old  masters 
directed  their  first  attention,  and  to  this  the  leaders  of  art  of  our  own 
time  have  given  their  best  and  most  earnest  efforts.  If  the  Dusseldorf 
school  has  gained  special  distinction,  it  is  due  to  the  care  the  artists  who 
compose  it  have  bestowed  in  this  direction.  The  tendency  with  us, 
unhappily,  is  to  cover  up  and  disguise  bad  drawing  by  color,  and  avoid 
grappling  with  the  difficulties  of  the  figure  by  a  resort  to  what  are  called 
u  effects.”  But  there  is  no  royal  road  to  excellence  in  any  department, 
least  of  all  in  figure  painting.  Genius  is  useless  and  often  vicious  unless 
directed  with  judgment,  and  unless  it  submits  itself  to  a  sound  element¬ 
ary  education  it  can  never  find  true  scope  and  expression.  The  works 
of  the  earnest  student  alone  can  stand  the  severe  tests  of  time.  The 
eagle  cannot  rise  in  his  flight  unless  the  earth  from  which  he  is  to  spring 
be  firm  under  his  feet. 

Our  best  figure  artists  are  unquestionably  those  who  have  gone  through 
the  very  careful  and  conscientious  training  of  the  Dusseldorf  school. 

Among  our  younger  artists  there  are  some  who  show  much  invention 
and  undoubtedly  possess  real  genius,  but,  from  lack  of  good  art  education, 
never  rise  above  mediocrity.  In  this  consists  the  viciousness  of  our 
school  of  art,  if  we  can  claim  to  have  a  school,  of  which  the  character¬ 
istics  are  lack  of  study,  haste,  carelessness,  and  ambition  for  easy,  mere¬ 
tricious  effects.  But  the  greatest  evil  and  drawback  of  all  is  to  be  found 
in  want  of  proper  tutorship  in  drawing,  and  default  of  patience.  Let  no 
one  suppose  the  orations  of  Cicero  were  spotaneous  bursts  of  eloquence. 

Turning  from  our  own  meagre  and  unsatisfactory  gallery,  a  few  words 
may  not  b%  inappropriate  relative  to  the  others,  among  which  that  of 
France  was  the  only  one  that  may  be  said  to  have  been  in  any  sense 
complete  5  that  is  to  say,  the  one  most  judiciously  selected,  and  suf¬ 
ficiently  large  to  present  every  phase  of  the  painter’s,  art. 

THE  FRENCH  GALLERY. 

As  already  stated,  the  French  gallery  consisted  of  626  pictures  by  333 
artists.  Many  of  the  latter  were  represented  by  a  number  of  pictures 
illustrating  their  various  styles  and  capacities.  Thus  Gerome  had  thir¬ 
teen  pictures,  all  highly  dramatic  and  powerful  ;  Bouguereau  had  ten ; 
Meissonier,  fourteen,  etc.  Those  thus  honored  were  of  course  the  leading 
artists  of  France,  and  the  selections  were  made  from  their  best  works. 
In  our  own  gallery,  on  the  other  hand,  the  largest  exhibitor  was  a  Balti¬ 
more  artist,  whose  productions  scarcely  rose  to  the  level  of  caricature  in 
drawing,  or  the  dignity  of  daub  in  color. 

As  already  said,  every  department  of  pictorial  art  was  adequately  rep¬ 
resented  ;  figure  and  historical  compositions  on  a  scale  great  enough  to 
admit  of  a  large  treatment  of  groups  and  incidents,  covering  in  some 
instances  as  many  as  sixty  square  yards  of  canvas :  marine,  landscape, 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


17 


portrait  and  genre  works,  and  still-life,  all  in  sufficient  proportions.  In 
fact  tlie  French  gallery  may  be  said  to  have  been  rather  aggressive  and 
monopolizing  towards  the  galleries  of  nations  who  from  proximity  and 
artistic  taste  and  skill  were  able  and  willing  to  enter  the  lists  as  com¬ 
petitors  in  art.  It  occupied  considerably  more  than  one-third  of  the 
space  assigned  to  the  exhibition  of  paintings,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
compelled  Holland,  Bavaria,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland  to  seek  accommo¬ 
dation  in  the  Park  for  what  they  deemed  a  proper  exhibition  of  their 
works. 

France  has  peculiar  facilities  for  getting  together,  at  any  time,  a  col¬ 
lection  of  good  pictures,  due  in  great  part  to  her  extended  system  of  art 
culture  and  art  support.  Besides  maintaining  art  schools,  like  that  in 
Borne,  the  nation  is  a  liberal  purchaser  from  the  works  exhibited  annu¬ 
ally  at  the  Academie  des  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris,  and  these  works  are  freely 
distributed  among  the  royal  residences  and  in  the  metropolitan  and  pro¬ 
vincial  galleries,  which  are  always  free,  and  all  this  with  the  avowed 
purpose  and  real  effect  of  stimulating  artistic  aspirations  and  forming  a 
healthful  popular  artistic  taste.  Artists  struggling  to  establish  a  repu¬ 
tation  have  the  stimulus  of  knowing  that  a  high  position  once  gained, 
they  are  certain  of  orders  from  the  State  which  will  give  them  profit  as 
well  as  fame,  and  lead  to  other  honors  and  recognitions  which  probably 
appeal  more  to  the  French  mind  than  to  any  other.  If  they  possess  good 
or  superior  capacities  for  historical  composition,  French  painters  feel 
sure  of  identifying  themselves  with  the  martial  history  of  their  country, 
through  illustrations  of  events  that  are  supposed  to  have  contributed  to 
the  u  gloire  de  la  France.”  Some  ambitious  American  artists  have  aspired 
to  something  of  this  sort,  and  most  of  us  have  recollections  of  very 
pretentious  attempts  at  illustrating  the  battles  and  u  victories”  of  the  Mex¬ 
ican  war,  as  well  as  some  of  the  incidents  and  events  of  the  revolution¬ 
ary  war  and  that  of  1812.  To  know  how  absolutely  abject  these  were, 
or  are,  it  would  only  be  necessary  to  place  them  side  by  side  with  the 
works  of  Pils  and  Yvon. 

Owing  to  the  practice  of  distributing  first-class  works  among  the  prov¬ 
inces,  part  of  that  unhappy  tendency  to  centralization  of  everything  in 
the  way  of  art,  science,  and  literature  in  Paris  is  prevented,  and,  local 
students  obtain  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  easy  access  to,  paint¬ 
ings,  which,  if  not  exactly  models,  offer  abundant  and  useful  hints  and 
suggestions  in  drawing,  coloring,  and  effect.  Thus  we  find  the  famous 
painting  of  Paul  Delaroche,  u  Cromwell  viewing  the  dead  body  of  Charles 
the  First,”  in  the  small  but  excellent  gallery  of  the  little  provincial. town 
of  Msrnes. 

The  French  gallery  in  the  Exposition  was  greatly  enriched  by  the  best 
pictures  from  the  walls  of  the  annual  French  exhibition  in  the  old  Palais 
d?  Industrie  in  the  Champs  Elysees  which  closed  on  the  5th  of  June,  and 
which,  although  embracing  only  th'e  national  competitive  works  of  the 
year,  numbered  not  less  than  1,572  pictures,  some  of  them  of  great  merit. 

2  F  A 


18 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Incidentally,  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  in  this  annual  exhibition  there 
was  a  very  large  proportion  of  figure  subjects,  many  of  them  of  nude 
figures,  and  illustrating  the  importance  that  in  France  more  and  more 
attaches  to  figure  drawing.  These  were  generally  of  life  size. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  the  French  government  is  the 
patron  of  art,  and  how  far  its  powerful  influence  and  resources  were 
thrown  into  the  scale  of  competition,  it  is  only  necessary  to  say  that,  out 
of  the  625  pictures  in  the  French  gallery,  252  (almost  half)  were  contrib¬ 
uted  by  the  state. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to  repeat  here  that,  out  of  the  67  prizes  of 
all  classes  awarded  to  painters,  France  secured  32,  viz,  4  grand  prizes, 
8  first,  10  second,  and  10  third-class  prizes,  to  artists  whose  names  appear 
in  the  appendix. 

The  best  pictures  exhibited,  prior  to  the  addition  from  the  annual  exhi¬ 
bition,  (and  which  were  hors  de  concours ,  or  not  competitive,)  were :  I.  L.  H. 
Bellange,  “  The  Parting  Salute,”  a  scene  in  the  trenches  before  Sebastopol ; 
I.  A.  Breton,  “Return  of  the  Gleaners;”  G.  Brion,  “Pilgrims  of  St.  Odile, 
Alsatia;”  B.  Desgoff,  flowers  and  objects  of  art,  (Nos.  210,  213  of  cata¬ 
logue,)  wonderful  in  delicacy  and  accuracy  of  manipulation;  Madame 
E.  Escallier,  flowers,  (Nos. 243,  244;)  T.  Robert-Fleury,  “Warsaw,  April 
8,  1861;”  J.  L.  Gerome,  “Phryne  before  the  Tribunal,”  and  “Duel  after 
Masked  Ball;”  T.  Gide,  “Rehearsal  of  a  Musical  Mass;”  J.  F.  Gigoux, 
“Napoleon  on  the  day  of  Austerlitz;”  A.  A.  Herbert,  “Rosa  Neva  at  the 
Fountain;”  C.  F.  Jalabert,  “Christ  Walking  on  the  Sea;”  G.  Jundt, 
“Returning  from  the  Agricultural  Show;”  J.  L.  E.  Meissonier,  “Cam¬ 
paign  in  France,  1814,”  “  Information,”  and  “  General  Desaix  at  the  Army 
of  the  Rhone  and  Moselle ;”  A.  Prignon,  two  female  portraits,  with  reflected 
light,  admirably  managed  and  effective;  J.  V.  A.  Rigo,  “General  Can- 
robert  Visiting  the  Trenches;”  P.  L.  Roux,  “Rembrandt’s  Studio;”  A. 
Yvon,  “Taking  of  the  Malakoff,”  and  “Convoy  of  Wounded  Soldiers.” 

The  pictures  that  commanded  most  attention  in  the  entire  Exhibition 
were  undoubtedly  those  of  Yvon  and  Pils.  This  distinction  was,  in  part, 
due  to  their  mammoth  size,  but  mainly  to  their  unquestionable  great 
excellence.  There  are  few  examples  extant  of  equal  vigor  and  truth  of 
drawing,  combined  with  breadth  of  effect  and  naturalness  of  tone.  In 
contrast  with  these,  but  almost  equally  popular  with  the  great  public 
jury,  were  the  celebrated  genre  pictures  of  Meissonier,  and  the  groups  of 
Gerome — exquisite  in  every  way,  perfect  in  drawing,  fine  in  color,  and 
most  carefully  manipulated. 

The  nude  figure  pictures  in  the  Exposition,  singularly  enough,  were  not 
equal  to  those  in  the  annual  exhibition,  in  which  “Phryne  before  the 
Tribunal,”  by  Boutibonne,  “The  Syren,”  by  Belly,  were  of  the  very  first- 
class  of  such  works,  and  which  merited  the  distinction  they  subsequently 
received  of  a  place  in  the  Exhibition.  By  the  terms  of  their  agreement, 
the  French  students  in  Rome  are  bound  to  send  specimens  of  their  pro¬ 
gress,  to  be  submitted  to  the  directors  of  the  Academy  in  Paris,  and  these 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


19 


specimens  must  possess  the  utmost  accuracy  in  designing  the  naked 
human  form;  but  as  the  taste  for  exclusively  classical  forms  no  longer 
exists,  they  are  led  to  comply  with  the  rules  by  representations  of  figures 
more  congenial  to  modern  French  notions.  Thus  we  no  longer  find 
studies  of  Achilles  or  Romulus,  or  other  ancient  heroes,  but  their  places 
are  occupied  by  paintings  of  Yenus,  nymphs,  and  goats,  Andomedas,  etc. 

The  paintings  thus  produced  are  decidedly  more  harmonious  in  color¬ 
ing  than  those  of  “the  Italian  masters,”  and  it  is  a  relief  to  the  eye  to 
turn  from  the  nude  figures  of  the  latter,  with  their  harsh,  incongruous 
back  grounds,  to  the  fresh  living  tints,  transparent  shadows,  and  delicate 
back  grounds  of  the  later  works  of  this  class,  which  harmonize  perfectly 
with  the  flesh  colors.  Some  of  these  have  delicate  white  or  gray  for  high 
lights  of  the  drapery,  while  blueish  grays  and  tender  greens  appear  in 
others,  bringing  out,  in  the  highest  degree,  the  charm  of  harmony  in 
coloring. 

A  strong  tendency  of  French  art,  in  sculpture  as  well  as  painting,  is 
towards  the  romantic  rather  than  the  classic  style.  Religious  paintings 
are  now  rarely  produced,  and  only  to  fill  special  orders.  As  very  truth, 
fully  observed  by  a  competent  English  critic:  “ France  has  a  school  of 
painters  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  which  is  different  from  that  in 
which  we  employ  it  in  writing  of  Germany,  a  people  which  is  all  school 
and  little  more.  As  art  is  anti- scholastic  to  the  core,  and  hates  a  common 
standard,  so  in  the  most  varied  school  we  find  its  wealthiest  development. 
In  France,  better  than  anywhere,  students  learn  the  executive  of  paint¬ 
ing;  yet  nowhere  is  art  so  seldom  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  training,  or 
are  the  results  of  training  so  obvious.  The  executive  standard  is  gener¬ 
ally  high  among  the  French,  because  their  professional  tone  is  high,  and 
nothing  short  of  peculiar  power  is  received  in  place  of  good  workmanship. 
With  us  bad  workmanship  need  not  be  compensated  by  peculiar  ability; 
our  professional  tone  is  so  low  that  bad  handicraft  and  want  of  purpose 
often  appear  in  the  best  places  on  exhibition  walls.” 

In  landscape,  French  art  seems  to  have  taken  a  new  departure,  and  to 
have  made  recent  and  rapid  progress.  Although  this  class  of  pictures 
was  not  numerous,  yet  most  of  the  specimens  were  good  and  some  of  them 
excellent.  They  are  distinguished  less  for  care  in  manipulation  than  for 
broad  effects,  affording  a  hint  which  our  own  artists  in  this  department 
might  accept  with  advantage.  This  tendency  is  perhaps  carried  too  far 
by  the  French,  who  might,  on  the  other  hand,  gain  much  by  a  closer 
attention  to  finish.  The  happy  mean  applies  here,  as  in  all  things  else, 
and  strong  features  pushed  to  exaggeration  are  not  necessarily  powerful, 
but  oftener  caricatures. 

The  high  rank  of  French  artists  in  animal  painting  is  universally  con¬ 
ceded.  The  works  of  Rosa  Bonheur  are  too  well  known  to  need  remark; 
and  although  she  was  awarded  a  second  prize,  it  was  rather  as  a  matter 
of  course  than  for  any  extraordinary  excellence  in  the  10  pictures  exhib¬ 
ited  under  her  name,  and  of  which  the  best  was  a  “  Razzia  in  Scotland.” 


20 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


There  were  some  very  fine  works  by  Fromentin  and  Troyon,  all  carefully 
studied  and  vigorously  handled.  American  and  English  artists  too  often 
paint  animals  as  mere  accessories  in  quiet  dreamy  landscapes,  and  the 
animals  themselves  appear  only  as  contemplative,  dozing  creatures, 
apparently  indisposed  to  movement,  if  not  incapable  of  it.  French  artists, 
on  the  other  hand,  give  action  to  their  animals  $  one  almost  hears  the 
neigh  and  tramp  of  the  burly  Normandy  stallion  5  there  is  life  in  the  ox, 
and  even  the  sheep  hurry  over  the  heath  in  search  of  the  green  grass- 
plats,  or  huddle  struggling  to  the  fold  before  the  sharp  bark  of  the  shep¬ 
herd’s  dog. 

Among  the  most  marvellous  paintings  of  still-life  in  the  Exposition 
are  five  pictures  by  Desgofies,  two  of  which  belong  to  the  Empress.  In 
one  of  them  are  an  ewer,  silver-gilt,  (style  of  the  16th  century,)  a  Christ 
in  bloodstone,  bust  of  the  Yirgin  in  rock  crystal,  door-knocker,  statuette 
in  box- wood  by  Jean  de  Bologne,  enamelled  vase,  etc.,  grouped  together 
with  consummate  skill  and  painted  with  Eembrandtish  effect.  For  draw¬ 
ing,  management  of  light  and  shade,  minute  manipulation,  this  work  is 
unapproachable  by  any  other  of  its  kind  in  the  Exhibition  or  out  of  it. 
The  same  may  be  said  with  almost  equal  truth  of  some  flower  pieces  by 
the  same  artist. 

Although  portraits  were  not  numerous  in  the  French  gallery,  yet  they 
were  almost  uniformly  good.  In  this  branch  of  art  criticism  resolves 
itself  into  few  words — the  French  lead  the  world.  Portraiture  is  not  a 
trade  in  France,  it  is  a  profession. 

Reference  has  been  once  or  twice  made  to  the  annual  French  exhibition 
of  painting  and  sculpture,  which  was  quite  as  largely  frequented  by 
lovers  of  the  fine  arts  as  the  galleries  of  the  Exposition  itself,  and  became 
so  associated  with  the  latter  as  to  be  really  regarded  as  a  part  of  it.  No 
doubt  the  general  impression  of  French  art  left  upon  the  mind  of  the 
visitor  to  Paris  during  the  summer  of  1867  was  quite  as  much  due  to 
the  Annual  as  to  the  Grand  Exposition.  For  this  reason  a  few  words  in 
reference  to  it  may  not  be  inappropriate. 

As  already  stated,  this  exhibition  took  place  in  the  old  Palais  d1  Indus¬ 
trie  in  the  Champs  de  Ely  see.  As  its  name  implies,  this  exhibition  is  only 
for  works  of  art  of  the  year,  and  no  picture  is  a  second  time  exhibited. 
The  Exhibition  of  1867  consisted  of  2,166  paintings  and  382  pieces  of 
sculpture,  besides  water-color  drawings,  lithographs,  chromo-lithographs, 
photographs,  and  engravings  on  wood,  etc.,  and  it  may  be  said  broadly, 
but  with  truth,  that  out  of  the  2,116  paintings  there  were  not  20  that 
would  be  pronounced  positively  bad,  while  hundreds  were  of  a  very  high 
order  of  excellence.  In  fact,  a  majority  of  them  were  good  ;  not  merely 
passable  and  creditable,  but  positively  good.  In  looking  through  this 
vast  collection,  the  eye  failed  to  discover  a  single  branch  of  painting 
that  was  not  cleverly  represented.  The  area  of  canvas  covered  was 
quite  amazing.  A  single  picture  by  Gustave  Dore,  aThe  Tapis  Vert,” 
was  not  less  than  60  feet  by  25  feet,  and  was  by  no  means  the  only  pic- 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS.  21 

ture  of  that  size.  Two  such  pictures  cover  more  canvas  than  all  the 
pictures  exhibited  annually  in  New  York. 

Dore  is  one  of  the  most  active  artists  of  the  age.  Not  only  has  he 
made  more  designs  on  wood  than  probably  any  dozen  other  living  artists, 
but  has  found  time  to  design  and  paint,  among  others,  the  picture  just 
referred  to,  a  work  of  much  study,  true  to  life,  filled  with  character,  from 
the  dashing  belle  to  the  sturdy  English  baron,  and  displaying  many  of 
the  strongest  points  and  features  of  modern  French  art. 

It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  notice  separately  the  best  pictures 
in  the  annual  Exposition.  Among  them,  however,  may  be  mentioned  a 
beautiful  Psyche,  by  Duval  Amauryj  “The  Taking  of  the  Fort  of  San 
Xavier  de  Puebla,  ”  a  grand  picture,  by  Beauce,  excellent  in  design  and 
action,  perfect  in  drawing,  and  with  the  tone  and  touch  of  a  master ; 
“  The  Syren,”  by  Belly ;  “  Ships  on  the  High  Seas,”  by  Bonnetter ;  “  Death 
of  Sappho,”  and  “  Idylle,”  by  Bertrand  ;  “  Le  Jour  de  la  Pentecote,”  by 
Bischoff,  are  all  good  pictures.  The  Phryne  of  Boutibonne  was  probably 
the  best  of  all  the  nude  figures,  comparing  favorably  with  that  of  Gerome 
in  the  Grand  Exhibition.  Great  praise  is  also  due  to  “  The  Council  of 
Three  in  Venice,”  by  Bronnikoff ;  “ Le  Lendemain,”  by  Broune ;  “Por¬ 
traits,”  by  Madame  Chatillon,  etc.,  etc. 

THE  BRITISH  GALLERY. 

Great  Britain  exhibited  156  pictures  by  124  artists,  of  whom  only  26 
were  represented  by  more  than  one  specimen.  All  of  the  pictures,  ex¬ 
cept  three  portraits,  viz.,  of  the  Queen,  the  late  Prince  Albert,  and  the  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Boyal  Academy,  were  contributed  by  art  connoisseurs  or  artists 
themselves.  The  United  States  collection  of  pictures  occupied  one  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  gallery  assigned  to  the  English,  who  took  commendable 
pains  in  its  preparation,  toning  the  walls,  covering  the  floor  with  matting, 
and  providing  a  liberal  allowance  of  seats  for  the  convenience  of  visit¬ 
ors.  The  central  part  of  the  gallery  was  in  part  occupied  with  screens, 
on  which  were  displayed  a  good  collection  of  paintings  in  water-colors, 
some  of  them  of  unexampled  size.  In  fact,  England  was  the  only  coun¬ 
try  that  made  this  branch  of  the  fine  arts,  so  capable  of  fine  effects,  a 
distinctive  and  prominent  feature  in  its  collection,  and  well  deserved  the 
only  prize  awarded  for  a  water-color  drawing.  It  went  to  Mr.  F.  Walker. 
Most  of  the  specimens  were  very  fine  studies,  and  some  of  the  interiors 
particularly  good  in  manipulation  and  effect.  Without  going  into  par- 
ticulars,  it  may  be  said,  generally,  that  in  this  department  England  was 
unapproached  by  any  other  country  represented  in  the  Exhibition. 

The  British  exhibition  of  oil  paintings,  although  less  obviously  betray¬ 
ing  the  influences  of  the  French  school,  which  pervade  all  continental 
art,  and  consequently  more  distinctive,  was  not  particularly  excellent. 
It  consisted  chiefly  of  large  cabinet  pictures  of  domestic  and  rural  scenes, 
with  very  little  incident,  lacking,  also,  historical  and  figure  compositions, 
and  had  no  marines  of  importance.  The  portraits  were  very  excellent, 


22 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


being  in  some  instances  something  more  than  the  mere  outline  of  the 
features  or  the  figure  in  repose.  The  accessories  of  pets  or  companions, 
by  Landseer,  were  occasionally  introduced,  with  good  effect,  giving  some¬ 
thing  of  life  and  reality  to  the  portraits,  which  were  generally  carefully 
and  conscientiously  manipulated. 

“La  Gloria,  a  Spanish  Wake,”  by  the  late  J.  Phillips,  was,  without 
doubt,  the  best  work  in  the  British  gallery  in  invention,  drawing,  color¬ 
ing,  and  effect.  Next  in  rank  may  be  mentioned  “Baith  Fayther  and 
Mither”  and  “Music  hath  Charms,”  by  T.  B.  A.  Faed,  excellent  compo¬ 
sitions,  full  of  sentiment,  carefully  drawn,  elaborate  and  effective  in 
light  and  shadow.  After  these  may  be  mentioned:  R.  Ansdell,  “Tread¬ 
ing  out  Corn,”  (Alhambra,)  forcible  and  effective.  J.  B.  Burgess, 
“Bravo  Toro,”  an  Andalusian  bull  fight,  with  fine  types  of  Spanish 
beauty,  and  much  spirit  in  the  arena,  good  in  drawing,  but  defective  in 
chiaroscuro  and  color.  F.  Goodall,  “The  Palm  Offering.”  R.  B.  Mar- 
tineau,  “Last  Day  in  the  Old  Home,”  drawn  with  vigor,  full  of  feeling, 
but  deficient  in  color.  E.  Nichol,  “Both  Puzzled,”  an  excellent  picture, 
quite  deserving  of  the  prize  (second)  which  it  received.  H.  O’Neil, 
“Eastward  Ho!”  and  “A  Volunteer.”  Q.  Orchardson,  “Christopher 
Sly,”  a  good  design,  which  received  a  third  prize.  H.  Willis,  “The 
Death  of  Chatterton.”  In  Landseer’s  “Shrew  Tamed”  that  painter’s 
conceded  genius  and  established  capacity  were  well  illustrated  in  the 
figure  of  the  horse,  which  is  the  essential  feature  ifi  the  picture. 

Among  the  best  landscapes  was  Graham’s  “Spate  in  the  Highlands,” 
a  vigorous  and  effective  composition,  in  which  the  artist  has  grappled 
with  the  aspects  of  nature  in  her  wildest  mood.  It  represents  a  turbu¬ 
lent  highland  torrent  during  a  storm,  the  water — stained  to  the  color 
of  amber — rushing  down  between  bold,  rugged  rocks  from  mountains 
scarcely  discernible  through  the  rifts  of  a  stormy  sky.  The  picture 
combines  almost  all  the  qualities  of  a  good  painter — quick  grasp,  free, 
firm  drawing,  and  careful  but  not  excessive  manipulation — and  may  be 
taken  as  a  model  of  its  class.  This  was  one  of  the  largest  pictures  in 
the  gallery,  and  its  size  gave  the  artist  scope  for  the  free  display  of  his 
powers,  as  well  as  of  the  large  features  of  a  mountain  landscape. 

There  were  many  other  pictures  in  the  English  gallery  that  might  be 
pronounced  good.  Some  were  excellent,  but  none  that  could  be  termed 
great,  while  there  were  a  few  the  admission  of  which  in  the  gallery  can 
only  be  accounted  for  on  the  principle  of  forcing  the  most  striking  con¬ 
trasts  possible.  On  the  whole,  the  collection  was  a  pleasing  one,  and 
had  a  degree  of  freshness  and  independence  to  be  found  in  none  of  the 
others  ;  but  it  could  scarcely  claim  a  high  place  in  an  artistic  sense.  A 
visit  to  the  annual  British  exhibition  in  London  was  sufficient  to  satisfy 
the  visitor  to  both  that  the  display  made  in  Paris  was  a  very  fair  expo¬ 
sition  of  the  various  departments  of  British  painting,  and  justified  the 
impartiality  and  judgment  of  the  committee  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  to 
which  the  selection  of  the  gallery  was  confided  by  the  government. 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


23 


BAY ARIA. 

Next  to  France,  the  largest  contributor  to  the  collection  of  paintings 
in  the  Exposition  was  Bavaria.  She  sent  211  pictures,  by  112  artists, 
which  were  exhibited  in  a  separate  building,  or  u  annexe,”  built  by  the 
Bavarian  commissioners.  More  than  half  the  number  were  exhibited 
by  the  artists  themselves,  and,  next  to  France,  Bavaria  secured  the 
greatest  number  of  prizes,  viz.,  one  grand  prize,  two  first  prizes,  and 
two  third-class  prizes — five  in  all. 

The  artistic  taste  and  fostering  care  of  King  Louis  were  manifested 
in  various  ways  in  the  Exhibition,  and  the  Bavarian  paintings  were 
strongly  marked  with  the  classic  style  to  which  he  gave  such  prominence 
in  Munich.  The  Bavarian  artists,  as  a  rule,  evince  much  invention,  and 
are  well  grounded  in  true  outline  and  drawing.  At  present  they  appear 
to  be  ranging  themselves  into  two  camps — the  old  professors  adhering 
rigidly  to  the  classical ;  the  younger  artists  conceding  much  to  that 
school,  but  refusing  to  be  bound  by  all  of  its  canons.  The  first  are  cor¬ 
rect,  and  almost  severe,  in  drawing,  but  lack  breadth,  their  light  and 
shade  being  too  diffused,  while  the  latter  inclines  to  the  French  style, 
with  a  constantly  increasing  tendency,  and  succeeds  in  effect  and  man¬ 
agement  of  light  and  shade.  The  end  of  this  divergence  is  obvious  and 
not  distant.  Bavarian  art  will  speedily  become  a  reflection  of  French 
art,  more  exact  perhaps,  and,  it  may  be,  more  formal. 

Exterior  fresco  painting,  which  was  formerly  much  encouraged  in 
Munich,  where  many  public  buildings  are  disfigured  by  elaborate  and 
gigantic  works  of  the  older  artists,  is  falling  into  disuse  and  fading  with 
the  colors  which  glowed  from  the  walls  they  were  intended  to  ornament. 
It  is  now  limited  to  interior  decoration,  and  commands  much  attention 
from  the  younger  or  new  school  of  painters. 

Among  the  pictures  exhibited  were  several  large  ones,  15  by  20  feet. 
The  best  of  these  was  u  The  Benediction  of  the  Flags,”  by  Piloty,  pro¬ 
fessor  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Munich,  who  was  awarded  a  first- 
class  prize.  But  all  these  large  pictures,  although  correct  in  drawing, 
are  severe  in  style  and  unsympathetic  in  character,  as  they  are  inhar¬ 
monious  and  cold  in  color. 

The  best  of  the  modern  school  of  Munich  are :  F.  Adam,  u  Groups 
Marching  between  Solferino  and  Vollegio,  June  24, 1859 a  large  excel¬ 
lent  figure  composition,  full  of  action  and  marked  by  breadth  and  har¬ 
mony  of  color.  P.  Baumgartner,  u  A  Procession  Surprised  by  a  Shower.” 
Knude  Baade,  “  Moonlight  on  the  Coast  of  Norway.”  F.  Bamberger, 
u  View  of  Gibraltar.”  J.  Brandt,  u  Chodkiewicz,  the  great  Hetman  of 
Lithuania,  fighting  against  the  Turks.”  G.  Closs,  u  Campagna  of  Rome.” 
A.  Eberle,  u  Military  School  during  the  Thirty  Years’  War.”  C.  Haef- 
ner,  “A  Coming  Storm  in  the  Upper  Alps;”  the  sheep  well  drawn  and 
well  colored.  T.  Horschelt,  u  The  Russians  Storming  a  Tsclierkessian 
Intrenchment  on  Mount  Gounib ;”  one  of  the  largest  and  best  of  the 


24 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


modern  Bavarian  school,  evincing  invention,  fine  in  drawing,  color¬ 
ing,  breadth,  and  expression  in  the  figures.  H.  Hobach,  “  Tasting  Wine 
in  Secret.”  J.  Koekert,  “  Nuptial  Cortege  on  a  Lake  in  the  Bavarian 
Mountains  $”  rich  in  color  and  effect.  A.  Liezenmayer,  “  Maria  Theresa 
Feeding  a  Poor  Sick  Child.”  G.  Max,  “The  Martyr.”  A.  Yischer, 
“  National  Dance  of  the  Peasants  of  Upper  Bavaria.”  A.  Wagner,  “A 
Soldier  Saving  a  Child  in  a  Manoeuvre.”  B.  S.  Zimmerman,  “A  Nup¬ 
tial  Cortege.” 

Altogether  the  Bavarian  pictures  exhibited  much  careful  study  and  a 
sound  education  on  the  part  of  the  artists,  who  show  also  much  invent¬ 
ive  talent  and  good  powers  of  design. 

Bavaria  exhibited  a  large  number  of  crayon  drawings,  chiefly  by  the 
pupils  of  the  various  art  academies  of  Munich,  showing  careful  study  of 
outline  and  indicating  the  severe  course  of  training  through  which  the 
art  pupils  of  that  capital  are  obliged  to  pass.  Kaulbach,  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  of  Munich,  secured  one  of  the  eight  grand  prizes 
for  his  crayon  work,  “  The  Epoch  of  the  Deformation,”  a  large  picture, 
16  by  25  feet. 

BELGIUM. 

Belgium  sent  to  the  Exhibition  186  pictures  by  72  artists,  which  were 
displayed  in  a  separate  building  or  “  annexe,”  and  which  obtained  four 
prizes,  viz :  one  grand  prize  to  Leys,  one  first-class  to  Willems,  another 
to  Stevens,  and  a  second-class  to  Clays. 

The  most  ambitious  pictures  were  by  the  artist  first  named,  who 
exhibited  not  less  than  12  works,  some  of  large  size,  and  for  the  most 
part  subjects  from  the  stirring  period  of  the  struggle  with  Spain  for  civil 
and  religious  freedom  in  the  16th  century.  They  are  painted  in  a  medi¬ 
aeval  style  peculiar  to  this  artist,  but  hardly  consonant  with  modern 
notions  of  art. 

The  principal  features  of  this  gallery  were  the  genre  pictures  of  Ste¬ 
vens  and  Willems.  The  first  named  sent  18  works,  many  of  them  hardly 
more  than  studies  of  single  female  figures  dressed  in  latest  fashionable 
styles,  with  little  expression  or  sentiment.  The  titles  of  some  of  these 
sufficiently  indicate  their  character:  “The  Lady  in  Pink,”  “The  Beturn,” 
“A  Duchess,”  “ Miss  Fauvette,”  “Pensive,”  “The  Autumn  Flower,” 
etc.  It  is  not  to  be  denied  that  a  few  of  the  18  exhibit  some  invention 
and  a  capacity  for  better  if  not  more  profitable  things.  They  are  pleas¬ 
ing  and  effective  in  light  and  shade,  and  especially  in  color,  but  are  not 
so  finely  manipulated  as  those  of  Willems,  of  which  13  were  exhibited, 
mostly  small  pictures  of  simple  scenes  of  domestic  life  in  the  17th  cen¬ 
tury.  They  are  very  broad  in  effect,  and  in  texture  wonderfully  true  to 
nature.  It  seems  unfortunate  that  artists  of  such  exquisite  touch  and  so 
good  masters  of  effect  should  not  dedicate  their  talents  to  more  ambi¬ 
tious  subjects. 

Yerlat  is  a  painter  of  higher  scope  and  power.  His  “Dead  Jesus  at 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


25 


the  Foot  of  the  Cross,”  is  most  carefully  drawn  and  well  handled.  His 
“Danger”  is  a  bold  effective  picture,  representing  a  party  of  peasants 
driving  away  wolves  from  a  dead  lamb.  The  animals  are  exceptionally 
well  drawn,  and  the  whole  picture  carefully  elaborated. 

“March  of  Animals  in  the  Pass  of  Beni  Aicha,”  by  Chev.  C.  Tschag- 
geny,  is  a  good  picture.  “  Sacking  a  Convent  at  Antwerp,”  by  Boberts, 
is  a  large  picture,  effective  in  coloring,  but  deficient  in  action,  which, 
from  its  subj ect,  should  be  its  characteristic.  1 L  Lake  Lomond  ”  by  Eofflaen, 
a  fine,  broad  picture,  carefully  manipulated. 

Clays  sent  five  pictures  of  Dutch  coast  and  canal  scenery,  excellent 
studies  from  nature,  broad  in  effect  and  well  handled. 

Bauguiet’s  “  Dream  after  the  Ball”  is  a  gem,  exquisite  in  color,  breadth 
and  manipulation. 

Jacob  Jacob’s  large  picture,  “The  Falls  of  Sarp  on  the  Biver  Glom- 
men,  Norway,”  was  the  best  of  its  class  in  the  Belgian  department,  which 
lacked  any  striking  figure  subjects,  on  a  large  scale.  Nor  did  the  vari¬ 
ous  works  indicate  much  inventive  power.  In  style  and  color  it  may  be 
said  of  them,  as  of  almost  all  modern  continental  pictures,  they  approxi¬ 
mate  to  the  French,  but  at  a  respectful  distance. 

HOLLAND. 

Holland  exhibited  170  pictures  by  77  artists  in  a  separate  building, 
erected  by  the  Dutch  government.  Of  these  57  were  figure  composi¬ 
tions,  chiefly  of  a  domestic  character  or  illustrative  of  every-day  life, 
with  little  action  but  some  sentiment.  Nearly  all  were  small  or  of  medium 
size,  unambitious,  and  with  little  or  no  dramatic  interest.  A  large  num¬ 
ber  were  contributed  by  the  artists  themselves,  and  the  rest,  with  few 
exceptions,  by  private  individuals. 

Alma  Tadema  exhibited  twelve  pictures  illustrating  domestic  life  in 
ancient  Egypt  and  Borne,  among  which  are,  “  How  they  amused  them¬ 
selves  a  thousand  years  ago,”  and  “  Entrance  to  a  Boman  Theatre,”  the 
first  representing  the  interior  of  an  Egyptian  house,  with  the  family 
receiving  visitors  5  the  second  a  Boman  audience  flocking  to  the  theatre. 
These  pictures  are  pre-Baphaelite  in  style,  full  of  wonderful  detail,  accu¬ 
rate  no  doubt  as  they  could  be  made  after  careful  archaeological  study, 
but  interesting  more  from  subject  than  as  works  of  art.  This  artist 
received  a  second-class  prize. 

“The  Interrupted  Prayer,”  by  Bishop •  “The  Empty  Place  at  the 
Hearth,”  by  Bles,  are  both  good  pictures,  the  latter  witha  good  deal  of  feel¬ 
ing  anti  sentiment,  representing  a  father  and  daughter  with  an  unoccupied 
chaff  at  the  dinner  table.  “  On  the  Beach  at  Scheveningen,”  by  Vervier, 
a  semi-marine  view,  and  very  accurate  and  lively  picture  of  the  celebrated 
and  much  frequented  watering-place  of  the  Hague.  Israels,  of  Amster¬ 
dam,  an  artist  of  much  invention  and  power,  exhibited  four  compositions, 
the  best  of  which  are  “  The  True  Support,”  and  “  The  Last  Breath,”  effec¬ 
tive  in  color,  but  carelessly  manipulated.  A  third-class  prize  was  awarded 
to  this  artist. 


26 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  only  large  pictures  were  hunting  scenes  by  Kuytenbrouwer, “  Stags 
Fighting,”  and  “Stags  after  the  Fight,”  the  property  of  the  French  Empe¬ 
ror — vigorous  compositions  but  roughly  treated.  “A  Sea  Piece — Moon¬ 
light,”  by  Meyer ;  “Cows  by  the  River-side,”  by  Roelop  ;  “A  Ray  of  Light 
in  the  Shadow,”  by  Scheltema,  were  fine  pictures,  the  last-named  a  care¬ 
fully  handled  and  effective  genre  picture.  “The  Syndics  of  the  Serge 
Guild  at  Leident,”  by  Stroebel,  a  Dutch  interior,  and  effective  picture. 
“A  Dutch  Landscape,”  with  cattle,  by  Tom,  is  also  worthy  of  mention. 

But  in  the  whole  Dutch  collection  there  was  no  picture  of  great  merit. 
There  was  a  marked  lack  of  historical  compositions.  The  modern  Dutch 
school  approximates  to  the  French,  having  apparently  lost  the  delicacy 
of  touch  and  harmony  of  coloring  that  distinguished  the  old  Dutch 
painters  and  individualized  their  works.  The  later  artists,  however,  still 
cherish  that  important  element  of  art,  the  proper  management  of  light 
and  shade. 

This  gallery  received  a  second  and  third  class  prize. 

It  contained  some  very  good  specimens  of  water-color  drawings,  but 
none  worthy  of  special  enumeration. 

PRUSSIA  AND  NORTHERN  GERMANY. 

Prussia  contributed  98  pictures  by  67  artists,  and  secured  three  awards : 
a  grand  prize  to  Knaus,  a  second-class  prize  to  Menzel,  and  a  third-class 
prize  to  Achenbacli.  One-third  of  the  whole  collection  was  from  the 
studios  of  Dusseldorff,  and  for  sale.  Among  the  best  pictures  were  seven 
by  Knaus,  of  Weisbaden,  of  which  “A  Woman  Playing  with  Two  Cats,” 
“An  Acrobat  Performing  in  a  Barn,”  surrounded  by  wondering  peasant 
spectators,  were  most  meritorious  works  in  design,  drawing  and  breadth 
of  coloring.  “  The  Old  Schoolmaster’s  Birthday,”  by  Lasch,  of  Dussel¬ 
dorff,  and  “  Marie  Antoinette  in  the  Temple,  when  visited  by  the  Com¬ 
moners  of  the  National  Convention,”  by  Piotrowski,  of  Koenigsberg,  were 
good  compositions,  the  latter  having  a  fine  lamp-light  effect.  “  The  Grand 
Prize,”  by  Meyer,  is  a  picture  worthy  of  notice,  as  is  also  “  The  Banquet 
of  the  Generals  of  Wallestein,”  by  Sehoetz,  which  was  the  largest  com¬ 
position  in  this  gallery,  good  in  invention,  truthful,  with  fine  chiaroscuro. 
“On  the  Mountains,”  by  Sclienck,  was  the  best  animal  picture  in  the  col¬ 
lection. 

Of  the  Prussian  exhibition  it  may  be  said,  as  of  that  of  Holland,  that 
it  is  not  remarkable  for  grand  designs,  but  rather  distinguished  for  pleas¬ 
ing  domestic  scenes,  carefully  manipulated,  and  with  good  effect  of  light 
and  shade. 

It  seems  hardly  worth  while  to  speak  separately  of  the  exhibition 
made  by  the  smaller  German  states.  Hesse  was  represented  by  two  pic¬ 
tures  by  Schevesser,  one  of  which,  “  Forbidden  Fruit,”  of  cabinet  size, 
belonging  to  the  French  Emperor,  represents  boys  smoking — an  excellent 
design,  well  handled,  in  the  Dusseldorff  style. 

Baden  sent  19  pictures  by  the  same  number  of  artists,  the  best  of 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


27 


which  were :  JEL  Gude,  u  Montenegrin  Mountaineers  going  to  their  Chalets 
in  the  Spring;”  an  effective,  carefully  handled  cabinet  picture.  F.  Keller, 
“  Death  of  Philip  II  of  Spain,”  a  large  figure  composition.  G.  Saal, 
u  Forest  of  Fontainebleau  by  Moonlight.” 

Wurtemburg  sent  eleven  pictures  by  eight  artists,  of  which  the  best 
was  u  The  Departure  of  the  Monks  from  the  Cloister  of  Alpirsbach,”  by 
Haeberlin,  of  Stuttgard ;  a  large  picture,  broad  in  color,  and  well  manip¬ 
ulated. 

Luxemburg  sent  four  pictures  by  two  artists,  of  no  special  merit. 

RUSSIA. 

Russia  exhibited  63  pictures  by  42  artists,  chiefly  from  the  royal  pal¬ 
aces  and  the  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  Academies  of  the  fine  arts. 
They  certainly  did  great  credit  to  the  artists  who  painted  them,  and  to 
the  commissioners  who  selected  them.  In  proportion  to  the  number  of 
pictures,  no  gallery  equalled  the  Russian  in  excellence.  The  French  were 
compelled  to  admit  this,  but  claimed  the  Russian  artists  as  their  pupils, 
practicing  in  their  schools,  and  owing  their  taste  and  skill  to  French 
teaching,  example,  and  influence.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  painters  of  the 
best  works  are  unquestionably  Russians,  and  whether  they  studied  at 
home  or  abroad  is  a  circumstance  not  affecting  their  capacities,  whatever 
influence  it  may  have  had  on  their  style. 

There  were  no  less  than  33  figure  compositions  in  this  gallery,  many 
of  them  large,  and  displaying  a  high  order  of  talent.  They  were  all 
broad  in  effect,  and  not  frittered  away  and  lost  in  scattered  light. 

Of  landscapes  there  were  12,  in  a  number  of  which  figures  were  intro¬ 
duced.  u  The  Russians  Passing  the  Devil’s  Bridge,”  on  the  St.  Gothard 
road  over  the  Alps,  in  the  Swiss  campaign  of  1792,  by  Kotzebue,  is  a 
wonderfully  effective  picture,  in  which  the  introduction  of  a  body  of 
soldiers  on  which  the  light  is  concentrated  only  seems  to  heighten  the 
grandeur  of  the  scenery  in  the  background.  UA  Winter’s  Evening  in 
Finland,”  by  Mestchersky — a  lurid  sunset,  the  light  just  touching  the  tops 
of  the  pine  trees,  while  beneath  is  the  reflected  light  on  the  ice-covered 
rocks,  altogether  constituting  one  of  the  most  effective  pictures  in  the 
wrhole  exhibition. 

There  were  some  marine  battle-scenes  by  Bogoliouboff,  excellent  in 
composition  and  drawing,  and  good  in  effect. 

The  most  wonderful  piece  of  portrait  painting  in  the  whole  Exposition 
was  “A  Portrait  of  an  Old  Lutheran  Woman,”  by  Horawsky,  which,  for 
microscopic  accuracy  in  color  and  texture,  is  only  equalled  by  the  two 
celebrated  heads  of  an  old  man  and  an  old  woman,  in  the  old  Pinako- 
thek  at  Munich. 

Judging  from  the  pictures  in  the  Russian  gallery,  and  accepting  them 
as  types  of  Russian  art,  Russia  must  be  admitted  to  a  front  rank  in 
painting.  Her  pictures  are  mostly  on  a  large  scale,  in  which  poor  or 
careless  drawing  w^ould  be  easily  detected.  Her  painters  appear  to  be 


28 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


faithful  and  careful  artists,  with  no  tendency  to  oddities  or  tricks,  but 
disposed  to  confine  themselves  within  the  just  rules  of  art — truthful 
drawing,  strong  but  not  glaring  coloring,  and  careful  manipulation. 
Their  style  may  be  described  as  a  combination  of  the  French  and  Dus- 
seldorff  schools,  with  a  decided  leaning  to  the  first. 

A  noticeable  feature  in  this  gallery  was  its  nationality.  Nearly  all  the 
pictures,  whether  figure  compositions  or  landscapes,  were  Russian  in 
subject,  representing  incidents  in  Russian  history,  or  scenes  in  Russian 
territory. 

SWITZERLAND. 

Switzerland  exhibited  112  pictures  by  58  artists,  in  a  separate  building, 
and  received  a  second-class  prize  awarded  to  Yautier.  This  gallery  con¬ 
tained  many  large  pictures  of  natural  scenery,  but  few  figure  pieces,  and 
these  only  mediocre,  while  there  were  no  marine  or  genre  pictures.  The 
principal  pictures  were:  Berthond,  “At  the  Death,”  an  animal  piece. 
Bodmer,  “  Sheter,”  a  snow  scene.  Diday,  “  The  Cascade  of  the  Giess- 
bach.”  Girardet,  “  Sunrise  on  the  Toccia,  Lago  Maggiore.”  Humbert, 
“The  First  Autumn  Snow  on  the  Mountains,”  with  animals.  L. 
Jackottet,  “  The  Aar  and  Erlenbach  at  Haudick.”  J.  Jackottet,  “  Falls 
of  the  Reichenbach.”  Lugardon,  “The  Borders  of  the  Lake.”  Ulrich, 
“  The  Rocks  of  Lazaset  at  Nice.”  Veillon,  “  Souvenir  of  the  Lake  of  the 
Four  Cantons.”  Zelger,  “  Sunrise  on  Mount  Pilatus.” 

The  Swiss  landscapes,  though  large  and  carefully  manipulated,  lack 
effect  and  contrast ;  they  are  mostly  dull  and  sombre  pictures,  and  not 
what  such  scenery  as  Switzerland  possesses  should  inspire.  The  artists 
seem  to  have  studied  and  reproduced  nature  under  her  dullest  aspects. 
They  lack  feeling,  and  do  not  seem  to  comprehend  the  importance  of 
concentrating  the  light  in  a  picture.  The  scenes  represented  are  usually 
grand  in  the  extreme,  but  not  well  treated  or  effectually  managed.  The 
beautiful  sunrises  and  glowing  sunsets  so  often  witnessed  among  the 
snowy  Alps  do  not  appear  to  have  found  an  indigenous  artist  sufficiently 
confident  to  attempt  them. 

There  were  some  very  creditable  animal  pictures  in  this  gallery,  and 
some  fine  steel  engravings  by  Girardet  and  Weber. 

AUSTRIA. 

Austria  exhibited  89  pictures  by  56  artists,  and  obtained  three  prizes, 
viz :  one  first-class,  one  second-class,  and  one  third-class.  The  best  and 
largest  picture  exhibited  was  “  The  Diet  of  Warsaw,  1773,”  by  Matejiko, 
which  obtained  the  highest  of  the  prizes  just  named.  It  is  well  and  for¬ 
cibly  drawn,  rather  roughly  manipulated,  and  pervaded  by  a  purple  tint 
which  gives  it  an  unreal  and  garish  appearance,  exceedingly  untrue  to 
nature  and  offensive  to  the  eye. 

The  Chevalier  F.  L.  Allemand  had  two  battle  pieces  in  this  collection, 
the  property  of  the  Austrian  Emperor,  of  no  special  merit,  but  their 


REPOET  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS.  29 

author  secured  a  second-class  prize.  Wuerzinger  secured  a  third-class 
prize  for  a  portrait  of  Emperor  Ferdinand  II. 

Of  the  remaining  pictures  the  following  are  perhaps  worthy  of  mention : 
“  The  Convent  Soup/’  by  Waldmueller,  and  “  Hungarian  Forest,”  by 
Schaeffer. 

Nearly  one-half  of  the  pictures  in  this  gallery  were  exhibited  by  the 
artists  themselves,  and  were  for  sale,  with  their  prices  affixed  in  the  cata¬ 
logue.  The  largest  part  of  the  remainder  were  contributed  by  the  Em¬ 
peror.  Judging  from  this  collection,  and  the  public  galleries  of  Vienna, 
it  would  appear  that  painting  is  not  making  rapid  progress  in  Austria. 

DENMARK. 

Denmark  exhibited  29  pictures  by  19  artists.  No  prizes.  The  best 
works  wrere:  Dalogaard,  “  Churching  a  Young  Mother.”  Extner,  “Puz¬ 
zled  to  choose — Card-players.”  Madam  Jerichan,  “  Shipwreck  on  the 
Coast  of  Jutland.”  Jacobson,  “  A  Savant  of  the  Middle  Ages.”  Soeren- 
sen,  “  Sunrise  at  Skagen — Storm,”  and  “  Summer  Morning  on  the  Shore 
of  Elsenor,”  two  well-handled  and  vigorous  pictures. 

SWEDEN. 

Sweden  contributed  54  pictures  by  28  artists,  and  secured  two  third- 
class  prizes.  The  best  w  orks  were :  Berg,  “  Waterfall  in  the  Province  of 
Bohns.”  This  artist  received  a  third-class  prize.  Hoeckert,  “Fire  in 
the  Royal  Palace  of  Stockholm,  May  1, 1697  Malmstrcem,  “  Elves  Play¬ 
ing  by  Moonlight/’  Nordenberg,  “The  Wedding  Presents,  Souvenirs  of 
the  Province  of  Blekinge Wallander,  “Young  Girls  of  the  Parish  of 
Wingaker;”  Fagerlin,  “A  Declaration  of  Love,”  “A  Demand  in  Marriage,” 
and  “Jealousy.”  This  artist  obtained  a  third-class  prize. 

The  representations  of  natural  scenery  and  of  domestic  life  in  the 
Swedish  collection  were  uniformly  very  good. 

NORWAY. 

Norway  exhibited  45  pictures  by  25  artists,  and  secured  a  second-class 
prize.  The  best  were :  Gude,  “  Funeral  Procession  crossing  a  Fiord  in 
Norway,”  and  “Return  of  Whalers.”  These  secured  a  second-class 
prize.  Eckersberg,  “  Table  Land  of  Central  Norw  ay,  the  summit  of  the 
Yotmi  in  the  background  $  Morning.”  Tidemand,  “  Singular  Combat  of 
the  Olden  Times,”  an  excellent  picture. 

The  pictures  in  this,  as  in  the  Swedish  collection,  although  wanting  in 
works  of  the  highest  order  of  art,  such  as  historical  compositions,  are 
nevertheless  uniformly  good.  The  subjects  were  mostly  natural  scenery, 
marine  views  and  local  domestic  scenes,  all  carefully  studied  and  manipu¬ 
lated  after  the  Dusseldorff  school,  the  influence  of  w  hich  is  widely  per¬ 
ceptible  in  most  of  the  galleries  of  northern  Europe. 

Both  Swreden  and  Norw  ay  owe  much  of  the  sound  development  of  art 
within  their  borders  to  the  artistic  taste  and  discriminating  appreciation 


30 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


of  their  king,  Charles  XV,  who  had  two  landscapes  from  his  own  hand 
in  the  Exhibition,  both  of  more  than  average  excellence. 

ROME  AND  ITALY. 

Eome  exhibited  25  pictures  by  14  artists,  but  received  no  prize. 
Among  them  there  were  few  designs,  and  those  with  but  little  inven¬ 
tion.  In  fact  the  collection  was  meagre  and  unimpressive,  and  inferior 
in  drawing,  effect,  and  color. 

Italy  exhibited  51  pictures  by  42  artists,  and  secured  four  awards,  one 
grand  prize,  one  second  prize,  and  two  third-class  prizes,  a  larger  pro¬ 
portion  than  given  to  any  other  country.  It  will  be  interesting  to  know 
from  the  Report  of  the  Fine  Art  Jury  on  what  principle  these  awards 
were  made,  since  the  inferiority  of  this  gallery  was  equally  a  disappoint¬ 
ment  and  subject  of  common  remark.  The  landscapes  were  mediocre, 
and  there  were  no  marine  or  animal  pictures ;  in  fact  none  exhibiting 
much  invention  or  power. 

The  most  ambitious  work  in  this  gallery  was  by  Gastaldi,  “  The  De¬ 
fence  of  Tortona  by  its  Citizens  when  besieged  by  Barbarossa,”  a  large 
picture,  good  in  composition,  but  lacking  breadthof  color  and  chiaroscuro. 

There  were  some  remarkably  good  figure  pieces  in  water-color  in  this 
gallery. 

SPAIN. 

Spain  contributed  42  pictures  by  35  artists,  and  obtained  four  prizes, 
one  first  prize,  one  second,  and  two  third  prizes.  Here,  as  in  the  case 
of  Italy,  the  attentive  visitor  to  the  Exhibition  must  feel  surprised  at  the 
awards  of  the  Jury.  A  great  many  of  the  pictures  were  inferior ;  the 
figure  compositions  lacked  action,  the  landscapes  were  tame,  and  there 
were  no  marine  or  animal  subjects.  There  was  a  marked  proportion  of 
religious  subjects,  as  might  be  expected,  but  with  the  exception  of  those 
enumerated  below,  and  which  were  among  the  best,  the  others  were 
mostly  genre  and  of  no  particular  merit.  Rosales,  “  Isabella  the  Catho¬ 
lic  Dictating  her  Will,”  a  large  figure  composition  in  rough  impasto 
style,  not  remarkable  for  good  drawing;  the  coloring  after  the  old  Vene¬ 
tian  school.  First  prize.  Palmaroli,  “  Sermon  at  the  Sistine  Chapel,” 
showing  Michael  Angelo’s  Last  Judgment  in  the  back  wall,  with  the 
Pope,  cardinals,  and  priests  in  their  purple,  scarlet,  and  sombre  robes. 
The  figures  are  small  but  well  designed,  and  the  position  and  expression 
of  each  well  studied.  The  management  of  light  and  shadow  is  excel¬ 
lent,  and  the  manipulation  careful.  Leon-y-Escesura,  a  genre  picture. 
Gonsalso,  “  Interior.” 

PORTUGAL,  GREECE,  AND  OTHER  COUNTRIES. 

Portugal  was  represented  by  12  pictures  by  the  same  number  of  artists. 
Xo  prizes  were  awarded  to  this  gallery.  The  only  picture  of  any  merit 
was  by  Lupi,  “Tintoretto  Painting  the  Portrait  of  his  Daughter,”  a  large 
picture  broad  in  effect,  and  good  in  tone. 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


31 


Greece  had  14  pictures  by  the  same  number  of  artists.  Received  no 
prize.  The  best  picture  was  “Antigone”  by  Litras,  a  moonlight  figure 
scene.  This  department  showed  a  low  state  of  art  in  Greece. 

Turkey  had  seven  pictures  by  three  artists;  only  two  of  them  represent¬ 
ing  Turkish  life,  and  none  of  them  of  any  merit. 

Egypt  exhibited  no  oil  paintings,  but  sent  a  number  of  water-color 
drawings  of  ancient  monuments,  more  interesting  on  historical  grounds 
than  as  works  of  art. 

One  picture  was  catalogued  from  China,  having  belonged  to  a  pagoda, 
and  was  not  an  illustration  of  painting  in  China  at  the  present  day. 

The  Argentine  Confederation  sent  three  pictures,  and  Brazil  three ;  all 
poor. 

Canada  sent  six  pictures;  Cape  of  Good  Hope  two;  Malta  three;  Mau¬ 
ritius  several;  Nova  Scotia  one;  and  Victoria  one;  all  mediocre. 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  PAINTINGS. 

Large  and  varied  as  was  the  collection  of  paintings  in  the  Exhibition, 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  impressed  those  connoisseurs  and  critics  in 
art  who  had  the  opportunity  of  studying  the  previous  French  Exposition 
of  1855,  and  the  English  Exhibition  of  1862,  as  an  advance  upon  either 
of  them.  The  opinion  of  these  authorities  has  been  accepted,  if  indeed 
it  was  not  originally  anticipated,  by  the  public.  It  is  alleged  that  a  same¬ 
ness  and  monotony  pervaded  nearly  all  the  galleries,  indicating  that  mod¬ 
ern  art  is  subsiding  to  a  dead  level  of  conventionalism,  unrelieved  by 
originality  or  genius,  and  hardly  by  eccentricity. 

“If”  (said  the  Revue  Contemporaine  in  an  article  on  painting  in  the 
Exhibition)  “you  put  aside  England,  and  certain  painters  of  other 
countries  who  exceptionally  evince  some  originality,  all  modern  painting 
is  nothing  more  than  the  attenuated  fag-end  of  the  school  of  Bologna. 
This  is  evident  throughout  the  whole  circle  of  the  Exposition ;  traceable 
in  the  pavilions  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  in  the  temples  of  Bavaria  and 
Switzerland,  and  patent  in  the  galleries  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  Italy  and 
Spain.  It  follows  everywhere  the  great  official  road,  receives  profits  and 
recompenses,  broods  complacently  over  ephemeral  glories,  holds  the 
keys  of  all  the  academies  and  of  all  the  royal  and  imperial  treasuries, 
and  has  the  privilege  of  handing  down  to  the  indifference  or  mirth  of 
posterity  the  features  of  great  persons  and  sovereigns.  *  *  * 

In  other  words,  painting  has  become  a  branch  of  industry  which  requires 
a  little  more  than  others  a  certain  education  on  the  part  of  those  who 
exercise  it,  but  has,  in  common  with  ordinary  industrial  pursuits,  its 
processes  and  methods,  and  a  marked  desire  to  meet  and  satisfy  the 
dominant  taste.  It  differs  no  more  in  one  country  or  another  than  do 
other  similar  products,  cotton  stuffs,  for  example.  In  France,  England, 
Belgium,  and  Germany,  calico  is  always  calico,  fabricated  in  a  common 
way,  from  threads  of  the  same  kind  of  filamentous  material.  The  tissue 
is  a  little  more  or  less  smooth;  more  or  less  regular;  more  or  less  white; 


32 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


but  it  is  only  calico  after  all,  serving  tlie  same  purpose  and  used  by  tlie 
same  people.  The  production  is  more  or  less  extended,  more  or  less 
skilful,  but  it  is  always  difficult,  at  first  sight,  to  recognize  the  country 
of  its  origin. 

u  That  which  strikes  every  intelligent  and  impartial  man  who  surveys 
in  succession  the  galleries  of  the  Exposition  is  this,  that  with  some  marked 
exceptions  there  is  the  same  desolate  uniformity  and  mediocrity  through¬ 
out.  It  is  impossible  to  point  out  any  except  faint  and  shadowy  differ¬ 
ences.  All  the  paintings  may  have  come  from  the  same  studio,  and  it 
seems  as  if  they  were  produced  by  the  same  mechanical  art  that  presides 
over  the  production  of  calico.  They  are  painted  canvas,  to  be  measured  by 
the  yard.  They  evince  great  manual  aptitude,  and  expertness,  and  sub¬ 
tlety,  but  the  types  are  all  the  same,  and  the  coloring  comes  from  common 
practices  and  the  same  point  of  view.  A  sterile  fecundity  marks  all  these 
productions,  and  assures  for  the  future  a  discredit  without  example  in 
the  past,  for  the  reason  that  never  to  the  same  degree  as  now,  even  in 
the  periods  called  barbarous,  has  painting  effected  a  divorce  so  complete 
from  art  $  never  has  the  mechanical  part  prevailed  more  over  the  ideal ; 
never  has  the  intimate  and  profound  intelligence  of  the  human  soul  and 
the  artistic  sense  been  more  systematically  banished  from  the  arts  of 
design,  and  the  mercantile  idea  allowed  to  dominate  so  completely  in 
their  practice,  as  now.  It  was  possible  at  certain  epochs  to  be  deprived 
of  the  material  means  of  art,  and  to  be  without  the  instruction  now  so 
accessible,  but  never  was  there  such  a  dearth  of  the  means  that  may  be 
called  spiritual,  in  opposition  to  those  material.  The  design  may  have 
been  clumsy  and  without  proportion  ;  the  coloring  without' graduation  of 
tint  or  harmony  ;  but  never  to  the  point  of  depriving  the  human  figure 
or  nature  of  that  aureole  of  poetry  which  is  the  divine  reflection  and 
highest  expression  of  truth.  Under  the  brush  of  our  painters  the  image 
of  man  alone  is  produced,  man  himself  rarely  appears ;  nature  is  photo¬ 
graphic  or  kaleidoscopic  5  the  artist  invests  neither  with  life  or  light. 
Hence  we  see  that  which  should  be  action  is  only  contortion,  and  that 
which  should  be  calm  is  death.” 

This,  perhaps,  may  be  a  strong  and  almost  exaggerated  statement  of 
the  fact ;  but  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  the  new  and  more  intimate  rela¬ 
tions  of  men  and  nations,  incident  011  new  and  easy  facilities  of  intercourse 
and  intercommunication,  are  working  that  assimilation  in  art  which  they 
are  so  rapidly  effecting  in  costume,  habits,  literature,  modes  of  thought 
and  expression,  and  even  in  religion  and  government.  And  it  must  be 
admitted,  that  as  art  is  getting  every  day  to  be  more  and  more  dependent 
on  the  people  at  large  for  support,  in  the  same  proportion  will  be  its  ten¬ 
dency  to  mould  itself  to  the  popular  taste.  But  if  for  the  time  it  lowers 
itself  to  meet  that  taste,  or  to  suit  the  fashion  of  the  hour,  may  we  not 
hope  that  it  will  rise  as  that  taste  improves  $ 

As  several  times  remarked  in  the  preceding  pages,  the  level  to  which 
European  art  is  tending  is  that  of  France,  and  the  standard  by  which  art 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


33 


is  judged  is  French.  If  painting  has  degenerated  into  a  mechanic  art, 
and  its  products  have  become  merchandise,  conforming  to  commercial 
laws,  it  has  been  through  the  example  and  practice  of  France.  That 
country,  by  her  system  of  art  education,  and  through  the  number  of  her 
schools  of  design,  which  offer  easy  access  to  students,  has  no  doubt  imposed 
her  tastes  and  her  style,  good  or  bad,  on  the  world  of  art.  She  exists 
to-day  as  a  rich  and  powerful  nation,  not  through  expanse  of  territory 
and  value  of  agricultural  productions,  nor  by  supplying  the  world  with 
the  ordinary  products  of  manual  labor,  but  through  her  application  of 
art  and  taste  in  design  to  manufactures  and  the  useful  arts.  Drawing 
and  painting  have  become  handmaids  of  the  mechanic  arts,  and  if  they 
have  suffered  from  the  contact,  has  not  the  world  been  compensated  in 
the  general  elevation  of  the  popular  taste,  and  has  not  France  been  enriched 
by  a  practical  monopoly  of  several  large  classes  of  manufactures? 

A  great  deficiency  in  our  own  country  is  the  almost  total  absence  of 
schools  of  design  of  high  standard,  without  which  correct  taste  and  pro¬ 
ficiency  iu  the  fine  arts  can  neither  be  created  nor  fostered.  By  such 
schools  is  meant  establishments  in  which  persons,  and  especially  youth 
with  artistic  tendencies,  may  become  thoroughly  grounded  in  the  ele¬ 
ments  of  art,  and  have  the  facilities  and  instruction  necessary  to  become, 
in  the  first  place,  accurate  and  firm  in  drawing,  and  in  the  second  place, 
masters  of  the  theory  and  practice  of  color.  After  that,  with  a  few  master¬ 
pieces  of  painting  distributed  in  public  galleries  throughout  the  country, 
partly  to  guide  but  mainly  to  stimulate  their  powers,  they  may  safely  be 
left  to  the  development  of  their  own  natural  abilities  through  study, 
observation,  and  practice. 

SCULPTUBE. 

In  the  department  of  sculpture,  still  less  than  in  that  of  painting,  can 
the  late  Paris  Exhibition  be  called  competitive.  The  range  of  competi¬ 
tion  was  really  circumscribed  to  two  countries,  France  and  Italy.  From 
others  there  were  only  isolated  specimens.  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious. 
Works  of  marble  can  only  be  transported  for  considerable  distances  at 
heavy  cost  and  risk,  such  as  few  owners  or  artists  care  to  undertake. 
Besides,  few  countries  had  the  space  requisite  for  a  proper  display  of  such 
works,  which  were  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  radiating  avenues  or 
passage-ways  of  the  building. 

French  sculpture,  like  French  painting,  naturally  enough,  predominated, 
and  like  French  painting  was,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  naturalistic  as 
distinguished  from  the  Italian,  classic,  or  traditional  style.  In  fact,  it  is 
iu  stone  what  French  painting  is  on  canvas ;  firm  and  sharp  in  outline, 
bold  and  free  in  modelling,  good  in  action,  and  very  faithful  in  anatomy. 
The  French  gallery  numbered  no  fewer  than  216  figures,  and  secured 
23  out  of  the  36  prizes.  Italy  received  four  prizes ;  Prussia  two ;  Spain 
two;  and  Borne,  Switzerland,  Greece,  Belgium,  and  Great  Britain,  each, 
one,  as  shown  in  Appendix  B. 

3  F  A 


34 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


The  criticism  to  be  made  on  French  sculpture  is,  that  it  is  sometimes 
meretricious,  and  occasionally  voluptuous,  even  to  coarseness,  and  that 
there  is  a  frequent  tendency  to  theatrical  extravagance,  showing  more 
talent  than  taste.  The  realistic  tendency  was  shown  by  probably  the 
most  remarkable  piece  of  sculpture  in  the  French  department,  a  seated 
figure  of  Mdlle.  Mars,  by  Thomas,  which  has  been  truly  described  as  “  a 
picture  in  marble,  or  rather  a  picture  in  which  the  marble  is  lost  in  the 
realization  of  texture  and  material.  The  silk  dress  flickers  in  the  light 
and  flutters  in  the  wind.”  The  Empress  Josephine,  by  Dubray,  is  another 
work  of  similar  character.  u  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,”  by  Guillaume, 
which  received  one  of  the  four  u  grand  prizes,”  was  probably  the  piece  of 
sculpture  which  attracted  most  attention.  It  is  one  of  not  less  than  seven 
busts  and  statutes  of  the  first  Napoleon  exhibited  by  the  same  sculptor, 
and  represents  the  fallen  Emperor  in  the  garb  of  the  sick-room,  seated  in 
an  arm  chair,  with  a  map  of  Europe  spread  on  his  knees  before  him,  and 
with  his  head  bowed  languidly  on  his  breast  as  if  in  mingled  weariness 
and  contemplation.  The  figures  on  the  dressing  gown,  the  folds  and  tex¬ 
ture  of  the  napkin  that  rests  partly  over  one  arm  are  faithfully  reproduced. 
The  head  is  forcible,  but  its  power  is  much  lessened  by  the  accessories 
of  the  figure,  which,  however,  is  natural  in  pose. 

In  the  Italian  gallery,  u  Charlotte  Corday,”  by  Miglioretti,  was  probably 
the  best  production  in  the  semi-classical  style.  u  Phryne,”  by  Barzaghi, 
was  also  pure  and  excellent,  as  were  also  u  The  Adulteress,”  by  Bernas- 
conti,  u  Arrnide”  by  Bianchi,  and  u  Vanity,”  by  Tantardini. 

There  were  very  few  works  in  marble  or  bronze  in  the  American  gal¬ 
lery.  Miss  Hosmer’s  1 L  Sleeping  Fawn”  was  unquestionably  the  best  reclin¬ 
ing  figure  in  the  Exhibition,  and  commanded  appreciative  attention. 
It  derived  no  advantage  from  being  slightly  tinted.  Ward’s  u  Indian 
Hunter  and  his  Dog,”  in  bronze,  is  a  bold  and  vigorous  work,  with  far 
more  powers  and  action  than  was  shown  in  any  other  work  in  the  Exhi¬ 
bition.  Thompson’s  bronze  statute  of  Napoleon  I  is  a  reproduction  of  the 
conventional  great  commander,  and  owed  even  more  attention  in  the  Ex¬ 
hibition  to  the  subject  than  the  execution.  Rogers  exhibited  some  of  his 
carefully-studied  statuettes,  but  they  were  so  placed  that  they  did  not 
fall  under  general  notice.  Miss  Foley,  a  promising  Vermont  artist, 
exhibited  some  very  clever  medallions  in  the  Roman  department. 

Although  creditable,  the  few  works  exhibited  gave  no  idea  of  the  extent 
or  proficiency  of  American  sculpture,  in  which  the  United  States  has 
gained  a  far  higher  rank  than  in  any  of  the  fine  arts.  The  world,  familiar 
with  their  names,  looked  in  vain  for  the  works  of  Powers,  Story,  Rogers, 
Rineliardt,  Mozier,  Brown,  and  others,  who  have  done  so  much  to  vindi¬ 
cate  the  American  name  in  this  department  of  art. 

Peru  exhibited  a  single  group,  by  Suarez,  “  A  Defender  of  his  Country,” 
still  in  plaster,  an  animated  work,  in  which,  however,  there  is  only  the 
expression  of  an  athlete  in  the  principal  figure,  instead  of  lofty  and 
patriotic  inspiration  and  fervor. 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


35 


ENGBAVING. 

Of  engraving,  whether  on  steel  or  wood,  the  Exposition  contained 
nothing  indicative  of  any  real  advance  in  those  arts.  Indeed,  we  should 
rather  say  that  the  various  works  exhibited  showed,  instead  of  any  ad¬ 
vance,  a  decided  falling  off  in  all  that  is  artistically  high  or  admirable. 
It  would  be  unfair,  as  well  as  vain,  to  particularize  where  all  are  of  the 
same  quality.  Photographs  of  different  degrees  of  excellence,  chromo¬ 
lithographs,  undoubtedly  good,  and  color-printings,  false  in  taste  and 
clumsy  in  their  methods  of  execution,  take  the  place  of  the  etcher’s 
and  engraver’s  art.  The  best  steel  plates  exhibited  were  half  machine- 
ruled  or  at  best  but  feeble  and  inartistic  attempts  to  atone  by  multi¬ 
plicity  of  lines  for  inferiority  in  touch  and  color ;  while  wood-engraving 
has  followed  the  fashion  of  the  Dalziel  mania  in  England,  and  gone  out 
of  art  altogether  into  a  rudeness  poorer  than  even  that  of  the  wood¬ 
cutting  (cutting  done  with  knives)  of  the  worst  days  before  Bewick. 
Great  Britain,  the  especial  country  of  wood-engraving,  sent  not  even  a 
single  decent  specimen;  the  French  department  was  almost  equally 
deficient ;  Spain  and  Portugal  and  Greece  sent  some  childlike  and  crude 
beginnings ;  and  Germany  contributed  only  of  her  worst.  To  judge  of 
European  art,  the  engraver’s  art,  only  from  the  evidence  of  the  Exposi¬ 
tion,  we  should  be  constrained  to  say  that  it  had  almost  died  out,  leaving 
only  improved  mechanisms,  certain  facilities  for  cheapness,  greater 
opportunities  for  making  a  mere  show  just  good  enough  to  gratify  some 
untutored  appetite  for  what  is  strangely  miscalled  u  an  illustrated  edi¬ 
tion.” 

It  is  at  such  a  time  and  under  such  circumstances  that  one  naturally 
expects  to  find  new  u  processes” — inventions  intended  to  supersede  the 
artist’s  talent  and  power  of  hand  by  some  clever  mechanism.  Of  these 
processes,  though  several  are  in  use,  not  one  exhibited  can  be  called 
really  successful.  Some  drawback  of  rottenness  of  line  in  the  more  deli¬ 
cate  and  open  parts,  or  of  obscurity  and  muddiness  in  the  darker,  spoils 
always  the  work  as  a  work  of  beauty ;  and  all  that  is  obtained  is  reduc¬ 
tion  of  cost,  and  sometimes  an  economy  of  time.  Here  again  it  is  idle 
to  particularize  where  none  is  markedly  eminent. 

In  conclusion  we  -can  only  confess  that  the  Exposition  would  seem  to 
prove  that  for  art  we  have  now  substituted  machinery,  and  for  the 
artist  the  processes  of  the  chemist.  With  the  exception  of  lithographs, 
chromo  lithographs,  photo-lithograplis,  and  photographs,  we  have  noth¬ 
ing  to  take  the  place  of  the  copper  engraving  (line,  aquatint,  or  mezzo¬ 
tint)  or  of  the  wood  engraving  of  past  times.  Book  illustration  has 
notably  deteriorated ;  and  even  printing  (lacking  artistic  taste  to  super¬ 
intend  it)  is  only  cheapened  and  not  improved. 

Of  steel  engravings,  Marshall  exhibited  a  fine  but  perhaps  over-elabor¬ 
ate  portrait  of  President  Lincoln,  and  the  American  Bank  Note  Company 
a  great  variety  of  work,  unapproachable  in  respect  of  style  and  finish 
by  anything  of  the  kind  exhibited  by  any  other  nation. 


36 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Of  what  may  be  called  substitutes  for  wood  and  steel  engraving,  or 
short  easy,  and  cheap  processes  for  accomplishing  some  of  the  results  of 
engravings  on  wood  and  steel,  several  examples  were  exhibited  in  the 
French  departments.  But  none  were  comparable  with  that  in  use,  for 
mechanical  engravings,  in  the  Beports  of  the  American  Patent  Office. 

First  may  be  mentioned — 

THE  GRAPHOTYPE  PROCESS, 

an  American  invention,  but  adopted  in  England,  whereby  the  draw¬ 
ing  is  made  on  a  surface  of  fine  chalk,  compacted  under  great  hydraulic 
pressure,  with  a  solution  of  silica,  which  hardens  the  lines,  after  which 
the  chalk  between  them  is  brushed  away,  and  the  lines  left  in  relief. 
From  the  relief  thus  produced,  it  is  easy  to  obtain  stereotypes  or  elec¬ 
trotypes  for  use  in  relief  printing. 

THE  COPPER  PROCESS. 

On  a  plate  of  copper,  varnished  as  if  for  etching,  the  subject  is  drawn 
with  an  etching  point,  and  bitten  in  by  aquafortis  exactly  in  the  way 
that  is  called  u  the  first  biting  in.” 

The  plate  previously  covered  with  varnish  at  the  back,  is  then  put 
into  a  gold  bath,  (electrogilding,)  when  the  lines  on  the  copper  etched 
and  consequently  undefended  by  the  varnish  and  slightly  incised,  are 
covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  gold.  The  plate  is  now  cleaned  of  the 
varnish  and  recovered  with  varnish  applied  by  a  dabber  and  presents 
the  appearance  of  a  copper  plate  inked  ready  for  printing. 

It  is  now  cleaned  of  the  varnish,  which  rests  only  on  the  gold  incised 
lines.  The  plate  is  then  put  into  an  acid  bath,  and  what  the  engraver 
calls  the  u  whites”  are  bitten  away  leaving  the  drawing  in  relief,  which 
is  then  mounted  as  an  ordinary  cast.  The  object  of  the  gold  bath  is  to 
protect  the  lines  of  the  etching  against  the  too  uncertain  action  of  the 
acid ;  but  the  process  can  be  effected  without  this. 

THE  GILLOT  PROCESS. 

On  a  plate  of  zinc,  polished,  a  transfer  is  made  of  an  ordinary  litho¬ 
graphic  drawing,  either  by  pen  or  pencil.  The  plate  of  zinc  is  covered  on 
the  back  by  a  layer  of  oil  varnish  and  submitted  to  h  bath  of  sulphuric 
acid  diluted  with  water.  Every  part  of  the  plate  not  covered  either  by 
the  ink  of  the  transfer  or  by  the  varnish  is  bitten  or  hollowed  out  by 
the  acid  and  leaves  in  relief  the  covered  parts,  which,  mounted  on  wood, 
form  a  cast  replacing  an  engraving  on  wood.  This  process  is  very  quickly 
executed,  and  offers  great  advantages  for  illustrations  which  will  not 
bear  delay.  It  offers  also  this  considerable  advantage,  that  all  draw¬ 
ings  executed  in  lithography  of  all  kinds,  etchings,  engravings  on  steel, 
plates  of  music,  etc.,  etc.,  from  which  can  be  taken  a  proof  on  paper, 
are  rapidly  transformed  into  a  cast,  and  can  be  printed  with  the  test. 

The  most  marked  disadvantages  of  this  process  are  these:  1.  Breaking 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


37 


down  of  the  lines  in  the  operation  of  transfer,  however  delicately  this 
operation  may  be  performed.  This  thickens  and  blots  the  delicacy  of 
the  original  work :  2.  Difficulty  of  obtaining  the  tints  when  the  work  is 
takeh  directly  from  lithography  in  pen  and  ink.  The  blotting  is  very 
apparent  when  it  is  a  lithographic  drawing. 

This  process  serves  for  the  illustration  of  a  number  of  journals,  i.  c., 
Le  Journal  Amusant ,  La  vie  Parisienne ,  La  Lune ,  and  several  others. 

THE  CONTE  PROCESS. 

Instead  of  transferring  the  drawing  on  a  plate  of  zinc,  the  plate  is 
covered  with  a  white  water-varnish,  sufficiently  adherent  for  a  tracing 
and  sufficiently  soft  to  be  easily  cut  away,  without  scratching  the  zinc, 
by  a  point  of  wood,  ivory,  or  whalebone.  The  artist  then  proceeds  as 
for  etching,  with  this  difference  of  result,  that  the  zinc  uncovered  is 
again  covered  by  oil  ink,  and  instead  of  being  incised  as  in  etching, 
remains  in  relief  in  the  acid  bath,  which  is  the  same  as  in  the  process 
Gillot.  This  process  is  very  convenient  for  artists,  who  can  judge  of 
their  work  as  if  they  were  drawing  on  paper  by  means  of  a  black  lead 
pencil.  The  lines  do  not  thicken,  but  remain  delicate.  The  varnish  can 
be  removed  or  put  on  with  a  camels  hair  pencil,  so  that  any  part  may 
be  corrected  at  any  time  by  the  artist. 

Different  processes  of  the  same  nature  have  been  tried  by  different 
persons  who  have  endeavored  to  substitute  for  zinc,  copper,  steel,  and 
other  metals,  but  without  success.  However,  the  principle  of  all  is  the 
same. 

Respectfully  submitted  by 

FRANK  LESLIE, 

U.  8.  Commissioner  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867. 


APPENDIX  A. 


FINE  ARTS. 

GROUP  I— UNITED  STATES.— LIST  OF  PAINTINGS,  SCULP¬ 
TURES,  ETC.,  EXHIBITED. 

CLASS  L-PAINTINGS  IN  OIL. 

Baker,  G.  A.,  New  York. — 1.  Portrait  of  a  Child,  property  of  A.  M.  Coz- 
zens.  2.  Portrait  of  a  Lady,  property  of  F.  Prentice. 

Beard,  W.  H.,  New  York. — 3.  Dancing  Bears,  property  of  J.  Caldwell. 

Bierstadt,  A.,  New  York. — 4.  The  Rocky  Mountains,  property  of  J. 
McHenry. 

Boughton,  G.  H.,  New  York. — 5.  Winter  Twilight,  property  of  R.  L. 
Stuart.  6.  The  Penitent,  property  of  J.  F.  Kensett. 

Casilear,  J.  W.,  New  York. — 7.  The  Plains  of  Genesee. 

Church,  F.  E.,  New  York. — 8.  The  Niagara,  property  of  J.  Taylor  John¬ 
ston.  9.  The  Rainy  Season  in  the  Tropics,  property  of  M.  O.  Roberts. 

Coleman,  S.,  New  York. — 10.  Landscape  view  of  the  Alhambra. 

Cropsey,  J.  F.,  New  York. — 11.  Mount  Jefferson,  New  Hampshire,  prop¬ 
erty  of  R.  M.  Olyphant.  12.  Landscape. 

Dix,  C.  F.,  New  York. — 13.  Sea  Piece. 

Durand,  A.  B.,  New  York. — 14.  In  the  Wood.  15.  A  Symbol,  property 
of  R.  M.  Olyphant. 

Elliott,  C.  L.,  New  York. — 16.  A  Portrait,  property  of  M.  Fletcher 
Harper. 

Fagnani. — 17.  A  portrait,  property  of  Sir  Henry  Bulwer. 

Gieford,  S.  R.,  New  York. — 18.  Twilight  on  Mount  Hunter,  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  J.  W.  Pinchot.  19.  An  interior  of  a  Dwelling  in  the  Desert, 
property  of  M.  Knoedler. 

Gignoux,  R.,  New  York. — 20.  Mount  Washington,  New  Hampshire, 
property  of  A.  T.  Stewart. 

Gray,  A.  P.,  New  York. — 21.  The  Apple  of  Discord,  property  of  R.  M. 
Olyphant.  22.  The  Pride  of  the  Village,  property  of  W.  H.  Osborn. 

Hart,  J.  M.,  New  York. — 23.  Landscape,  River  Tunxis,  Connecticut. 

Healey,  G.  P.  A.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — 24.  Portrait  of  Lieutenant-General 
Sherman.  25.  Portrait  of  a  Lady,  property  of  W.  B.  Duncan. 

Horner,  W.,  New  York. — 26.  Confederate  Prisoners,  property  of  J.  T. 
Johnston.  27.  The  Bright  Side,  property  of  W.  H.  Hamilton. 

Hubbard,  R.  W.,  New  York. — 28.  View  of  the  Adirondack^,  taken  on 
Mount  Mansfield,  property  of  Madame  H.  B.  Cromwell.  29.  Begin¬ 
ning  of  Autumn,  property  of  II.  G.  Marquand. 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


39 


Hunt,  W.  M.,  Boston,  Massachusetts. — 30.  Portrait.  31.  Portrait  of 
Abraham  Lincoln.  32.  Italian  Boy.  33.  Italian  Boy.  34.  Dinan, 
in  Brittany.  35.  The  Quarry. 

Huntington,  D.,  New  York. — 36.  Portrait  of  M.  Gulian  Yerplanck. 
37.  The  Bepublican  Court  in  the  time  of  Washington,  property  of  A. 
T.  Stewart. 

Inness,  G.,  Perth  Amboy. — 38.  Sunset  in  America,  property  of  M.  Marcus 
Spring.  39.  Landscape  and^Animals. 

Johnson,  E.,  New  York. — 40.  Country  Scene  in  Kentucky,  property  of 
Mr.  W.  H.  Derby.  41.  Seductive  Proposals,  property  of  Major- 
General  John  A.  Dix.  42.  The  Violin  Player,  property  of  Mr.  B.  L. 
Stuart.  43.  Sunday  Morning,  property  of  Mr.  B.  M.  Hoe. 
Kensett,  J.  F.,  New  York. — 44.  Lake  George  in  Autumn,  property  of 
Mr.  G.  F.  Olyphant.  45.  Views  on  the  Coast  of  Newport,  property 
of  G.  F.  Olyphant.  46.  An  Opening  in  the  White  Mountains,  prop¬ 
erty  of  Mr.  K.  L.  Stuart.  47.  Morning  on  the  Coast  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  property  of  Mr.  S.  Gandy. 

Lambdin,  G.  C.,  Philadelphia. — 48.  .The  Consecration,  1861,  property  of 
Mr.  George  Whitney.  49.  The  Last  Sleep. 

Langdon,  W.,  New  York. — 50.  The  Storm.  51.  At  Sea. 

Lafarge,  J.,  Newport,  Bliode  Island. — 52.  Flowers. 

Leutze,  E.,  New  York. — 53.  Marie  Stuart  hearing  Mass  for  the  first  time 
at  Holyrood  after  her  return  from  France,  property  of  Mr.  John  A. 
Biston. 

Lewis,  S.  J.,  Burlington,  New  Jersey. — 54.  The  Little  Fisherman. 

May,  E.  C.,  New  York. — 55.  Lady  Jane  Grey  giving  her  Tablets  to  the 
Governor  of  the  Tower  of  London  on  her  way  to  the  Scaffold.  56. 
Lear  and  Cordelia,  (“King  Lear,”  Act  IV,  Scene  7.)  57.  A  Portrait. 
Mac  Entee,  J.,  New  York. — 58.  Virginia  in  1863,  property  of  M.  C.  But¬ 
ler.  59.  The  End  of  October,  property  of  M.  S.  C.  Evans.  60. 
Autumn  in  the  Woods  of  Ashokan,  property  of  B.  M.  Hoe. 

Mignot,  L.  B. — 61.  Sources  of  the  Susquehanna,  property  of  H.  W. 
Derby. 

Moran,  T.,  Philadelphia. — 62.  Autumn  on  the  Conemaugh,  Pennsylva¬ 
nia,  property  of  C.  L.  Sharpless.  63.  The  Children  of  the  Moun¬ 
tain. 

Owen,  G.,  New  York. — 64.  Landscape  of  New  England,  study  from 
nature. 

Bichards,  W.  F.,  Philadelphia. — 65.  Forest  in  June,  property  of  B.  L. 

Stuart.  66.  A  Foggy  Day  at  Nantucket,  property  of  G.  Whitney. 
Weir,  J.  F.,  New  York. — 67.  The  Cannon  Foundry,  property  of  B.  P. 
Parrott. 

Whistler,  J.  Mac  Neil. — 68.  The  White  Girl.  69.  Wapping,  on  the 
Thames.  70.  Old  Battersea  Bridge.  71.  Twilight  at  Sea. 

White,  E.,  New  York. — 72.  Becollections  of  Siberia,  property  of  B.  L. 
Stuart. 


40  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Whittridge,  W.,  New  York. — 73.  The  Old  Kentucky  Land,  property 
of  J.  W.  Pinchott.  74.  The  Coast  of  Rhode  Island,  property  of  A. 
M.  Cozzens. 

Weber,  P.,  Philadelphia. — 75.  Woodlands,  Bolton  Park,  England. 

CLASS  2.— OTHER  PAINTINGS  AND  DRAWINGS. 

Barley,  F.  O.  C.,  New  York. — 1.  Charge  of  Cavalry  at  Fredericksburg, 
in  Virginia,  property  of  W.  F.  Blodgett.  2.  Vignettes  for  bank 
notes. 

Johnson,  E.,  New  York. — 3.  The  Wounded  Drummer,  property  of  the 
Century  Club. 

Bowse,  S.  W.,  Boston. — 4.  Portrait  of  Emerson,  (crayon.)  5.  Portrait 
of  Lowell,  (crayon.) 

CLASS  3.— SCULPTURE,  DIE-SINKING,  STONE  AND  CAMEO  ENGRAVING. 

IIosmer,  Md’lle  H.  G. — 1.  The  Sleeping  Fawn.  2.  The  Wakened  Fawn. 

Rogers,  J.,  New  York. — 3.  Three  groups  of  statuettes. 

Thompson,  L.,  New  York. — 4.  Statue  of  Napoleon,  property  of  C.  C.  D. 
Pinchot.  5.  Bust  of  W.  C.  Bryant,  property  of  C.  H.  Ludington. 

G.  Bust  of  the  Trapper  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Volk,  L.  W.,  Chicago,  Illinois. — 7.  Bust  of  A.  Lincoln. 

Ward,  J.  Q.  A.,  New  York. — 8.  The  Indian  Hunter  and  his  Dog,  the 
property  of  the  Central  Park  of  New  York.  9.  The  Liberated  Slave. 

CLASS  4.— ARCHITECTURAL  DESIGNS  AND  MODELS. 

(No  exhibition.) 

CLASS  5.— ENGRAVING  AND  LITHOGRAPHY. 

American  Bank  Note  Company. — 1.  Specimens  of  engraving  and 
printing  of  bank  notes. 

Marshall,  W.  E. — 2.  Lincoln,  (engraving  on  steel.)  3.  Washington, 
(engraving  on  steel.) 

National  Bank  Note  Company. — 4.  Specimens  of  engraving  of  bank 
notes. 

IIalpin,  F.,  New  York. — 5.  President  Lincoln,  (engraving  on  steel.) 

Wistler  J.  Mac  Neil. — G.  Twenty-four  etchings. 


APPENDIX  B. 


FINE  AETS.— LIST  OF  AWAEDS. 


GROUP  I.— WORKS  OF  ART,  FIRST  SECTION. 


Classes  1  and  2  united. 
PAINTING  AND  DESIGN. 


GRAND  PRIZES. 


Cabanel .  France. 

G6r6me . France. 

Ernest  Meissonier .  France. 

Theodore  Rousseau . France. 

Ussi .  Italy. 


Guillaume  de  Kaul- 

bach . Bavaria. 

Knaus .  Prussia. 

Leys .  Belgium. 


FIRST  PRIZES. 


Bida .  France. 

Jules  Breton .  France. 

Charles  Daubigny .  France. 

Fran9ais .  France. 

Fromentia .  France. 

Jean  Francois  Millet _ France. 

Pils .  France. 

Joseph  Robert  Fleury . . .  France. 


SECOND 

Mile.  Rosa  Bonhenr . France. 

Bonnat . France. 

Brion .  France. 

Covot .  France. 

Delaunay .  France. 

Jules  Dupre .  France. 

Hamon . France. 

Hebert . France. 

Jalabert .  France. 

Yvon .  France. 

Alma  Yadema .  Holland. 

4  F  A 


Calderon .  Great  Britain. 

Horsehelt . Bavaria. 

Makejko . Austria. 

Piloty . Bavaria. 

Rosales .  Spain. 

Alfred  Stevens _ Belgium. 

Willems . Belgium. 

PRIZES. 

Church . United  States. 

Clays  . .  Belgium. 

Gude .  Norway. 

Sigismond  L’Alle- 

mand .  Austria. 

Menzel .  Prussia. 

Morelli .  Italy. 

Nicol .  Great  Britain . 

Palmaroli .  Spain. 

Yautier .  Switzerland. 


42 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


THIRD  PRIZES. 


Henry  Baron .  France. 

Belly .  France. 

Bouguereau .  France. 

Busson . France. 

Cabut .  France. 

Comte .  France. 

De  Curzon .  France. 

Emile  Levy .  France. 

Puvis  de  Chavannes - France. 

Yelter .  France. 

F.Adam .  Bavaria. 

Andre  Acbenbacb .  Prussia. 


Bergh .  Sweden. 

Fayerlin . Sweden. 

Faruftini .  Italy. 

Gisbert .  Spain. 

Gonsalvo .  Spain 

Israels .  Holland. 

Kotzebue . Bussia. 

Lenbacb .  Bavaria. 

Q.  Orcliardson _ Great  Britain. 

Pagliano .  Italy. 

Walker .  Great  Britain. 

Wurzinger . Austria. 


SECOND  SECTION,  CLASS  3.— SCULPTURE. 


GRAND  PRIZES. 


Eugene  Guillaume . . . . 

. .  France. 

Drake . 

Prussia. 

Perraud . 

. .  France. 

J.  Dupre . 

Italy. 

FIRST  PRIZES. 

Carpeaux . 

. .  France. 

Aime  Millet . 

France. 

Gustave  Crauk . 

. .  France. 

Ponscarme . 

France. 

Falguiere . 

. .  France. 

Jules  Thomas ..... 

France. 

Gumery . 

. .  France. 

Yela . 

Italy. 

SECOND 

PRIZES. 

Paul  Dubois . 

. . .  France. 

Argente . 

Italy. 

Fremiet . 

. . .  France. 

Blaeser . 

Prussia. 

Gruyere . . 

. . .  France. 

Caroni . 

Switzerland. 

Mathurin  Moreau _ 

. . .  France. 

Luccardi . 

Rome. 

Ottin . 

. . .  France. 

Pescador . 

Spain. 

Salmson . 

. . .  France. 

Strazza . 

Italy. 

THIRD 

PRIZES. 

Cain . 

. . .  France. 

Sanson . 

France. 

Cambos . 

. . .  France. 

Drossis . 

Greece. 

Cugnot . 

. . .  France. 

Pioker . 

Belgium. 

Feugere  des  Forts . . . 

. . .  France. 

G.  Sunol . 

Spain. 

Maillet . 

. . .  France. 

J.  S.  Wyon  and  A. 

Merley . 

_ France. 

B.  Wyon,  (collec¬ 

Montagny . 

. . .  France. 

tive  medal) . 

Great  Britain 

CLASS  4.— ARCHITECTURE. 


Ancelet 
Ferstel  . 


GRAND  PRIZES. 


France. 

Austria. 


Waterhouse 


Great  Britain. 


REPORT  ON  THE  FINE  ARTS. 


43 


FIRST  PRIZES. 


Joyau  . 

_ France. 

Late  Capt.  Fowke . . 

Great  Britain. 

Lamiere . 

_ France. 

Bos  an  off . 

Bussia. 

Thierry . 

_ France. 

F.  Schmitz . 

Prussia,  &c. 

SECOND 

PRIZES. 

Boitte . 

_ France. 

Questel . 

France. 

Deperthes . 

_  France. 

W.  D.  Lynn . 

Great  Britain. 

Esquie . 

_ France. 

T.  Hanzel . 

Austria. 

Edmond  Guillaume . 

_ France. 

Hlavka . 

Austria. 

THIRD 

PRIZES. 

Ambroise  Baudry  . . 

_  France. 

E.  Barry . 

Great  Britain. 

Daumet . 

_ France. 

Carpentier . 

Belgium. 

Felix  Thomas . 

- France. 

G.  Semper . 

Switzerland. 

CLASS  5.- 

-ENGBAVING  AND  LITHOGBAPHY. 

GRAND 

PRIZES. 

Alphonse  Francois  . 

_ France.  | 

||  J.  Keller . 

Prussia,  &c. 

FIRST  PRIZES. 

Bertinot . 

- France. 

E.  Maudel . 

Prussia. 

Acliille  Martinet  . . . 

-  France. 

SECOND 

PRIZES. 

Salmon . 

....  France. 

N.  Barthelmess - 

Prussia. 

Bal . 

_  Belgium. 

Edouard  Girardet . . 

Switzerland. 

THIRD 

PRIZES. 

Auguste  Blanchard . 

- France. 

II  Jacquemard . 

France. 

Charles  Jacques - 

|  Bousseaux . 

France. 

PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION,  1867. 
REPORTS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 

i 


THE  FINE  ARTS 

APPLIED  TO 

THE  USEFUL  ARTS. 


REPORT  BY  THE  COMMITTEE  : 

FRANK  LESLIE,  S.  F.  B.  MORSE,  THOMAS  W.  EVANS, 

UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1868. 


FINE  ARTS  APPLIED  TO  THE  USEFUL  ARTS. 


REPORT  OP  THE  COMMITTEE. 

The  importance  of  art  education  as  applied  to  manufactures  is  so  obvi¬ 
ous  as  to  need  no  enforcement  in  this  age.  It  is  universally  recognized 
that  utility  and  beauty  may  be  combined.  This  marriage  of  the  fine  and 
the  mechanic  arts  has  been  encouraged  and  promoted  in  Europe  for  many 
years,  chiefly  through  government  intervention  and  aid,  through  estab¬ 
lishments  like  those  of  the  Gobelins  and  of  Sevres,  and  through  schools 
of  art  and  of  design  founded  in  every  principal  city.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  if  such  an  assumption  of  functions  would  be  consonant  with 
our  system  of  governmental  administration;  nor  would  it  be  desirable, 
perhaps,  even  if.  it  were  possible.  Even  in  the  important  matter  of  rudi¬ 
mentary  education  the  governments  of  the  various  states  scarcely  do 
more  than  to  take  the  initiative,  and  the  amplification  of  our  educational 
system  is  wisely  left  to  the  intelligence  and  public  spirit  of  our  people. 
Still  it  is  a  question,  if  such  an  initiation  might  not  be  taken  by  govern¬ 
ment,  in  this  matter  of  schools  of  design,  on  grounds  of  public  utility. 

One  of  the  practical  and  most  important  results  of  the  great  London 
Exposition  of  1851  was,  that  it  aroused  the  attention  of  the  people  of 
England  to  the  importance  of  an  extended  application  of  the  fine  to  the 
useful  arts.  The  display  made  in  the  French  department  showed  that, 
without  being  in  other  respects  equal  to  the  English,  many  classes  of 
French  manufactures  and  products  were  preferred  in  the  markets  of  the 
'  world  on  account  of  their  greater  beauty  of  form  and  outline,  and  greater 
taste  in  ornamentation.  This  led  to  the  establishment  in  England, 
through  public  authority,  of  a  number  of  schools  of  design,  with  advan¬ 
tageous  results  to  the  manufacturers  of  Great  Britain,  who  were  gradu¬ 
ally  enabled  to  renew  their  hold  on  a  number  of  branches  of  trade,  while 
the  general  taste,  which  is  an  element  and  reflection  of  civilization,  was 
encouraged  and  elevated. 

The  reports  of  the  English  commissioners  to  the  Kew  York  exhibition 
of  1853  are  full  of  references  to  the  fact  that  in  almost  every  department 
of  manufactures  the  United  States  was  dependent  on  foreign  designers — 
French,  English,  and  German.  While  praising  the  aptitude  and  skill 
of  American  mechanics,  they  said  that  u  American  manufactures  have 
reached  that  point  at  which  it  has  become  desirable  that  originality  of 
thought  should  be  infused  into  them  by  means  of  the  instructed  designer ; 
for  the  design  once  obtained,  the  very  effort  to  realize  it  educates  the 


4 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


workman.77  They  added  that  “  there  was  no  appearance  of  an  attempt 
to  strike  out  a  national  style,  although  the  many  peculiar  features  of 
the  country,  the  habits  of  the  people,  and  undoubted  originality  in  the 
mechanic  arts,  would  lead  to  the  inference  that  a  gradual  repudiation  of 
European  modes  and  forms  will  idtimately  take  place,  and  that  in  art,  as 
applied  to  the  utilities  of  life,  true  principles  in  the  education  of  the 
people  in  this  respect  are  alone  needed  to  produce  results  of  a  very  satis¬ 
factory  character.  At  present  the  co-mingling  of  totally  different  styles 
of  decoration  in  architecture,  and  in  the  adoption  of  European  designs 
for  totally  different  purposes  to  those  for  which  they  were  originally 
intended,  are  among  the  least  of  the  errors  committed  in  a  vague  seeking 
after  novelty.77 

Although  these  observations  were  written  15  years  ago,  and  although 
American  taste  has  in  the  interval  vastly  improved,  yet  the  criticisms 
they  contain  still  remain  substantially  true,  and  the  United  States  still 
sustains  a  colonial,  not  to  say  provincial,  relationship  to  Europe  in  the 
matter  of  grace  and  ornamentation  in  articles  and  constructions  of  com¬ 
mon  use.  Chaste  and  tasteful  designs  are  capable  of  universal  applica¬ 
tion,  not  less  in  lamp-posts  and  hydrants  than  in  household  furniture  and 
jewelry,  nor  less  to  the  paper-hangings  and  calicos  of  the  poor  than  the 
soft  carpetings  and  silks  of  the  rich.  The  ingenious  mechanic  who  knows 
how  to  devise  the  implements,  instruments,  and  utensils  or  other  objects 
required  to  meet  universal  or  exceptional  wants,  needs  only  the  aid  of  the 
designer  to  make  them  pleasing  and  elegant  as  well  as  beautiful. 

In  this  application  of  the  tasteful  to  the  useful,  the  United  States 
undertook  no  competitive  display  in  the  Exhibition  of  1867 ;  yet  she 
exhibited  locomotives  which,  if  somewhat  meretricious  in  ornamentation, 
were  nevertheless  beautiful  in  comparison  with  the  ungainly  monsters 
exhibited  by  other  countries.  In  lightness  and  tasteful  outline,  no  car¬ 
riages  were  comparable  with  those  from  the  United  States,  although  they 
were  not  remarkable  in  any  other  respect;  and  the  gas  fixtures,  chan¬ 
deliers,  and  other  lighting  apparatus  exhibited  by  the  Tucker  Manufac¬ 
turing  Company  were  certainly  equal  to  those  of  any  other  country.  ISTo 
billiard  tables  were  equal  to  those  of  the  United  States  in  elegance  or 
excellence. 

It  is  not  probably  worth  while  to  attempt  a  discussion  of  the  point 
whether  a  “national  style77  of  design  is  possible  or  desirable.  The  prin¬ 
ciples  of  design,  grace  in  form  and  outline,  just  proportions,  harmony 
both  in  ornament  and  coloring,  are  of  universal  and  kaleidoscopic  appli¬ 
cation,  and  can  hardly  be  nationalized,  although  the  mode  of  their  appli¬ 
cation  may  and  ought  to  vary  with  the  varying  circumstances  of  different 
people,  having  different  wants  and  different  means  of  meeting  them. 

The  committee,  therefore,  think  they  will  better  serve  the  objects 
of  their  appointment  by  submitting  drawings  of  a  number  of  useful 
objects  in  the  Exhibition,  to  which  the  fine  arts  have  been  applied  with 
more  or  less  success,  as  a  substitute  for  descriptions  which,  from  the 


FINE  ARTS  APPLIED  TO  THE  USEFUL  ARTS.  5 

nature  of  tlie  case,  would  scarcely  be  intelligible.  These  will  be  useful 
in  the  way  of  suggestion,  if  they  do  not  absolutely  form  models  to  be 
followed. 

Respectfully  submitted: 

FRANK  LESLIE,  \ 

S.  F.  B.  MORSE,  >  Committee , 

THOMAS  W.  EVANS,  ) 

U.  8.  Commissioners  to  Paris  Universal  Exposition  o/1867. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 

Plate  I. — Carved  Cabinet.  Stovesandt,  Carlsruhe. 

Plate  II. — Ebony  Cabinet,  mounted  in  ivory.  Angelo  Amici,  Italy. 
Plate  III. — Carved  Furniture.  Wirth  Bros.,  Brientz,  Switzerland. 
Plate  TV. — Carved  Stand  and  Table.  Leovinson,  Berlin. 

Plate  V. — Fauteuil,  which  divides  into  sofas  and  easy  chairs.  Fil- 
mer  &  Co.,  England. 

Plate  VI. — Chimney-piece.  Leclercq,  Belgium. 

Plate  VII. — Chimney-piece.  Leclercq,  Belgium.  Carved  Chairs. 
Leovinson,  Berlin. 

Plate  VIII. — Cast-iron  Fountain.  Ducel,  Paris. 

Plate  IX. — Centre-piece  for  Flowers,  in  gold  and  silver.  Sy  & 
Wagner,  Prussia. 

Plate  X. — Centre-piece.  Dziedzinski  and  Hanusch,  Austria. 

Plate  XI. — Cast-iron  Hat  Stand.  Crichley  &  Co.,  England. 

Plate  XII. — Bronze  Fender.  Raingo  Bros.,  Paris.  Bronze  and  Glass 
Stand.  Lobmeyr,  Austria.  Cast-iron  Umbrella  Stand.  Crichley  &  Co., 
England. 

Plate  XIII. — Cast-iron  Lamp-posts.  Barbezat  &  Co.,  Paris.  Tripod 
Lamp.  Charpentier,  Paris. 

Plate  XIV. — Lamp.  Schlossmacher  &  Co.,  Paris.  Candelabrum. 
Boyer  &  Sons,  Paris.  Lamp.  Barbezat  &  Co.,  Paris. 

Plate  XV. — Gas  Chandeliers.  Best  &  Hobson,  England. 

Plate  XVI. — Gas  Chandelier.  Winfield  &  Co.,  England. 

Plate  XVII. — Gas  Chandeliers.  Philip,  England. 

Plate  XVIII. — Glass  Chandelier.  Defries  &  Sons,  England. 

Plate  XIX. — Glassware.  Dobson,  England. 

Plate  XX. — Glassware.  Dobson,  England. 

Plate  XXI. — Glassware.  Phillips  &  Pearce,  England. 

Plate  XXH. — Engraved  Glassware.  Millar  &  Co.,  Scotland. 

Plate  XXIII. — Engraved  Glassware.  Millar  &  Co.,  Scotland. 
Plate  XXIV. — Table.  Royal  Porcelain  Manufactory  of  Dresden. 
Plate  XXV. — 1.  Painted  Vase.  Royal  Porcelain  Manufactory, 
Dresden.  2.  Painted  Vase.  Royal  Porcelain  Works,  Prussia.  3, 
Painted  Vase.  Imperial  Manufactory,  Sevres.  4.  Electro-plated  Vase. 
Elkington,  England. 


6 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Plate  XXYI. — Bronze  Clock.  Lerolle,  Paris.  Porcelain  Service. 
Royal  Porcelain  Manufactory,  Berlin. 

Plate  XXYII. — 1,  2,  3.  Water  Coolers  and  Filters.  Doulton  & 
Watts,  England.  4,  5,  6.  Flagons.  Sy&  Wagner,  Prussia.  7.  Toilette 
Bottle  in  oxydized  silver.  Rudolphi.  8.  Tazza.  Boyer  &  Son,  Paris. 

Plate  XXYIII. — 1, 2.  Porcelain  and  Metal  Clock.  Boulonnois,  Paris. 
3.  Card  Stand  in  pulverized  wood.  Latry  &  Co.,  Paris. 

Plate  XXIX. — Cast-iron  Railing.  Barbezat  &  Co.,  Paris.  Gas 
Bracket.  Hollenbacli,  Austria. 

Plate  XXX. — Panel  in  Silk.  Haas  &  Sons,  Austria. 

Plate  XXXI. — Marble  Chimney-piece.  Brodski,  Russia. 

Plate  XXXII. — Epergne. 

Plate  XXXIII.— Bronze  Clock. 

[As  the  elaborately  executed  drawings  for  the  following  described 
plates  required  several  colors  to  properly  represent  the  various  objects 
they  have  not  been  engraved,  By  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  State 
these  drawings  have  been  bound  in  one  volume,  with  a  copy  of  this 
report,  and  are  deposited  in  the  Congressional  Library.] 

Plate  XXXIY. — Winfield  &  Co,,  Birmingham,  England.— Copper- 
gilt  Gas  Chandelier  Bracket.  Gold  medal. 

Plate  XXXY. — Elkington, London,  England.— A,  Fork;  B,  Spoon;  C, 
Epergne,  silver  chased  and  rehausse  work ;  I),  Saltcellar,  silver  and  jet; 
E,  Yase,  silver,  gold  and  glass.  Received  second  medal,  (gold.) 

Plate  XXXYI— Heal  &  Son,  London,  England.— Bed,  citron-wood 
and  blue  furniture.  Received  bronze  medal. 

Plate  XXXYII— Ward,  London,  England.— A,  Easy  Chair,  Silver 
medal  and  honorable  mention. 

Heal  &  Son,  London,  England.— B,  Table,  citron- wood.  Bronze  medal. 

Plate  XXXYIII. — Winfield  &  Co.,  Birmingham  England— A, 
Bracket  Lamp,  copper  gilt;  B,  Chair,  gold  and  damask.  Gold  medal. 

Plate  XXXIX— James  Green,  London,  England. — A,  Yase,  in  glass; 
B,  Cup  for  flowers  ;  G,  Bottle  for  perfumes.  Bronze  medal. 

Plate  XL. — James  Green,  London,  England. — A,  Yase  for  perfumes; 
B,  Glasses  for  flowers.  Bronze  medal. 

Plate  XLI. — Minton  &  Co.,  Stoke-upon-Trent,  England. — A,  Yase 
in  porcelain ;  B,  Small  Cup,  in  same  ware ;  C,  Bottle ;  D,  Chair  in  pot¬ 
tery  ware.  Gold  medal,  first  class. 

Plate  XLII. — Barbezat,  Paris,  France. — A,  Dish,  imitation  Bernard 
Palissy. 

Deck,  Paris. — B,  Yase,  in  earthenware. 

Plate  XLIII. — Creil  &  Moutereau,  Paris,  France. — A,  Yase,  in 
earthenware. 

Triefus  &  Ettlinger,  Paris. — B,  Prayer-book,  ivory  and  gold.  Silver 
medal. 

Deck,  Paris. — C,  Yase,  in  earthenware. 

Plate  XLIY. — Samson,  (father  and  son,)  Paris,  France. — A,  Yase 
for  flowers,  wood,  imitation  of  china  ware  ;  B,  Plate. 


FINE  ARTS  APPLIED  TO  THE  USEFUL  ARTS. 


7 


Gonard,  Paris. — 0,  Clock  for  chimney  piece,  enamel  and  gold. 

Plate  XLY. — Giroux,  Paris,  France. — -A,  Armoire,  bronze  gilt,  velvet 
pedestal ;  B,  Looking-glass,  gold  frame. 

Plate  XLYI. — Dielh,  Paris. — A,  Casket ;  wood,  bronze,  gilt  and  mar¬ 
ble. 

Pull,  Paris. — B,  Cup ;  style,  Bernard  Palissy,  (bought  by  the  Emperor.) 
Bronze  medal. 

Plate  XLYII. — Tahan,  Paris,  France. — A,  Cup,  style  antique ;  B, 
Clock  with  Statuette;  C,  Cup  ;  D,  Casket  with  enamelled  paintings. 

Plate  XLYIII. — Mazaroz-Ribaillier  &  Co.,  Paris  and  London. — Buffet 
in  carved  oak. 

Plate  XLIX. — Mazaroz-Ribaillier  &  Co. — A,  Chair,  carved  oak ;  B, 
Chair,  gold  and  blue  damask. 

Giroux,  Paris. — C,  Yasein  gold  and  marble.  Silver  medal,  first  class. 

Plate  L. — W.  &  J.  R.  Hunter,  London,  England. — Armoire  in 
citron  and  maple  wood,  medallions  in  blue  and  white  wedgewood  ware. 
Bronze  medal. 

Plate  LI. — Leo vinson,  Berlin  and  Paris. — A,  Writing  Desk  in 
carved  oak,  interior  in  citron- wood ;  B,  Arm-chair,  carved  oak,  covered 
in  damask.  Honorable  mention. 

Plate  LII. — H.  Ullrich,  Yienna,  Austria. — Yasein  colored  porcelain. 
Honorable  mention. 

Plate  LIII. — H.  Ullrich,  Yienna,  Austria. — Drinking  Cup  in  green 
glass,  with  black  eagle  and  medallion  iron  handles.  Honorable  men¬ 
tion. 

Plate  LIY. — H.  Ullrich,  Yienna,  Austria. — Yase  Etagdre,  in  ruby 
colored  carved  glass  of  Bohemia.  Honorable  mention. 

Plate  LY. — Imported  by  Chanton,  Paris,  from  China. — Bed,  iron- 
wood  carved,  cane  bottom.  Silver  medal. 

Plate  LY1. — Imported  by  Chanton,  Paris,  from  China. — A,  Lan¬ 
tern,  from  the  imperial  palace  at  Pekin.  (Bought  by  the  King  of  the 
Belgians.)  B,  Fan  in  ivory ;  C,  Arm-chair,  wood,  inlaid  with  ivory  and 
citron- wood,  cane  seat.  Silver  medal. 

Plate  LYII. — Imported  by  Chanton,  Paris,  from  China. — A,  Arm¬ 
chair,  black  iron- wood,  covered  in  damask ;  B,  Yase  in  porcelain  mounted 
on  stand  of  brown  iron- wood. 

Plate  LYIII. — Leovinson,  Berlin,  London. — A,  Paper  Case,  carved 
oak,  interior  citron  wood;  B,  Chair,  carved  oak,  covered  in  green  damask. 
Honorable  mention. 

Plate  LIX. — Adolf  Meyr,  Austria,  Bohemia. — Cup  in  porcelain  and 
Bohemian  glass,  mounted  on  red  velvet.  Gold  medal. 

Plate  LX. — J.  &  L.  Lobmeyr,  Yienna,  Austria. — Cup,  glass  and  bronze. 
Gold  medal. 

Plate  LXI. — J.  &  L.  Lobmeyr,  Yienna,  Austria. — Cup,  glass  mounted 
on  wood  and  bronze. 

Plate  LXII. — Adolf  Meyr,  Austria,  Bohemia. — A,  Yase  in  white 
glass ;  B,  Cup,  green  glass  and  gold.  Gold  medal. 


8 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Plate  LXIII. — J.  &  L.  Lobmeyr,  Austria. — Vase,  engraved  glass 
mounted  on  bronze  gilt.  Gold  medal. 

Plate  LXIY. — Wirtli  Brothers,  Brientz,  Switzerland. — Cup,  in  ground 
glass  mounted  on  dark  oak.  Silver  medal. 

Plate  LXY. — Wirtli  Brothers,  Brientz,  Switzerland. — Looking-glass, 
light  oak  mounting.  Silver  medal. 

Plate  LXYI. — Wirth,  Brientz,  Switzerland. — Lamp,  gray  wood  and 
green  bronze. 

Plate  LXYII. — Schwechten,  Berlin,  Prussia. — Piano  in  carved  oak. 
Bronze  medal. 


Cast-iron  Railing.  Barbezat  &  Co.,  Paris. 


I. — Carved  Cabinet.  Stovesandt,  Carlsruhe. 


II. — Ebony  Cabinet,  mounted  in  ivory.  Angelo  Amici,  ItaJy. 


IV.— Carved  Stand  and  Table.  Leovinson,  Berlin. 


Fauteuil,  which  divides  into  sofas  and  easy  chairs.  Filmer  &  Co.,  England. 


?77Y$  <  o“~"FTy; 


VI. — Chimney-piece.  Leclercq,  Belgium. 


VIII. — Cast-iron  Fountain.  Ducel,  Paris. 


XI.— Cast-iron  Ha"  Stand.  Crichl2y  8c  Co.,  England. 


XII-Bronze  Fender.  Raingo  Bros.,  Paris 

Bronze  and  Glass  Stand.  Lobmeyr,  Austria. 
Cast-iron  Umbrella  Stand.  Crichley  &  Co.,  England. 


XIII.— Cast-iron  Lamp-posts.  Barbezat  &  Co.,  Paris. 
Tripod  Lamp.  Charpentier,  Paris. 


Lamp.  Schlossmacher  &  Co., 
Paris. 


XIV. 

Candelabrum.  'Boyer  &  Sons,  Paris.  Lamp.  Barbezat  &  Co.,  Paris. 


XV— Gas  Chandeliers. 


Best  &  Hobson,  England. 


XVI.-  Gas  Chandelier.  Winfield  &  Co.,  England. 


XVI1-— Gas  Chandeliers.  Philip,  England. 


) 


XVIII.— Glass  Chandelier.  Defries  and  Sons,  England. 


Glassware.  Dobson- 


XX.— Glassware.  Dobson,  England. 


G-lassware.  Phillips  &  Pearce,  England. 


XXII.  Engraved  Glassware.  Millar  &  Co.,  Scotland. 


XXIII_ : Engraved  Glassware.  Millar  &  Co.,  Scotland. 


■Table.  Royal  Porcelain  Manufactory  of  Dresden. 


XXV‘  1‘  Painted  Vase.  Royal  Porcelain  Works,  Dresdei 

2.  PaiKted  Vase.  Royal  Porcelain  Works,  Prussia. 

3.  Painted  Vase.  Imperial  Manufactory,  Sevres. 

4.  Electro-plated  Vase.  Elkington,  England. 


XXVI.— Bronze  Clock.  Lerolle,  Paris. 

Porcelain  Service.  Royal  Porcelain  Manufactory,  Berlin. 


7.  6.  8. 

XXVII. — 1,  2, '3.  Water  Coolers  and  Filters.  Doulton  &  Watts,  England. 
4.  5,  6.  Flagons.  Sy  &  Wagner,  Prussia. 

7.  Toilet  Bottle  in  oxydized  silver.  Rudolphi. 

8.  Tazza.  Boyer  &  Sons,  Paris. 


^TVOT. — 1  and  2.  Porcelain  and  Metal  Clock.  Boulonnois,  Paris. 

3.  Card  Stand  in  pulverized  wood.  Latry  &  Co.,  Paris. 


XXIX. — Cast-iron  Railing.  Barbezat  &  Co.,  Paris. 
Gas  Bracket.  Hollenbach,  Austria. 


-  ,vi 


X. — Panel  in  Silk.  Haas  &  Sons,  Austria. 


/ 


. 


✓ 


f 


</ 


■ 


XXXI.— Marble  Chimney-piece.  Brodski,  Russia. 


■ 


rw * 


XXXII.— Bpergne. 


XXXIII. — Bronze  Clock. 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION,  1867. 
REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


EXTRACTS 


FROM  THE 

REPORT  OF  THE  INTERNATIONAL  COMMITTEE 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS, 

WITH  A 


NOTICE  OF  THE  USE  OF  THE  METRIC  SYSTEM 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


AND  ITS 


RELATIONS  TO  OTHER  SYSTEMS  OE  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1870. 


CONTENTS 


/ 


Preface . 

The  pavilion  for  the  display  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins . 

The  international  committee . 

The  metric  system  in  the  United  States . 

Tables  for  the  conversion  of  metric  into  other  denominations.... 
Tables  of  the  weights,  measures,  and  coins  of  various  countries 

France . . 

Holland . . 

Belgium . 

Prussia . . 

Bavaria . 

WURTEMBERG . . 

Baden . 

Hesse . . 

Austria . . 

Switzerland . 

Spain . 

Philippine  Islands . . 

Denmark . 

Sweden . 

Norway . . 

Russia . 

Italy . 

Turkey . 

Egypt . 

Japan . 

Portugal . 

Brazil . 

United  States  of  America . 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland . 


Page. 

5 

5 

6 
8 

11 

14 

14 

16 

17 

18 
20 
21 
23 

25 

26 
28 
30 
30 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 
38 

40 

41 
43 

43 

44 

45 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


PREFACE. 

In  the  absence  of  any  report  by  the  Commission  upon  the  exhibition 
of  weights  and  measures,  the  editor  has  been  induced  to  prepare  a  brief 
notice  and  to  give  a  translation  of  the  valuable  series  of  tables,  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  committee,  of  the  weights,  measures,  and  coins  of  the 
various  countries  which  took  part  in  the  display. 

Such  a  notice  not  only  properly  forms  a  portion  of  the  series  of  re¬ 
ports  of  the  United  States  Commissioners,  but  it  is  especially  desirable 
in  connection  with  them,  inasmuch  as  in  many  of  the  reports  quanti¬ 
ties  are  expressed  in  the  denominations  of  the  metric  system,  and  also 
in  those  of  other  systems  prevailing  in  various  countries,  and  by  means 
of  the  tables  the  relative  values  of  the  quantities  so  expressed  may  be 
ascertained  without  recourse  to  other  publications. 

The  official  report  of  the  committee  was  addressed  by  the  president, 
M.  L.  Mathieu,  to  his  excellency  the  minister  of  state  and  of  the  finances 
and  vice-president  of  the  Imperial  Commission,  and  was  published  in 
Paris.1  Two  copies  of  this  published  report  were  officially  transmitted 
to  the  Department  of  State  by  the  Hon.  Samuel  B.  Buggies,  vice- 
president  of  the  United  States  Commission,  and  delegate  to  the  inter¬ 
national  monetary  conference.  The  report  of  Commissioner  Buggies 
upon  the  proceedings  of  the  sub  committee  and  of  the  international 
monetary  conference  in  relation  to  the  unification  of  coinage  has  al¬ 
ready  been  published,2 3  and  some  observations  upon  the  subject  will 
also  be  found  in  the  Beport  upon  the  Precious  Metals,  pp.  242-307. 

THE  EXHIBITION  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  pavilion  for  the  reception  of  the  collections  of  weights,  measures, 
and  coins  of  all  countries  was  a  circular  structure,  surmounted  by  a 
dome,  erected  in  the  center  of  the  central  garden  of  the  great  Exposi¬ 
tion  building.  It  was  divided  into  twenty  sections,  assigned  to  each  of 
the  different  countries  or  groups  of  countries. 

The  visitor  who  entered  this  pavilion  by  the  door  facing  the  main 

1  Exposition  Universelle  de  1867,  a  Paris :  Comit6  des  poids  et  mesures  et  des  mon- 
naies.  Rapport  et  proc&s-verbaux — Catalogue  officiel.  Paris :  E.  Denfcu.  Small  8°, 

pp.  163. 

3  Report  to  the  Department  of  State,  by  Samuel  B.  Ruggles,  delegate  from  the  United 
States  to  the  Monetary  Conference  at  Paris,  1867.  4°,  20  pp.  No  date,  (Washington, 
1868,)  and  in  8°.  Fortieth  Congress,  second  session,  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  14. 


6 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


avenue  of  the  Exposition  building  saw  the  weights  and  coins  of  the 
various  countries  in  the  following  order,  commencing  upon  the  left: 
France,  Holland,  Belgium,  Prussia,  and  States  of  Northern  Germany, 
States  of  Southern  Germany,  Austria,  Switzerland,  Spain,  Denmark, 
Sweden  and  Norway,  Bussia,  Italy,  Turkey,  Egypt,  China,  Japan  and 
the  different  countries  of  Asia,  Morocco  and  the  different  States  of  Af¬ 
rica,  the  different  countries  of  South  America,  Brazil,  United  States  of 
America,  England.  This  was  also  the  order  of  succession  of  the  exhi¬ 
bition  in  the  Palace.  The  names  of  the  different  countries  were  in¬ 
scribed  upon  the  outside  above  each  of  the  sections. 

The  pavilion  was  divided  into  two  stories.  On  the  ground  floor  were 
exhibited : 

1.  The  measures  of  capacity,  at  least  such  of  them  as  were  not  too 
large  to  be  admitted  in  the  under  part  of  the  glass  cases. 

2.  The  weights  placed  upon  a  shelf  above  the  measures. 

3.  The  linear  measures  were  ranged  vertically  facing  the  plate  glass 
of  the  case,  and  were  supported  by  two  wires,  one  on  each  side,  stretched 
at  the  height  of  a  metre  above  the  level  foundation  upon  which  all  the 
measures  rested,  with  their  initial  divisions  in  the  same  plane.  It  was 
thus  made  easy  to  compare  the  length  of  the  metre  with  all  the  other 
measures. 

4.  The  coins  systematically  arranged  and  suspended  against  the  inte¬ 
rior  surface  of  the  glass  of  the  case. 

In  the  first  story  above  the  ground  floor  there  were  the  bank  bills, 
paper  money  of  all  kinds,  and  the  postage  stamps  sent  by  the  different 
countries.  There  was  also  in  this  part  of  the  building  a  book-case  con¬ 
taining  the  documents  placed  at  the  service  of  the  international  com¬ 
mittee. 

Pour  clock-dials  of  different  types — Boman,  Turkish,  Indian,  and 
Chinese — were  placed  upon  the  four  faces  of  the  pavilion.  In  the  inside 
of  the  cupola  there  was  a  dial  with  Arabic  figures.  All  of  these  dials 
indicated  Paris  time.  Upon  the  summit  of  the  dome  a  terrestrial  globe 
was  supported  with  its  axis  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  earth,  and  it  re¬ 
volved  once  in  twenty-four  hours.  This  motion  and  the  movement  of 
the  hands  upon  the  clock  dials  were  all  given  by  a  clock  movement  in  the 
center  of  the  base  of  the  cupola. 

Within  this  building  there  were  exhibited  no  less  than  thirty-six  dif¬ 
ferent  systems  of  weights  based  upon  thirty-six  different  units ;  sixty- 
seven  different  measures  based  upon  sixty-two  different  units;  and  thirty- 
five  different  standards  of  gold  and  silver  coin,  belonging  to  eighteen 
different  monetary  systems,  based  upon  eighteen  different  units  or  meas¬ 
ures  of  value. 


THE  INTERNATIONAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  Committee  of  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins,  was  organized  by 
a  decree  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  dated  June  7,  1866,  with  the  object 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


7 


of  ascertaining  tlie  best  method  of  utilizing  the  general  assembling  of 
people  of  all  nations  at  the  Exposition  of  1867,  for  the  adoption  of  a 
uniform  system  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins.  This  organization  was 
completed  by  the  decrees  of  the  14tli  of  February  and  the  10th  of  April, 
1867. 

From  the  15th  of  June,  1866,  until  the  rendering  of  the  report  by 
M.  L.  Matthieu,  the  president,  in  1867,  the  committee  held  twenty-six 
sessions,  and  in  order  to  facilitate  the  work  it  had  divided  into  three 
sub-committees,  the  first  of  which  was  charged  with  the  study  of  the 
question  of  weights  and  measures;  the  second,  with  that  of  coins;  and 
the  third,  with  areometry. 

These  sub  committees  prepared  a  series  of  propositions,  which,  after 
having  been  examined  by  the  committee  as  a  whole,  were  adopted. 
They  also  submitted  reports  as  follows : 

1.  Eeport  upon  the  uniformity  of  weights  and  measures,  prepared 
by  M.  de  Jacobi. 

2.  Eeport  upon  the  uniformity  of  coins,  prepared  by  Baron  de  Hock. 

3.  Eeport  upon  areometry,  by  M.  de  Baumhauer. 

The  report  of  the  sub  committee  upon  weights  and  measures  is  based 
upon  the  following  four  fundamental  propositions  : 

1.  That  the  decimal  system,  being  in  conformity  with  the  system  of 
enumeration  universally  employed,  is  the  most  proper  for  expressing  the 
multiples  and  parts  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins. 

2.  That  the  metric  system  is  perfectly  fit  to  be  universally  adopted, 
on  account  of  the  scientific  principles  upon  which  it  is  established,  the 
homogeneity  which  exists  in  the  relation  of  all  its  parts,  and  the  sim¬ 
plicity  and  facility  of  its  application  in  the  sciences  and  arts,  in  industry 
and  commerce. 

3.  That  the  instruments  of  precision  and  methods  employed  for  obtain¬ 
ing  copies  of  the  original  standard  have  attained  such  perfection  that 
the  accuracy  of  these  copies  meets  every  requirement  of  industry  and 
commerce,  and  even  the  exigencies  of  modern  science. 

4.  As  every  economy  of  labor,  both  material  and  intellectual,  is  equiv¬ 
alent  to  an  actual  increase  of  wealth,  the  adoption  of  the  metric  system, 
which  may  be  ranked  in  the  same  order  of  ideas  as  tools  and  machines, 
railways,  telegraphs,  logarithms,  &c.,  particularly  commends  itself  in  an 
economical  point  of  view. 

The  report,  based  upon  these  general  propositions,  sets  forth  at  length 
the  advantages  of  the  metric  system  in  the  different  branches  of  human 
activity,  and  the  means  of  extending  its  use.  The  following  are  the 
chief  subdivisions  of  the  report : 

Situation  of  different  countries  with  regard  to  the  adoption  of  the 
metric  system. 

States  which  have  adopted  the  metric  system. 

States  which  have  partially  adopted  the  metric  system. 


8 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Countries  in  which  the  systems  of  weights  and  measures  have  nothing 
in  common  with  the  metric  system. 

Teaching  the  metric  system  in  primary  schools. 

Advantages  of  the  use  of  the  metric  system  in  the  sciences. 

Advantages  of  the  metric  system  in  commercial  transactions. 

Easy  application  of  the  system  in  the  various  industries,  in  mechanics, 
and  in  construction. 

Utility  of  the  metric  system  in  postal  tariffs  and  in  telegraphy. 

Taxes  upon  merchandise  duties. 

Verification  of  the  accuracy  of  weights  and  measures. 

Nomenclature. 

Inconveniences  of  a  mixed  system  of  transition. 

The  report  concludes  by  urging  the  importance  of :  First.  Prescribing 
the  study  of  the  metric  system  in  all  schools,  and  exacting  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  it  in  all  public  examinations.  Second.  Introducing  its  exclu¬ 
sive  use  in  all  scientific  publications,  in  official  statistics,  in  the  post- 
offices,  in  the  custom-houses,  in  all  public  works,  and  in  such  other 
executive  departments  as  the  governments  may  find  convenient. 

The  sub-committee  upon  areometry,  under  the  presidency  of  E.  H. 
Von  Baumhauer,  presented  the  three  following  propositions  as  a  resume 
of  their  report : 

1.  It  is  desirable  that  for  all  transactions  concerning  liquids  the  same 
systems  of  graduation  should  be  adopted  in  all  countries. 

2.  It  is  desirable  that  the  particular  scales  used  for  different  liquids 
should  be  decimal  and  based  upon  the  densities  or  specific  volumes. 

3.  The  committee  express  the  wish  that  the  centigrade  thermometer 
and  the  metric  graduation  of  the  barometer  should  be  generally  adopted. 

The  Committee  on  Weights  and  Measures  enumerate  the  countries 
that  have  fully  adopted  the  metric  system  of  France,  and  made  its 
use  compulsory,  as  follows :  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Italy,  Roman 
States,  Spain,  Portugal,  Greece,  Mexico,  Chili,  Brazil,  New  Granada, 
and  other  South  American  States.  (To  this  list  the  North  German 
Confederation  may  now  be  added.)  In  Brazil  the  law  will  not  be  en¬ 
forced  until  1873. 

In  Great  Britain,  since  1864,  the  use  of  the  metric  system  has  been 
optional.  There  are  no  less  than  ten  different  systems  of  weights 
authorized  by  the  laws,  and  there  are  about  twenty  different  kinds  of 
the  bushel. 


THE  METRIC  SYSTEM  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  metric-decimal  system  of  France  has  been  legalized  and  its  use 
made  optional  in  the  United  States  since  July  26,  1866,  when  Congress 
enacted  as  follows : 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  of  America  in  Congress  assembled ,  That,  from  and  after  the  passage 
of  this  act,  it  shall  be  lawful  throughout  the  United  States  of  America 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND.  COINS. 


9 


to  employ  the  weights  and  measures  of  the  metric  system;  and  no  con¬ 
tract,  or  dealing,  or  pleading  in  any  court  shall  be  deemed  invalid,  or 
liable  to  objection,  because  the  weights  or  measures  expressed  or  re¬ 
ferred  to  therein  are  weights  or  measures  of  the  metric  system. 

Sec.  2.  And  be  it  further  enacted ,  That  the  tables  in  the  schedule 
hereto  annexed  shall  be  recognized,  in  the  construction  of  contracts, 
and  in  all  legal  proceedings,  as  establishing,  in  terms  of  the  weights 
and  measures  now  in  use  in  the  United  States,  the  equivalents  of  the 
weights  and  measures  expressed  therein  in  terms  of  the  metric  system ; 
and  said  tables  may  be  lawfully  used  for  computing,  determining,  and 
expressing  in  customary  weights  and  measures  the  weights  and 
measures  of  the  metric  system. 


Measures  of  length. 


METRIC  DENOMINATIONS  AND  VALUES. 

EQUIVALENTS  IN  DENOMINATIONS  IN  USE. 

Myriametre . 

10,  000  metres. 
1,000  metres. 

100  metres. 

6.2137  miles. 

Kilometre . 

0.62137  mile,  or  3,280  feet  and  10  inches. 

328  feet  and  1  inch. 

Hectometre . 

Dekametre . 

10  metres. 

393.7  inches. 

Metre . 

1  metre. 

39.37  inches. 

Decimetre . 

Yq  of  a  metre. 

3.937  inches. 

Centimetre . 

of  a  metre. 
TWo  °f  a  metre. 

0.3937  inch. 

Millimetre . 

0.0394  inch. 

Measures  of  surface. 


METRIC  DENOMINATIONS  AND  VALUES. 

EQUIVALENTS  IN  DENOMINATIONS  IN  USE. 

Hectare . 

10, 000  square  metres. 
100  square  metres. 
1  square  metre. 

2.471  acres. 

Are . 

119.6  square  yards. 

1550  square  inches. 

Centare  . 

Measures  of  capacity. 


METRIC  DENOMINATIONS  AND  VALUES. 

EQUIVALENTS  IN  DENOMINATIONS  IN  USE. 

Names. 

No.  of 

litres. 

Cubic  measure. 

Dry  measure. 

Liquid  or  wine 

measure. 

Kilolitre  or  stere. 

Hectolitre . 

Dekalitre . 

Litre . 

Decilitre . 

Centilitre . 

Millilitre . 

1000 

100 

10 

1 

IT) 

ToTT 

twct 

1  cubic  metre . 

IT)  of  a  cubic  metre . 

10  cubic  decimetres . 

1  cubic  decimetre . 

IT)  of  a  cubic  decimetre. . . 

10  cubic  centimetres . 

1  cubic  centimetre . 

1.308  cubic  yard . 

2  bushels  and  3.35 pecks. 

9.08  quarts . 

0.908  quart . 

6.1022  cubic  inches . 

0.6102  cubic  inch . 

0.061  cubic  inch . 

264.17  gallons. 

26.417  gallons. 

2.6417  gallons. 

1.0567  quart. 

0.845  gill. 

0.338  fluid-ounce. 

0.27  fluid-drachm. 

10 


PARIS.  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 
Weights. 


METRIC  DENOMINATIONS  AND  VALUES. 


EQUIVALENTS  IN  DENOM¬ 
INATIONS  IN  USE. 


Names. 


Number  of 

grammes. 

Weight  of  what  quantity  of  water 
at  maximum  density. 

Avoirdupois  weight. 

1000000 

1  cubic  metre . 

2204.6  pounds. 

100000 

1  hectolitre . 

220.46  pounds. 

10000 

10  litres . 

22.046  pounds. 

1000 

1  litre . 

2.2046  pounds. 

100 

1  decilitre . 

3.5274  ounces. 

10 

10  cubic  centimetres . 

0.3527  ounce. 

1 

1  cubic  centimetre . 

15.432  grains. 

A 

Xo  cubic  centimetre . 

1.5432  grain. 

ToU 

10  cubic  millimetres . 

0.1543  grain. 

ToW 

1  cubic  millimetre . 

0.0154  grain. 

Millier  or  tonneau. . 

Quintal . 

Myriagramme . 

Kilogramme  or  kilo 

Hectogramme . 

Dekagramme . 

Gramme . 

Decigramme . 

Centigramme . 

Milligramme . 


The  foregoing  schedule  and  the  enactment  may  be  found  in  the  Be- 
vised  Statutes  of  the  Thirty-ninth  Congress,  first  session,  Chap.  CCCI, 
p.  339.  They  have  also  been  printed  in  the  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Coinage,  Weights  and  Measures,  House  of  Bepresentatives,  Beport  Ho. 
62  ;  in  the  Beport  of  the  Begents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for 
1865,  and  reprinted  in  a  separate  pamphlet  in  1868. 

Professor  H.  A.  Hewton  observes  :  u  The  numbers  are  not  carried  to 
the  highest  degree  of  accuracy,  but  the  amount  of  the  error  in  them  is 
generally  (except  in  some  of  the  smaller  denominations)  less  than  the 
change  due  to  a  difference  of  two  or  three  degrees  of  temperature  of 
the  standard  metre  bar.” 

In  addition  to  the  law  authorizing  the  use  of  the  metric  sys¬ 
tem,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  has  been  directed  (1866)  to  furnish 
to  the  governor  of  each  State  one  set  of  the  standard  weights  and 
measures  of  the  metric  system  for  the  use  of  the  States  respectively ; 
and  further,  the  Postmaster  General  has  been  directed  to  furnish  to  the 
post  offices  exchanging  mails  with  foreign  countries,  and  to  such  other 
offices  as  he  shall  think  expedient,  postal  balances  denominated  in 
grammes,  of  the  metric  system,  and,  until  otherwise  provided  by  law,  one 
half  ounce  avoirdupois  is  to  be  deemed  and  taken  for  postal  purposes  as 
the  equivalent  of  fifteen  grammes  of  the  metric  weights,  and  so  adopted 
in  progression ;  and  the  rates  of  postage  are  to  be  applied  accordingly. 

For  the  details  of  the  movement  for  the  adoption  of  the  metric 
system  in  the  United  States,  and  of  the  advantages  which  would 
attend  this  adoption,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  report  of  the 
Committee  on  Coinage,  Weights  and  Measures,  House  of  Bepresenta¬ 
tives,  Thirty-ninth  Congress,  first  session,  Beport  Ho.  62,  May  17, 1866 $ 
also,  Beport  of  the  Committee  of  the  Hational  Academy  of  Sciences 
upon  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coinage,  and  the  Beport  upon  Weights 
and  Measures  by  the  Hon.  John  Quincy  Adams,  Secretary  of  State, 
1821.  Other  documents  relating  to  the  adoption  of  the  metric  sys- 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


11 


tem  in  this  and  other  countries  are  numerous,  but  among  them  may 
be  cited  particularly  the  Reports,  first  and  second,  of  the  Standards  Com¬ 
mission,  British  Blue-books ;  Rapports  et  Proces-verbaux ,  Comite  des  Poids 
et  Mesures  et  des  Monnaies :  Exposition  Universelle  de  1867,  (already 
cited;)  The  Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures,  with  Tables,  &c., 
prepared  by  Professor  H.  A.  Newton,  of  Yale  College,  published  in 
the  Smithsonian  Report  for  1855.  The  last-mentioned  document  con¬ 
tains  a  very  complete  and  carefully  prepared  series  of  tables  for  the  con¬ 
version  of  quantities  expressed  in  the  metric  system  into  their  equiva¬ 
lents  of  other  systems  in  use  in  the  United  States.  A  few  of  these 
tables  have  been  selected  and  are  here  appended  for  the  convenience  of 
the  readers  of  the  reports  upon  the  Exposition. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  French  orthography  is  retained  through¬ 
out.  This  is  done  for  uniformity,  and  to  avoid  the  word  gram.  The  use 
of  gram  for  gramme  is  a  constant  source  of  error  because  of  the  re¬ 
semblance  of  gram  to  grain,  for  which  last  it  is  constantly  mistaken  by 
authors,  compositors,  proof-readers,  and  readers  generally.  As  they 
are  both  denominations  of  weight  the  substitution  of  one  for  the  other 
is  particularly  liable  to  pass  unobserved  in  reading  proof,  a  difficulty 
which  can  be  avoided  by  using  the  French  form  of  the  word. 

The  French  orthography  should  be  retained  for  the  sake  of  uniformity 
also.  The  metric  system  is  destined  to  be  generally  international.  The 
names  and  orthography  of  all  its  divisions  should  be  equally  so.  For 
this  reason  alone  we  should  refrain  from  anglicizing  the  French  names. 
Examples  of  error  consequent  upon  the  use  of  the  anglicized  form  of  the 
word  gramme  are  to  be  found  in  the  Exposition  reports,  and  in  con¬ 
gressional  documents.  The  editor  regrets  that  the  rule  to  express  all 
the  denominations  of  the  metric  system  in  their  appropriate  French 
names  was  not  adopted  at  the  outset  of  the  publication. 

TABLES  FOR  THE  CONVERSION  OF  METRIC  WEIGHTS  AND  MEAS¬ 
URES  INTO  OTHER  DENOMINATIONS. 

For  the  sake  of  uniformity  of  these  tables  the  metre  is  regarded  as 
39.37  inches,  and  the  kilogramme  as  2.2046  avoirdupois  pounds. 


Scheme  of  the  metric  system. 


Ratios. 

Lengths. 

Surfaces. 

Volumes. 

Weights. 

1000000 

Millier,  or  Tonneau. 
Quintal. 

Myriagramme. 

Kilogramme,  (2.2046  lbs.av.) 

Hectogramme. 

Dekagramme. 

Gramme,  (15.  4322  grains.) 
Decigramme. 

Centigramme. 

Milligramme. 

100000 

10000 

Myriametre . 

Dekastere  . 

1000 

Kilometre . 

Kilolitre,  or  Stere. 
Hectolitre 

100 

Hectometre . 

Hectare,  (2.471  acres.) 

10 

Dekametre . 

Dekalitre 

Metre,  (39. 37  in.)  . . 
Decimetre . 

Are . 

Litre . 

■rim 

Decilitre 

Centimetre . 

Centare  . 

Centilitre  . 

Millimetre . 

TVfillilitre 

12 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Table  for  converting  metres  into  inches . 


Metres. 

0. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

0 

0 

39.4 

78.7 

118.1 

157.5 

196.8 

236.2 

275.6 

315.0 

354.3 

10 

393.7 

433.1 

472.4 

511.8 

551.2 

590.5 

629.9 

669.3 

708.7 

748.0 

20 

787.4 

826.8 

866.1 

905.5 

944.9 

984.2 

1023.  6 

1063.  0 

1102.  4 

1141.  7 

30 

1181. 1 

1220.  5 

1259.  8 

1299.  2 

1338.  6 

1377.  9 

1417.3 

1456.  7 

1496. 1 

1535.  4 

40 

1574.  8 

1614.  2 

1653.  5 

1692.  9 

1732.  3 

1771.  6 

1811.  0 

1850.4 

1889.  8 

1929. 1 

50 

1968.  5 

2007.  9 

2047.  2 

2086.  6 

2126.  0 

2165.  3 

2204.  7 

2244. 1 

2283.  5 

2322.  8 

60 

2362.  2 

2401.  6 

2440.  9 

2480.  3 

2519.  7 

2559.  0 

2598.  4 

2637.  8 

2677.  2 

2716.  5 

70 

2755.  9 

2795.  3 

2834.  6 

2874.  0 

2913.  4 

2952.  7 

2992. 1 

3031.  5 

3070.  9 

3110.  2 

80 

3149.  6 

3189.  0 

3228.  3 

3267.  7 

3307. 1 

3346.  4 

3385.  8 

3425.2 

3464.  6 

3503.  9 

90 

3543.  3 

3582.  7 

3622.  0 

3661.  4 

3700.  8 

3740. 1 

3779.  5 

3818.  9 

3658.  3 

3897.  6 

Table  for  converting  kilogrammes  into  avoirdupois  pounds. 


Kilogrammes. 

0. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

0 

0 

2.205 

4.  409 

6.  614 

8.  818 

11.  023 

13.  228 

15.  432 

17.  637 

19.  841 

10 

22.  046 

24. 251 

26.  455 

28.  660 

30.  864 

33.  069 

35.  274 

37.  478 

39.  683 

41.  887 

20 

44.  092 

46.  297 

48.  501 

50.  706 

52.  910 

55. 115 

57.  320 

59.  524 

61.  729 

63.  933 

30 

66. 138 

68.  343 

70.  547 

72.  752 

74.  956 

77. 161 

79.  366 

81.  570 

83.  775 

85.  979 

40 

88. 184 

90.  389 

92.  593 

94.  798 

97.  002 

99.  207 

101.  412 

103.  616 

105.  821 

108.  025 

50 

110.  230 

112.  435 

114.  639 

116.  844 

119.  048 

121.  253 

123.  458 

125.  662 

127.  867 

130. 071 

60 

132.  276 

134.  481 

136.  685 

138.  890 

141.  094 

143.  299 

145.  504 

147.  708 

149.  913 

152.117 

70 

154.  322 

156.  527 

158.  731 

160.  936 

163. 140 

165.  345 

167.  550 

169.  754 

171.  959 

174.163 

80 

176.  368 

178.  573 

180.  777 

182.  982 

185. 186 

187.  391 

189.  596 

191.  800 

194.  005 

196.209 

90 

198.  414 

200.  619 

202.  823 

205.  028 

207.  232 

209.  437 

211.  642 

213.  846 

216.  051 

218.255 

Table  for  converting  avoirdupois  pounds  into  grammes. 


Pounds. 

0. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8.  ♦ 

9. 

0 

0 

454 

907 

1361 

1814 

2268 

2722 

3175 

3629 

4082 

10 

4536 

4990 

5443 

5897 

6350 

6804 

7258 

7711 

8165 

8618 

20 

9072 

9526 

9979 

10433 

10886 

11340 

11794 

12247 

12701 

13154 

30 

13608 

14062 

14515 

14969 

15422 

15876 

16329 

16783 

17237 

17690 

40 

18144 

18597 

19051 

19505 

19958 

20412 

20865 

21319 

21773 

22226 

50 

22680 

23133 

23587 

24041 

24494 

24948 

25401 

25855 

26309 

26762 

60 

27216 

27669 

28123 

28577 

29030 

29484 

29937 

30391 

30845 

31298 

70 

31752 

32205 

32659 

33113 

33566 

34020 

34473 

34927 

35381 

35834 

80 

36288 

36741 

37195 

37649 

38102 

38556 

39009 

39463 

39917 

40370 

90 

40824 

41277 

41731 

42185 

42638 

43092 

43545 

43999 

44453 

44906 

WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS.  13 


Table  for  converting  troy  ounces  into  grammes. 


Troy 

ounces. 

0. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

0 

0 

31.10 

62.21 

93.  31 

124.  42 

155.  52 

186.  62 

217.73 

248.  83 

279.  93 

10 

311.  04 

342. 14 

373.  25 

404.  35 

435.  45 

466. 56 

497. 66 

528.  76 

559.  87 

590.  97 

20 

622. 08 

653. 18 

684.  28 

715.  39 

746.  49 

777. 59 

808. 70 

839.  80 

870.  91 

902.  01 

30 

933. 11 

964.  22 

995.  32 

1026.  43 

1057. 53 

1088.  63 

1119. 74 

1150.  84 

1181.  94 

1213.  05 

40 

1244. 15 

1275.  26 

1306.  36 

1337.  46 

1368.  57 

1399.  67 

1430.  77 

1461.  88 

1492.  98 

1524.  09 

50 

1555. 19 

1586. 29 

1617.  40 

1648.  50 

1679.60 

1710.  71 

1741.  81 

1772.  92 

1804.  02 

1835. 12 

60 

1866.  23 

1897.  33 

1928.  44 

1959.  54 

1990.  64 

2021.  75 

2052.  85 

2083.  95 

2115.  OS 

2146. 16 

70 

2177.  27 

2208.  37 

2239.  47 

2270.  58 

2301.  68 

2332.  78 

2363.  89 

2394.  99 

2426. 10 

2457.  20 

80 

2488.30. 

2519.  41 

2550.  51 

2581.  62 

2612.  72 

2643. 82 

2674.  93 

2706.  03 

2737. 13 

2768.  24 

90 

2799.  34 

2830.  45 

2861.  55 

2892.  65 

2923.  76 

2954.  86 

2985.  96 

3017.  07 

3048. 17 

3079.  28 

Table  for  converting  grammes  into  grains. 


Grammes. 

0. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

0 

0 

15. 43 

30.  86 

46.  30 

61.  73 

77. 16 

92.59 

108.  03 

123.  46 

138.  89 

10 

154.  32 

169.  75 

185. 19 

200.  62 

216.  05 

231. 48 

246.  92 

262.  35 

277.  78 

293. 21 

20 

308.  64 

324.  08 

339.  51 

354.  94 

370.  37 

385.  81 

401.  24 

416.  67 

432. 10 

447.  53 

30 

462.  97 

478.  40 

493.  83 

509.  26 

524.  69 

540. 13 

555.  56 

570.  99 

586.  42 

601.  80 

40 

617.  29 

632.  72 

648. 15 

663.  58 

679.  02 

694.  45 

709.  88 

725.  31 

740.  75 

756. 18 

50 

771.  61 

787. 04 

802.  47 

817.  91 

833.  34 

848.  77 

864.  20 

879.  64 

895. 07 

910.  50 

60 

925.  93 

941.  36 

956.  80 

972.  23 

987.  66 

1003.  09 

1018.  53 

1033.  96 

1049.  39 

1064.  82 

70 

1080.  25 

1095.  69 

1111. 12 

1126.  55 

1141.  98 

1157.  42 

1172.  85 

1188. 28 

1203.  71 

1219. 14 

80 

1234.  58 

1250.  01 

1265.  44 

1280.  87 

1296.  30 

1311.  74 

1327. 17 

1342.  60 

1358.  03 

1373.  47 

90 

1388.  90 

1404.  33 

1419.  76 

1435. 19 

1450.  63 

1466.  06 

1481.  49 

1496.  92 

1512.  36 

1527.  79 

Table  for  converting  grains  into  grammes. 


Grains. 

0. 

1. 

2, 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

0 

0 

8. 0648 

0. 1296 

0. 1944 

0.  2592 

0.  3240 

0.  3888 

0.  4536 

0.  5184 

0.  5832 

10 

0.  6480 

'  Qti'7128 

0.  7776 

0. 8424 

0.9072 

0.  9720 

1.  0368 

1. 1016 

1. 1664 

1.  2312 

‘20 

1. 2960 

1.  3608 

1.  4256 

1.  4904 

1.  5552 

1.  6200 

1. 6848 

1.  7496 

1.  8144 

1.  8792 

30 

1.  9440 

2.  0088 

2.  0736 

2. 1384 

2.  2032 

2.  2680 

2. 3328 

2.  3976 

2. 4624 

2.  5272 

40 

2.  5920 

2.  6568 

2.  7216 

2.  7864 

2.  8512 

2.  9160 

2.  9808 

3.  0456 

3. 1104 

3. 1752 

50 

3.  2400 

3.  3048 

3.  3696 

3.  4344 

3.  4992 

3.  5640 

3.  6288 

3.  6936 

3.  7584 

3.  8232 

60 

3.  8880 

3.  9528 

4. 0176 

4.  0824 

4. 1472 

4.  2120 

4. 2768 

4.  3416 

4.  4064 

4. 4712 

70 

4.  5360 

4.  6008 

4.  6656 

4.  7304 

4.  7952 

4.  8600 

4.  9248 

4.  9896 

5.  0544 

5. 1192 

80 

5. 1840 

5. 2488 

5.  3136 

5.  3784 

5.  4432 

5.  5080 

5.  5728 

5.  6376 

5.  7024 

5.  7672 

90 

5.  8320 

5.  8968 

5.  9616 

6.  0264 

6. 0912 

6. 1560 

6.  2208 

6.  2856 

6.  3504 

6.  4152 

14 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


TABLES  OF  THE  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS  OF 
VARIOUS  COUNTRIES. 

The  tables  which  follow,  of  the  weights,  measures,  and  coins  in  use  in 
various  countries,  are  taken  from  the  official  report  and  catalogue  of  the 
international  committee,  published  in  the  French  language.  The  notes 
and  explanatory  statements  are  translated,  but  the  French  names,  such 
as  once ,  livre ,  quintal ,  &c.,  of  the  denominations  of  weight  of  other  coun¬ 
tries,  have  been  retained,  though  it  has  not  been  deemed  desirable  to 
give  their  equivalents  in  English. 

In  the  report  of  the  committee  the  value  of  the  principal  unit  of  money 
for  each  country  is  given  in  francs  in  explanatory  notes  at  the  foot  of 
the  page.  To  these  a  statement  of  the  value  in  the  dollar,  gold  stand¬ 
ard  of  the  United  States,  has  been  added.  The  value  of  gold  relatively 
to  silver  has  been  assumed  to  be  as  15|  to  1 ;  and  this  may  account,  in 
some  cases,  for  the  apparent  discrepancy  in  the  values  as  stated  in 
francs  and  in  dollars. 


FRANCE. 


The  metric  system  was  introduced  in  France  by  the  law  of  18  Germi¬ 
nal,  year  III,  but  the  exclusive  use  of  the  new  system  was  not  made 
obligatory  until  the  law  of  the  4th  of  July,  1837,  which  became  executory 
on  the  1st  day  of  January,  1840. 

WEIGHTS. 


Milligramme .  =  0k.000001. 

Centigramme . =  0k.00001. 

Decigramme .  =  0k.0001. 

Gramme .  =  0k.001. 

Decagramme .  =  0k.01. 

Hectogramme . =  0k.l. 

Kilogramme . =  lk  =  weight  in  vacuo  of  one  cubic  decimetre  of 

distilled  water,  at  4°  centigrade. 

Myriagrainme . =  10k. 

Quintal .  =  100k. 

Tonne . =  1000k. 


MEASURES. 


1.  Measures  of  length. 


Millimetre . 

Centimetre . 

Decimetre . 

Metre . 

Decametre . 

Road  measure.. 


. .  =  0“.001. 

. ==  0m.01. 

. =  0m.l. 

. =  lm  =  the  ten-millionth  part  of  the  fourth  part  of 

the  terrestrial  meridian. 

. =  10™. 

Hectometre  ...  =  100™. 

Kilometre . =  1000™. 

Myriametre  ...  =  10QQQ™, 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS.  15 

2.  Measures  of  surface,  (  square  measure.  ) 

Ordinary  measures. 

These  are  the  squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 


Centiare . =  0.01  are. 

Are . =  1  are  =  one  hundred  square  metres. 

Hectare . =  100  ares. 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Ordinary  measures. 

These  are  the  cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Measures  for  wood. 


Centist&re . =  0.01  stere. 

Decist&re . =  0.1  stere. 

Stere . =  1  stere  =  one  cubic  metre. 

D6cast&re . =10  steres. 

Measures  of  capacity. 

Millilitre . =  fl.OOl. 

Centilitre .  =  OhOl. 

Decilitre .  =  0].l. 

Litre . =  l1  =  one  cubic  decimetre. 

Decalitre . =  101. 

Hectolitre . =  1001. 

Kilolitre . =  10001. 


COINS.  (5) 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Value  in 

francs. 

Gold . 

Piece  of  100  francs . 

m 

32. 25806 

100 

Piece  of  50  francs 

10  0  0 

. . .  do _ 

16. 12903 

50 

Piece  of  20  francs 

...  do _ 

6.  45161 

20 

Piece  of  10  francs 

_ do _ 

3.  22580 

10 

Piece  of  5  francs . 

.. .  do _ 

1.61290 

5 

Silver . 

Piece  of  5  francs . 

25 

5 

Piece  of  2  francs . 

iWo 

10 

2 

Piece  of  1  franc . 

_ do _ 

5 

1 

Piece  of  50  centimes . 

. . .  do _ 

2.5 

0.  50 

Piece  of  20  centimes . 

. . .  do _ 

1 

0.  20 

Bronze . 

Piece  of  10  centimes . 

10 

0. 10 

Piece  of  5  centimes . 

5 

0.  05 

Piece  of  2  centimes . 

2 

0.  02 

Piece  of  1  centime . 

1 

0.  01 

(0  According  to  the  regulations  of  the  Monetary  Convention  of  the  23d  of  December,  1865,  concluded 
between  France,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium,  for  the  weights,  fineness,  and  the  values  of  the  coins 
of  gold  and  of  silver.  The  value  of  the  20-franc  gold  piece  in  dollars  (U.  S.)  is  $3.8591 ;  of  the  silver 
5-franc,  $0.9726. 


16 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


NETHERLANDS. 

The  system  of  weights  and  measures  of  Holland  is  the  same  as  the 
metric  system.  The  old  names  only  have  been  retained. 


Korrel . 

Wigtje . 

Loocl . 

Ons . . 

Nederlandsch  pond(1) 
Centnaar  . 


WEIGHTS. 

( grain) . . 

{gramme) . . 

(gros) . 

(once) . 

(livre  neerlandaise) 
( quintal ) . 


=  decigramme. 

=  gramme. 

=  decagramme. 

=  hectogramme. 

=  Kilogramme. 

=  100  kilogrammes. 


MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

Streep 
Duim 
Palm  . 

El  ... 

Roede 

Mijl . . 


( ligne ) .  =  millimetre. 

( pouce ) . =  centimetre. 

(palme) . =  decimetre. 

(i aune ) . =  Metre. 

( perehe ) .  =  decametre. 

=  hectometre. 

(mille) .  =  kilometre. 


2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Vierkante  roede .  (pei'che  carrie) . =  Are. 

TRunder .  (bonnier) . =  hectare. 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 


Dry  measures. 


Vingerhoed 

Maatje  . ( mesurette ).  Maatje _ 

Kop . ( litron ) _ Kan . . 

Schepel . ( boisseau ) . 

Mudde  . ( rasiere ) ...  Vat . 

Scheepston  or  wisse .  ( tonne) . 

Last . ( charge ) . (*) 


Liquids.  Value . 

. . (dd) . =  centilitre. 

. (mesurette)..  =  decilitre. 

. (pot) . =  Litre. 

. =  decalitre. 

. ( baril ). -  =  hectolitre. 

. =  kilolitre. 

. . =30  hectolitres. 


(*)  In  pharmacy  the  Nederlandsch  pond  =  375  grammes,  and  is  divided  into  12  ounces ;  each  ounce 
into  8  drams ;  each  dram  into  3  scruples  ;  and  each  scruple  into  20  grains. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 
COINS.  (0 


17 


Metal. 


Gold 


Silver. 


Billon 


Copper. 


,  Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Value  in 
gulden. 

m 

6. 988 

3.  494 

13.  458 

6.  729 

. do . 

3. 3645 

Rijksdaalder . 

25 

2.5 

Gulden,  (florin) . 

. do . 

10 

1 

Half  gulden,  (i  florin) . 

. do . 

5 

0.  5n 

25  cents,  (Pays-Bas) . 

3.  575 

0. 25 

10  cents,  (Pays-Bas) . 

1.  400 

0. 10 

5  cents,  (Pays-Bas) . 

0.  685 

0.  05 

i  gulden,  (Colonies) . 

m 

3.180 

0.25 

ro  gulden,  (Colonies) . 

1.  250 

0. 10 

^0  gulden,  (Colonies) . 

0.  610 

0.05 

Cent,  (Pays-Bas) . . . 

Pure  copper. 

3.  845 

0.  01 

i  cent,  (Pays-Bas) . 

1.  922 

0.  005 

2£  cents,  (Colonies) . 

. do . 

12.  500 

0.  025 

Cent,  (Colonies) . 

. do . 

4.  800 

0.  01 

i  cent,  (Colonies) . 

. do . 

2.300 

0.  005 

BELGIUM. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

THE  METRIC  SYSTEM. 

COINS.  (2) 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Value  in 

francs. 

Gold . . . 

Piece  of  20  francs . 

JtCLO. 

6.  45161 

20 

Silver 

Piece  of  5  francs . 

1000 

. . .  do _ 

25 

5 

Piece  of  2  francs . 

riftftr 

10 

2 

Piece  of  1  franc . 

. . .  do _ 

5 

1 

Piece  of  50  centimes . . 

. . .  do _ 

2.  5 

0.  50 

Piece  of  20  centimes . 

...do.... 

1 

0.  20 

Nickel . 

Piece  of  20  centimes . . 

0.  20 

Piece  of  10  centimes . 

0. 10 

Piece  of  5  centimes . 

0.  05 

Bronze . 

Piece  of  2  centimes 

0.  02 

Piece  of  1  centime . 

0.01 

(!)  The  gold  coins  are  only  merchandise,  not  being  current.  The  “  William  ”  is  worth  about  10  florins. 
The  florin  =  2.1164  francs,  or  $0.4084. 

(2)  According  to  the  rules  established  by  the  Monetary  Convention  of  the  23d  of  December,  1865,  be¬ 
tween  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland,  for  coins  of  gold  and  of  silver. 

2  W  M  C 


18 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION, 


Zent . 

Quentchen 

Lotli . 

Pfund 

Centner... 

Tonne 


Gran. 

Karat 

Mark 

Gran. 

Loth. 


PRUSSIA. 

WEIGHTS. 

ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 

pfund. 

pfund. 

{quentin) .. 

. —  10  zent . 

-  -  =  'TOO 

(i  once) . . . 

. =10  quentchen  . . 

-  -  =  To 

pfund. 

:  {livre) - 

. —  30  loths . 

..  —500 

grammes. 

{quintal).. 

..  —  100 

pfund. 

{tonne).... 

. —  3  centner . 

. .  =  300 

pfund. 

FOR  PRECIOUS  METALS. 
Gold. 


{grain) . =  of  the  mark. 

{karat) . =  ^4-  of  the  mark. 

{mark)..  =  %  of  the  old  Prussian  pound..  =  233.855  grammes. 

Silver. 

{grain) . ==.  of  the  mark. 

(|  once) . =  of  the  mark. 


PHARMACY. 

Gran . {grain) . 

Skrupel . , .  {scrupule) . —  20  gran . 

Drachme . {drachme) . =  3  skrupel . . 

Unze . {once) . =  8  drachmen 

Pfund . (livre) . =12  unzen  ... 


=  °f  the  pfund . 
=  of  the  pfund. 
=  ^  of  the  pfund. 
=  A  °f  the  pfund. 
=  350.783  grammes. 


MEASURES. 


1.  Measures  of  length. 


In  common  use. 

Linie  ..  .{ligne) . =  ruthe. 

Zoll - {pouce)  =  12  linien  =  ruthe. 

Fuss - {pied)  =  12  zoll  =  -fa  ruthe. 

Elle - {aune)  =  2|- fuss  =  ££  ruthe. 

Faden  ..{toise)  =  6  fuss  =  \  ruthe. 

Ruthe . {perche) 

Meile . {mille)  . 


rota  rut  he 
ihj  ruthe. 
yq-  ruthe- 


=  3.76624  metres. 
=  2000  ruthen. 


In  surveying. 

Decimal  linie . 

Decimal  zoll . . 

Decimal  fuss . . 


2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 

Morgen . {arpent) . . . =180  square  ruthen. 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Solids. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length.  For  measuring  wood  the  klafter  (cord)  is  used. 
This  =  108  cubic  feet  =  3.  3389  cubic  metres. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS.  19 


Dry  measures. 

Metze . ( mesure ) . —  3  viertel . 

Viertel . {quart) . .' . 

Scheffel . ( boisseau ) . =16  metzen 

Tonne . {tonne) . 

Malter . {muid) . =  3  fass  . . . 

Wispel . . . =  2  malter  . 

Last . ( charge ) . 


=  Tg-  sckeffel. 

=  -fa  scheffel. 

=  If  cubic  fuss. 
=  4  scheffel. 

=  12  scheffel. 

24  scheffel. 

=  60  scheffel. 


Liquids. 


For  wines,  brandy,  beer. 


Quart  . 

Anker. . 

. {quart) . 

. .  —  30  quart. 

Eimer . . 

. {seau) . 

. .  —  60  quart. 

Ohm.. .. 

. . {muid) . 

. .  —  120  quart. 

Oxhoft.. 

. .  {muid  et  demi) . . . 

. .  =  180  quart. 

Tonne  ... 

Fass . 

Kufen. . . . 
Gebriiude 


COINS. 


=  64  cubic  zoll. 
=  100  quart. 

=  200  quart. 

=  400  quart. 

=  1800  quart. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
Prussian 
pounds, 
(500  gr.) 

Value  in 

thalers. 

Gold . 1 . . . 

Krone,  (crown) . 

-AA& 

0.  0222 

Halbe  krone . 

1  00  0 

do  . . 

0.  0111 

Silver . 

Doppelte  thaler,  (double  thaler) . 

do 

0. 074074 

2 

Thaler  (0 . . . 

0. 037037 

1 

Sechstel-thaler  stiicke,  (5  gros) . 

Mr 

0.  010684 

i 

Billon . 

Stiicke  von  2£  silbergroschen,  (2J  gros) .... 

Non 

0. 0064412 

tV 

Silbergroschen,  (1  gros) . 

Noo 

0. 0043522 

■30 

Halbe  silbergroschen,  (|  gros) . 

...  do - 

1 

60 

4  pfennig,  (denier) . 

N 

3  pfennig . 

I 

T20 

2  pfennig . 

_ I 

1  8  0 

1  pfennig . 

3TTo 

(0  The  thaler  =  3  fr.  64  c.,  or  $0.7204.  The  crown  =  34  fr.  39  c.,  or  $6.64615. 


20 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


BAVARIA. 

WEIGHTS. 

ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 

Queutchen . ( gros ) . =  . . =  pfund. 

Loth . (^  once ) . =  4  quentchen . =  -^2-  pfund. 

Halber  vierling - (%  quart) . =  4  loth . =  |  pfund. 

Vierling . (quart) . =  2  halbe  vierling .  =  \  pfund. 

Pfund  (l) . (livre) .  —  . =  500  grammes. 

Centner . ( quintal ) . =  . =  100  pfund. 

PHARMACY. 

Gran . (grain) .  =  . : .  =  pfund. 

Skrupel . ( scrupule ) . =  20  gran . . . =  pfund. 

Drachme . =  3  skrupel . 

Loth . . =  4  drachmen . 

Unze . (once) .  =  2  loth . 

Medicinal  pfund  .(livre  medicinale) _ —  12  unzen . 

MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

. . .  =  Ti  4  fuss. 


tfo  pfund. 

^4  pfund. 

A  pfund. 

360  grammes. 


Linie . 

..  ..(ligne)  .... 

Zoll . 

—  (pouce) - 

Fuss  (2). ... 

Elle . 

- (aune) _ 

Klafter  .... 

Ruthe - 

- (perche) . .. 

Meile  (3)  . . 

_ (mille) _ 

=  2  fuss,  10i  zoll,  sub-divided  \  J  ^ 

i>?  TJ)  s!4* 


3  equator  =  25421.6  fuss. 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 

Tagewerk  (4) . .(journal) . =40000  fuss  square,  (decimal  divisions.) 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Solids. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length.  (5) 

Dry  measures. 

Maas . (mesure) . . =  metze. 

£  metze . =  1  viertel. 

A  metze . =  1  maasel. 

A  metze . =  1  dreissiger. 

^4  metze . =  1  half -dreissiger. 


Metze . (minot)  .  .subdivided  into 

Scheffel . Cboisseau) .  . 


=  6  metzen. 


.  (0  The  pfund  (livre  or  pound)  of  500  grammes  is  the  pound  of  the  Zollverein.  The  commercial  pound  = 
560  grammes. 

(a)  The  fuss  (foot)  =  0.  291859172  metre  at  the  temperature  of  +13°  R.  Engineers  and  architects  divide 
he  foot  decimally. 

(3)  The  meile  =  7419. 50  metres. 

(4)  The  tagewerk  =  34.  0727  ares. 

(s)  The  cubic  foot  =  0.  024861  cubic  metre.  For  wood  they  use  the  klafter  (cord)  =  126  cubic  feet 
3. 1325  cubic  metres. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


21 


Liquid  measures. 

Maas . ( mesure ) - =43  cubic  feet. 

Eimer . ( seau ) . =64  masts  (legal)  =  60  maas  (commercial)  for  certain  liquids. 


COINS.  0) 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Value  in 
florins. 

Gold . 

Krone,  (crown) . 

...do.... 

11. 11111 

16 

TTaTho  krone,  (half-crown) _ _ 

5.  555556 

8 

Silver . 

Vereins  2-thaler  stiicke,  (piece  of  2  thalers) . 

...  do.... 

37.  037037 

n 

2 

Vereins  thaler . 

_ do _ 

18.  518519 

2-gulden  stiicke,  (piece  of  2  florins) . 

...  do _ 

21. 164021 

Gulden,  (2)  (florin) . 

_ do _ 

10.  582011 

1 

J-gulden  stiicke,  (half-florin) 

. . .  do _ 

5.  291005 

i 

Viertel  gulden . 

m. 

4.  578758 

i. 

Billon  . 

6-kreutzer  stiicke . 

2.  463054 

V 

3-kreutzer  stiicke . 

1.  231527 

A 

-i- 

1-kreutzer  stiicke . 

0.  841751 

Bronze . 

Zwei  pfennige,  (2  pf.) . 

2.500 

60 

ihr 

YTo 

Pfennig . 

1.250 

Heller . 

6.  625 

WURTEMBERG. 

Since  tlie  year  1806  Wurtemberg  lias  had  a  uniform  and  well-defined 
system  of  weights  and  measures.  At  that  date  the  standards  were  se¬ 
lected  very  nearly  equal  to  the  old  measures  in  use  before  that  time. 
A  law  of  1859,  in  force  in  1860,  introduced  the  Zollverein  pound  of  500 
grammes  as  the  unit  of  weight,  and  made  its  use  obligatory  in  com¬ 
merce  for  the  greater  portion  of  merchandise. 

WEIGHTS. 


Richtfennig 
Quentchen  . 

Loth . 

Pfund  (3)_. 

Centner 


ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 


(gros) . =  4  richtfennig. 

(^  once) . =  4  quentchen.. 

( livre ) .  =32  loth . 


( quintal ) 


=  rhr  pfund. 

=  pfund. 

=  A  pfund. 

=  500  grammes. 
=  100  pfund. 


SPECIAL  WEIGHTS. 

Precious  metals. 

Mark  (4) . (marc) .  =  233.855  grammes' 

Pharmacy. 

Medicinal  Pfund  (livre) . =  357.6337  grammes. (*) 


(*)  Since  the  Monetary  Convention  of  the  24th  of  January,  1857,  the  fineness  and  the  weights  of  the 
pieces  of  gold  and  silver  have  been  the  same  in  all  the  states  of  Southern  Germany. 

(2)  The  florin  =  2  fr.  13  c.,  or  $0.4117. 

(3)  The  Zollverein  pound.  The  division  into  grammes  is  optional.  It  is  used  for  weighing  coin. 

(4)  The  mark  is  divided  for  weighing  gold  into  24  carats  of  12  grains,  and  for  silver  into  16  carats  of  18 
grains. 


22 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

Tory  fuss, 
xo  fuss. 
1  fuss* 
2.144  fuss. 

10  fuss. 
2600  fuss. 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 


Linie . s.(ligne) . 

Zoll . ( pouce ) . =  10  linien . : _ 

Fuss  0) . (pied) . =  10  zoll . 

Elle . (aune) . (Divisions  £,  -j1^) 

Ruthe . (perche) . 

Meile . (mille). .  =  260  ruthen . 


Morgen - (journal) - =  38400  square  fuss.  (Divisions :  i  morgen  and  i  morgen.) 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Dry  materials.  (2) 

Ecklein . =  ^  simri. 

Vierling . (quarteron) .  =  8  ecklein _ _  =  J  simri. 

Simri  (3) . . . =4  vierling . =  942£  cubic  zoll. 

Scheffel . (ioisseau) . =  8  simri. 


Liquids. 

Schoppen ......  (chopine) . 

Maas  (4) . (mesure) . =  4  schoppen 

Imi . 

Eimer  ..: . (seau) . . . =  16  imi . 

Fuder . (foudre) . =  6  eimer  — 


=  i  mass. 

=  78£  cubic  zoll. 
=  10  maas. 

=  160  maas. 

=  960  maas. 


(!)  The  fuss  of  Wurtemberg  =  0. 2864903  metre. 

(2)  There  are  other  measures  of  volume :  For  fire-wood,  the  Idafter,  (cord,)  of  which  the  three  dimen¬ 
sions  are  6,  6,  and  4  feet  of  0. 2864903  metre,  and  the  volume  144  cubic  feet ;  for  hay  and  straw  the 
measure  of  512  cubic  feet;  for  sand,  8  eight  cubic  feet ;  for  lime,  3.960  cubic  feex ;  for  coal,  20  cubic  feet, 
&c. 

(3)  The  simri  =  22.1533  litres. 

(4)  This  maas  is  the  Hellaichmaas ;  it  equals  78|  cubic  inches  =  1.837  litre.  There  is  also  the  Triib- 
aichmaas,  which  is  7-160  greater;  and  the  Schenkmaas,  which  is  1-10  smaller  than  the  Hellaichmaas. 


23 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 
COINS.  0) 


Metal. 


German  names. 


Fineness. 


Value  in 
florins. 


Gold.. 

Silver. 


Billon 


Copper 


Vierfache  jubilaums  dukaten .  {quadruple  ducat  du  jubile). 

Dukaten . (ducat) . 

Doppelte  vereins  thaler . (double  V.  thaler) . 

2- gulden  stiicke . (double  florin) . 

Vereins  thaler . (F.  thaler) . 

Gulden . , . (florin) . 

^-gulden  stiicke . (\  florin) . 

6-kreutzer  stiicke . ( piece  of  6  Tcreutzer) . 

3- kreutzer  stiicke . (piece  of  3  Tcreutzer) . 

1-kreutzer  stiicke . (piece  of  1  Tcreutzer) . 

i-kreutzer  stiicke . (£  Tcreutzer) . 

i-kreutzer  stiicke . (I  Tcreutzer) . 


t(Mj 

...do*... 

is(f(Fo 

...do  . 
...do  . 
...do  . 
...do  . 

333  1 
1000 

...do  . 


23 
5J 
3  i 
2 

11 

1 

i 

fa 

fa 

To 

T-hr 

faro 


Riclittheile 
Granchen  . 

Gran . 

Karat . 

Pfennig  . . . 
Quentchen 

Loth . 

Unze . 

Vierling.... 

Mark . 

As . 

Dekas . 

Centas  .... 
Zehntlinge 
Pfun1>(2)  . 

Stein . . 

Centner... . 


Gran . 

Skrupel . 

Drachme . . 

Unze  . 

Medicinal  Pfund 


BADEN. 


WEIGHTS. 


ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 


.(trait) . 

(petit  grain) . . .  =  4  richttheile  . . 

.  (grain) . .  =4  granchen - 

— . =4  grans . 

.  (denier) . =4  karat . 

.  =  4  pfennig . 

.  (-£  once) . =  4  quentchen  . . 

.(once) .  =  2  loth . 

(quart) .  =4  unze . 

(marc) . =2  yierling  - - 


(lime)  .. 
.(pierre)  . 
(quintal) 


—  TiriW  pftmd. 
=  wfoir  pfund. 
=  rfaz  pfund. 
=  fars  pfund. 
=  rhr  pfund. 

—  xk  pfund. 

===  fa  pfund. 
=  fa  pfund. 
=  \  pfund. 

=  \  pfund. 

=  i  o  o  o  o  pfund. 
=  two  pfund. 
=  ihr  pfund. 
=  -ro  pfund. 
=  500  grammes. 
==  10  pfund. 

=  100  pfund. 


PHARMACY. 


.(grain) . 

(scrupule) - 

.  (drachme)  _ 

(once) . 

.(livre) . 


. =  s  7V0  pfund. 

=  20  gran . =  fag  pfund. 

=  3  skrupel  ...  =  fa  pfund. 

=  8  drachmen  .  =  fa  pfund. 

=  12  unzen _ =  f  zollpfund. 


0)  System  of  the  Monetary  Convention  of  the  24th  of  January,  1857,  concluded  between  the  states  of 
Southern  Germany.  The  zwei-gulden  stiicke  =  $0.8252. 

(a  The  pound  of  the  Zollverein,  called  the  zoll-pfund. 


24 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Punkt . 

Linie . 

Zoll . 

FussO)..  v 

Elle . ’. 

Klafter .... 

Rutlie . 

TVegstunde 
Meile . 


MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

■  -  -  =  ToVo  ftLSS. 

=  lW  ftlSS. 

...  =  ~iq  fuss. 
...  =  1  fuss. 
...  =  2  fuss. 
...  =  6  fuss. 
...  =  10  fuss. 
14814. 8148  fuss. 
29629. 6296  fuss. 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 


( point ) . •. 

( ligne ) . =  10  punkte 

(jponce) .  =  10  linien. 

.  (pied) . . .  =10  zoll . . . 

(aune) . =  2  fuss . . . 

(toise) . =  3  ellen  .. 


(perclie) 
(lieue)  .. 
(mille) . . 


Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  tlie  measures  of  length.  (2) 

LAND  MEASURES. 

Morgen(3). . (journal) . =  400  square  perches,  (subdivided  into  4  parts.) 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Solids. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. (4) 


Becher . 

Messlein(5)  . .  - 

Sester . 

Malter . 

Zuber . 

Dry  measures. 

...(goielet) . . 

...( petite  mesure) . . . 

...(setter) . . 

...(muid) . —  10  sester . . 

. . .  (tonneau) . —  10  malter . . 

. —  1  messlein. 

. —  100  messlein. 

Glas . 

Maas  (6) . 

Stiitze . 

Ohm . 

Fuder . 

Liquids. 

. . .  (verre) . . 

...(mesure)' . 

. . .  (muid) . —  10  stiitzen . 

. . .  (foudre) . —  10  ohm . 

.  —  yq-  maas. 

. =1,000  maas 

COINS.  (7) 

Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Value  in 

florins. 

Silver . . . 

Vereins  thaler  .. 

_ do _ 

H 

1 

Gulden,  (florin) . 

^-gulden  stiicke . . . 

_ do .... 

h 

■2HT 

6^ 

rio 

Billon . 

3-kreutzer  stiicke,  (piece  of  3  kreutzer) 

Brpnze . 

Kreutzer . 

i-kreutzer,  (J  kreutzer) . 

(')  The  foot  of  Baden  —  0. 30  centimetre. 

(2)  The  square  foot  =  0. 09  square  metre. 

(3)  The  morgen  =  36  ares. 

(4)  The  cubic  foot  =  0.  027  cubic  metre.  For  wood,  the  klafter  ( corde )  =  3. 888  stores. 

(s)  The  messlein  =  1.5  litre. 

(6)  The  maas  =  1.5  litre. 

(7)  Monetary  Convention  of  the  24th  January,  1857,  between  the  states  of  Southern  Germany.  The 
gulden  =  $0.4117. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 

HESSE. 


25 


WEIGHTS. 


ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 

Quentchen . 

Loth . 

Pfund  (x) . . 

Centner  . 

. (gros) . 

. ( demi-once ) . 

. ( livre ) _ 

. (quintal).. . 

. —  32  loth . . 

- —  ^  pfund. 

_ —  100  pfund. 

MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

Linie . ( ligne ) . 

Zoll . ( pouce ) . =  10  linien _ 

Fuss  (2) . (pied)  =  10  zoll . 

Elle . (aune) . 

Klafter . .  ( toise ) . . . . 

Wegstunde . (lieue) . =  2000  klafter 

Meile . (mille) . =  3000  klafter 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Oi'dinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  lengtk.(3) 


roo  fuss. 
ro  fuss. 
1  fuss. 
2f  fuss. 
10  fuss. 
20000  fuss. 
30000  fuss. 


Land  measures. 

Morgen  (4) . . . ( journal ) . =  400  square  klafter,  divided  into  four  parts. 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Solids. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. (5) 


Dry  measures. 


Masschen  (6) . 

Gescheid . 

Kumpf . 

Simmer . 

Malter . 

. .  ( petite  mesure) _ 

..(ecuelle) . 

..(muid) . 

—  —  4  gescheid . —  16  masschen. 

. . .  — A  kumpf . —  64  masschen. 

. ..  —  4  simmer . —  256  masschen. 

Schoppen  (7) . 

Mass . 

Yiertel . 

Ohm . 

. .  Cchopike) . 

..(mesure) . . 

Liquids. 

_ —  4  mass . —  16  schoppen. 

. . .  —  20  viertel . —  320  schoppen. 

(0  Pound  of  the  Zoll verein.  (2)  The  foot  =  0.25  metre. 

(3)  The  square  foot  =  0.0625  square  metre.  (4)  The  morgen  =  25  ares. 

(6)  The  cubic  foot  =  0.015625  cubic  metre ;  for  wood  the  stecken  =  100  cubic  feet  =  1.5625  cubic 
metre ;  for  lime  the  kalkbutte  =  10  cubic  feet  =  0.156  cubic  metre. 

(6)  The  masschen  =  £  litre.  (?)  The  schoppen  =  ±  litre. 

(7)  The  schoppen  =  %  litre. 


26 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


COINS. 0) 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Yalue  in 
florins. 

Silver 

Yerins  2-thaler  stiicke,  (piece  of  2  thaler) . 

Aioa. 

3J 

2-gulden  stiicke,  (piece  of  2  florins) . . . . 

TO  00 

2 

Yereins  thaler . 

If 

Gulden,  (florin) . . . 

1 

1-gulden  strike,  (1  florin) . 

...  do  . 

1 

Billon 

6-kreutzer  stiicke . 

A_ 

3-kreutzer  stiicke . 

lff 

1-kreutzer  stiicke . 

fa 

1 

Copper _ 

1  pfennig . 

W 

*40 

AUSTRIA. 

WEIGHTS. 


ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 


Quentchen . 

----  (9ros) . 

. —  4  pfennig . —  pfund. 

Loth . 

. —  4  quentchen - =  fa  pfund. 

Pfund  (1 2) . 

_  (livre) . 

. —  32  loth. 

Stein . . 

.  (pierre) . 

Centner . 

.  (quintal) . . 

. —  100  pfund. 

Liigel . 

Saum . 

. .  —  250  pfund  (for  the  steel  of  Styria.) 

Saum . . . 

. —  275  pfund. 

Karch . 

. —  400  pfund. 

Last . . 

.  (charge). . 

Last . 

-  (charge) . 

.  —  40000  pfund  (ordniary.) 

Pfennig... 

Quentchen 

Lotli . 

Mark _ 

Karat  .... 


Gran . 

Skrupel  .. 
Drachme  . 

Unze . 

Pfund  (3) 


PRECIOUS  METALS. 

(grain)  . (subdiv.  of  the  pfennig  I)  =  mark. 

(gros) . =  4  pfennig .  =  mark. 

(\-once) . =  4  quentchen . =  mark. 

(marc) . =  280.644  grammes. 

. .  =  0.206085  grammes  divided  into  i,  yg>  fa,  fa  (for  jewels.) 

PHARMACY. 

(grain) . =  5^  pfund. 

(scrupule) . =20  gran . =  pfund. 

(drachme)  .... _ =  3  skrupel . =  fa  pfund. 

(once) . =  8  drachmen . =  -A  pfund. 

.(livre) . =12  unzen . =  24  loth. 


(1)  Monetary  Convention  of  January  24, 1857,  concluded  between  the  states  of  Southern  Germany. 

(2)  The  Austrian  pound  ==  56.012  grammes;  but  in  the  customs  and  in  the  collection  of  taxes  and 
for  coins,  they  make  use  of  the  pound  of  the  Zollverein  of  500  grammes,  divided  decimally  in  0.500,  0.200, 
0.100,  0.050,  0.020,  0.005,  0.002,  and  0.001. 

(3)  The  pound  of  pharmacy  =  420.009  grammes. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 
MEASURES. 


27 


1.  Measures  of  length. 

Punkt . . . 

Linie.- . ( ligne ) . 

Zoll . . ( pouce ) . 

FussO) . ( pied ) . . 

Elle . ( aune ) . 

Klafter . ( toise ) . 

Decimal-linie . . 

Decimal-zoll . 

Decimal-fuss . . 

Ruthe . ( perche ) . 

Meile . ( mille ) . 


=  irnrg  fuss. 
=  T-|y  fuss. 
=  fuss. 

=  1  fuss. 

==  2.465  fuss. 
=  6  fuss. 

=  Totro  ruthe. 
=  t^o  rutlie. 
=  ruthe. 

=  12  fuss. 
=  24000  fuss. 


2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length.  (3) 

\ 

Land  measures. 


Metzen . '  =  £  jocli. 

Joch  (3) . =  57600  square  fuss. 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 
Solids. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length.  (4) 


Dry  measures. 

Becher . . 

Kleines  massel . 

Grosses  massel . 

Halbachtel,  miiller  massel . 

Achtel . 

Viertel . 

Halbe  metzen . 

Metzen . ( minot ) . 

Muth  . ( muid ) . 


===  metzen. 

—  ^4  metzen. 

=  ^2  metzen. 

=  ys  metzen. 

=  ^  metzen. 

=  \  metzen. 

=  %  metzen. 

=  1.9471  cubic  foot. 
=  30  metzen. 


Seidel . 

Gross-seidel 
Halbe  maas 

Maas . 

Elmer  (6)  .. 

Fass . 

Dreiling 
Fuder . . 


Liquids. 

( chopine ) . eimer. 

(grande  chopine) .. .  =  1^  seidel . 

(£  mesure ) . =4  seidel . =  -^o  eimer. 

( mesure ) . =  2  halbe  maas . —  eimer. 

( seau ) . =40  maas . =  1.792  cubic  feet. 

( tonneau ) . =10  eimer  (for  wine)..  =  2  eimer,  (for  beef.) 

. =24  eimer. 

(foudre) . =32  eimer. 


0)  The  Austrian  foot  =  0.316111  metre. 

(2)  The  square  foot  ==  0.099926  square  metre. 

(3)  The  joch  =  57.5545  ares. 

(4)  The  cubic  foot  =  0.031588  cubic  metre.  For  coke  and  coal  they  use  the  stubich  =  2  metzen ;  for 
lime,  the  kalk-miithel  =  2 J  metzen ;  for  wood,  the  cord  =  §  kubic-klafter. 

(fi)  The  eimer  =  56.60524  litres. 


28 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


COINS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in  Aus¬ 
trian  pounds  of 
500  grammes. 

Value  in  gul¬ 
den,  (florins.) 

Gold . 

9j8jU/> 

.  do . 

Krone  (*)  (couronne)  . . . 

9  00 

1000 

0. 0222 

Halbe  kron©  (J-couronn©) 

.  do . 

0.  0111 

Silver. 

Maria-Theresien  thaler _ _ _ _ _ 

Wo¥ 

3-gulden  stiicke . 

tW(I 

0.  74 

3 

V  ereinsthaler 

0.  037 

14 

2-°,ulden  stiicke 

. do . 

0.  049 

2 

Gulden  (2)  (florin) 

0.  024 

1 

Billon.... 

4-gulden  stiicke,  (4  florin) . 

0.  010 

0.25 

10-kreutzer  stiicke,  (piece  of  lOkreutzer) . . . 

m 

0.  004 

0. 10 

5-kreutzer  stiicke,  (piece  of  5  kreutzer) _ 

lW<7 

0.  002 

0.  05 

Bronze . . . 

4-kreutzer  stiicke,  (piece  of  4  kreutzer) _ 

0.  026 

0. 04 

Kreutzer . 

0.  006 

0.01 

4-kreutzer  stiicke,  (4  kreutzer) . 

0.  003 

0.005 

SWITZERLAND. 

In  consequence  of  the  law  of  the  23d  of  March,  1851,  in  force  since 
the  31st  of  December,  1856,  Switzerland  has  had  a  single  system  of 
weights  and  measures  replacing  the  multiplicity  of  the  old  systems. 

WEIGHTS. 


ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 


Loth  =  A  livre. 
Once  =  livre. 

-g  livre. 
1  livre. 
y  livre. 


Milligramme. 
Centigramme. 
Gramme. 
Hectogramme. 


Livre  =  500  grammes. 
Quintal  —  100  livres. 


Grain . . . 
Scruj)ule 
Drachme 
Once .... 
Livre  .. 


Trait 

Ligne 

Pouce 


PHARMACY. 

. =  livre. 

=  20  grains . =  yst  livre. 

=  3  scrupules . =  ^  livre. 

=  8  drachmes . =  A  livre. 

=  £  of  the  ordinary  livre . ==  375  grammes  —  12  onces 

MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

. =  xtW  pied,  (foot.) 

=  10  traits . =  pied. 

=  10  lignes . =  -fa 


(!)  The  crown  =  34  fr.  44c.,  or  $6.  6462.  (2)  The  florin  =  2  fr.  47c.,  or  $0.  4803. 


Pied  .. 
Brache 
Aune . . 
Toise  . . 
Perch© 
Lieue  . 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS,  29 

=  10  pouces . =  30  centimetres. 

. . =  2  pieds. 

=  2  braches . =  4  pieds. 

=  3  aunes . =  6  pieds. 


—  10  pieds. 
=  16, 000  pieds. 


2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 

Arpent . =  400  pieds  square. 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 
Solids. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length.  (x) 


Dry  measures. 

Emine  .  A . =  -fa  quarteron. 

Quarteron,  (2)  (boisseau)  =  volume  of  30  livres  of  water  distilled  at  4°  C.  =  cubic  pied. 
Sac . =10  quarterons. 

Liquids. 

Pot  (3) . =  volume  of  3  livres  of  water  distilled  at  4°  C.  =  ts-  cubic  pied. 

Setier . =25  pots. 

Muid . =100  pots. 


COINS. 

System  of  the  Monetary  Convention  of  the  23d  December,  1865.  Gold  pieces  are  not 
coined  in  Switzerland.  The  pieces  of  2  francs  and  of  1  franc,  issued  in  Switzerland  in 
accordance  with  the  law  of  the  31st  January,  1860,  are  to  be  current  until  the  1st  of 
January,  1868. 


(x)  For  measuring  firewood  the  toise  moule  is  used.  This  is  the  volume  of  a  solid  having  for  its'  ante¬ 
rior  and  posterior  faces  the  area  of  a  square  toise.  It  is  left  to  the  cantons  to  decide  upon  the  length  of 
the  sticks,  but  it  must  be  expressed  in  legal  measures. 

(2)  The  quarteron  =  15  litres.  It  is  divided  in  practice  in  1-4  and  1*16  quarteron.  There  are  also 
double  quarterons. 

(3)  The  pot  =  1.50  litre.  It  is  divided  into  J  pot. 


so 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


SPAIN. 

The  metric  system  has  been  legally  adopted  in  all  its  modifications 
since  the  1st  of  January,  1859.  The  denominations  of  the  system  have 
only  received  the  Spanish  terminations  u  metro,”  “litro,”  &c. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

THE  METRIC  SYSTEM. 

COINS.p) 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

W  eight  in 
grammes. 

Value  in 

escudos. 

r  8. 3870 

10 

(jO]^  _  _ _ 

Doblon . 

m  ■ 

•j  3. 3548 

4 

[  1. 6774 

2 

fsilvPT  . . 

Duro . 

25.  960 

2 

Escudo  (2)  ...... _ _ _ 

. do _ 

12.  980 

1 

Peseta . 

5.192 

0.  40 

Merlin,  peseta,  . . . . . 

. do _ 

2.  596 

0.20 

Real  . 

. do _ 

1.  298 

0. 10 

Bronze  (3) . 

Medio  real 

12.  500 

0.  05 

Cuartilla . . . 

6.  250 

0.025 

Decima . 

2.500 

0.010 

Media  decima . 

1.  250 

0.  005 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Value  in 

escudos. 

f  4 

Gold . 

Doblon . 

T&oV 

i  2 

l  1 

Silver . 

50  cenr^simos . .  . 

0.  50 

20  cent^simos . . 

j  000 

_ _ do _ 

0.  20 

10  cent6simos . . 

0. 10 

DENMARK. 

WEIGHTS. 

Ort . -...(denier)  . 

Quint . ( gro8 ) . . . 

Pund  (4) . (livre)  .. 

Centner . ( quintal ) 


(*)  The  monetary  system  established  by  the  law  of  June  26, 1864.  It  has  the  double  standard,  the  rela¬ 
tion  of  the  value  of  gold  to  that  of  silver  being  15.476. 

(2)  The  escud  =  2.631  fr.,  or  $0.504975.  (3)  95  copper,  4  tin,  1  zinc. 

(4)  The  pound  of  500  grammes  was  introduced  in  1852. 


ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 


. =  toW  pund. 

=  10  ort . =  pund. 

=  100  ort . =  500  grammes. 

. .  100  pund. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


31 


PRECIOUS  METALS. 

Ort . ( denier ) . 

Quintiii . (gros) . ===  4  ort . 

Lod . (i  once ) . =  4  quintin - 

Mark . (marc) . =16  lod . 

PHARMACY. 


60  gran . 

8  drachmen . 

12  unzen . 

MEASUKES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

Linie . ( ligne ) . 

Tomme  . .  * . ( pouce ) . =  12  linien. . 

Fod  (2) . (pied) . =12  tomme . . . 

Alen . (anne) . 

Favn . (toise) . =3  alen . 

Rode . ( perche ) . =5  alen . 

Miil . (mille) . .  =  12000  alen. . 


Gran . (grain)  . . 

Draclime . (drachme) 

Unze . (once) - 

Pund (x) . (livre)  ... 


=  ^  mark. 

=  -fe  mark. 

=  mark. 

=  233. 855  grammes. 


=  ttW  pund. 

=  TjV  pnnd. 

=  Yg-  pund. 

=  375  grammes. 


...  = 

. .  =  T2-*-  fod. 
=  1  fod. 

=  2  fod. 

=  6  fod. 

=  10  fod. 

=  24000  fod. 


2.  Measures  of  surface. 


Ordinary  measures. 
Squares  of  tlie  measures  of  length. 


Tondeland  . . . .  (arpent) 


Land  measures. 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 
Ordinary  measures. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Dry  measures. 

T6nde  (3). _ (tonneau) . =  144  pots . 

£  tonde . (|  tonneau) . . . 

i  tonde . 

Skjceppe . 

£  skj  ceppe . =2  fj  erdingkar 

Fjerdingkar . =2  ottingkar  . 

£  fjerdingkar . 

Halvotting . 


=  14000  square  alen. 


=4.50  cubic  fod. 
=  £  tonde. 

=  £  tonde. 

=  £  tonde. 

=  Yg-  tonde. 

=  tonde. 

=  ^  tonde. 

=  yyb  tonde. 


Pcegel. 
Pot  (4) 
Kande . 
Tonde 

Anker . 


(pot) . 

(tonneau)  .. 
(ancre  a,  vin) 


Liquids. 

. —  i  pot. 

. =  cubic  fod. 

. =  2  pots. 

. =  4.25  cubic  fod,  (tonde  of  beer.) 

=  120  pot,  (tonde  of  tar.) 
. =39  pots. 


(0  The  pound  of  pharmacy  is  |  of  the  commercial  pound. 

(2)  The  Danish  fod  (foot)  =  0.3139  metre. 

(3)  For  coal  and  charcoal,  the  tonde  —  5. 5  cubic  feet. 

(4)  The  pot  =  0.  966  litre. 


32 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


COINS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Value  in 
rigsdaler. 

Gold 

Dobbelt  Christian  d’or . 

_ do _ 

14f 

7i 

4fi 

2 

1 

i 

& 

Species  ducat . 

t m 

_ _ do  . . 

Dobbelt  daler . . 

Silver  liillon 

Rigsdaler  0) . 

Halvdaler . 

_ do 

Mark . 

A0  0- 
1000 

do 

20  cents . .. . 

Rrnnze  . . . 

10  cents  . 

5  cents  . 

.  do 

3  cents  . 

_ do  . 

4  skilling . 

■m 

Skilling . 

ITT 

"sV 

§  skilling . . 

Cent . 

SWEDEN. 


The  ordinances  of  January  31,  1853,  and  of  November  10,  1865,  pre¬ 
scribe  the  use  of  the  decimal  system  based  upon  the  old  units. 


WEIGHTS. 


ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 

Korn  . ( grain ) . =  TTroiro  skalpund. 

Ort . =  100  korns . =  skalpund. 

Skalpund (3) . ( livre )  ...  =  100  orts . =  of  tlie  weight  of  a  cubic 

foot  of  distilled  water 
at  150°  C. 

Centner . ( quintal )  .  =  100  skalpund . =  100  skalpunds. 

Last . ( nylast )  ..  =  100  quintaux . =  10000  skalpunds. 

There  also  exist  the  weights : 

1,  2,  10,  20,  50  korns. 

1,  2,  10,  20,  50  orts. 

1,  2,  10,  20,  50  skalpunds. 


PHARMACY. 
0. 10  korn. 
0. 20  korn. 
0. 50  korn. (*) 


POSTAL. 
1. 5  ort. 
3. 0  orts. 


(*)  The  rigsdaler  is  worth  2  fr.  85  c.,  or  $0,5463.  The  division  into  hundredths  is  customary  in  the 
colonies  only. 

(2)  The  skalpund  =  0.42354  gramme. 


33 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 
MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 


Linie  .... 

- =  TO'O  fot. 

Turn  .  . . . 

- —  tV  fot. 

Fot(!)  ... 

_ —  10  turn . 

—  —  s  airWs  length  of  a  pen- 

dulum  beating  sec¬ 
onds  at  Stockholm. 

Stang  . . . 

....  —  10  fot. 

Ref . 

. . .  ( corde ) . . 

....  —100  fot. 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 


Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 


Ref,  square . =  10000  square  fot. 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Dry  measures. 


10  cubic  turns  . . Toir  cubic  fot. 

20  cubic  turns .  cubic  fot. 

50  cubic  turns .  cubic  fot. 

1  kann  =  100  cubic  turns .  ^  cubic  fot. 

2  kann  =  2Q0  cubic  turns .  £  cubic  fot. 

3  kann  =  300  cubic  turns .  -fo  cubic  fot. 

5  kann  ==  500  cubic  turns .  \  cubic  fot. 

1  cubic  Fot  (*) .  1  cubic  fot. 

2  cubic  fot  . .  2  cubic  fot. 

3  cubic  fot .  3  cubic  fot. 

5  cubic  fot .  5  cubic  fot. 


Liquids. 

1  cubic  turn . 

2  cubic  turn . . . 

5  cubic  turn . 

10  cubic  turn . 

20  cubic  turn . 

50  cubic  turn . . 

1  kann  . 

2  kann  . 

5  kann  . 

1  6UBIC  Fot  =  10  kann . 


(>)  The  fot  (foot)  =  0.2969  metre. 

3  W  M  C 


==  two  cubic  fot. 
=  3-^7  cubic  fot. 
=  cubic  fot. 
=  yjj-jj-  cubic  fot. 
=  -gV  cubic  fot. 
=  cubic  fot. 
=  fo  cubic  fot. 
=  £  cubic  fot. 

=  \  cubic  fot. 

=  1  cubic  fot. 


(2)  The  cubic  fot  (cubic  foot)  =  26.17188  litres. 


34 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


COINS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Value. 

Gold 

m 

_ do . 

4  ducat. 

2  ducat. 

1  ducat. 

4  riksdaler. 

2  riksdaler. 

1  riksdaler. 

0.  50  riksdaler. 

0. 25  riksdaler. 

0. 10  riksdaler. 

0. 05  riksdaler. 

0.02  riksdaler. 

0.  01  riksdaler. 

0.  005  riksdaler. 

Silver 

2  ducat . . . . . 

1  ducat  p) . 

.  .  do . 

3.482 

4  riksdaler . 

Bronze . 

2  riksdaler . 

1  riksdaler  (2) . 

33.  925 

0.50  riksdaler . 

do  . . . 

0.25  riksdaler . 

_ do 

0.10  riksdaler . 

_ _ do . 

0.05  riksdaler . 

0.02  riksdaler . 

Ore . 

£  ore . 

% 

NORWAY. 

The  following  are  according  to  the  law  of  July  28,  1824 : 

WEIGHTS. 

ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 


Gran . 

Es . 

Ort . 

Qvintin . . 

Lod,  (half-ounce) 

Mark . 

Pund,  (3)  (pound) 

Bismerpund . 

Lispund . . 

Yog . 

Skippund . 


=  iriW  pund. 
=  inW  pund. 
=  3T¥  pund. 

=  Tib- 

= 


pund. 

pund. 

pund. 


,  =  16  gran . . 

=  16  es . 

=  4  ort . 

=  4  qvintin . . 

=  16  lod . . 

=  2  mark  =  Weight  in  vacuo  of  -gV  of  a  Norwegian 
cubic  foot  of  distilled  water  at  4°C. 

. =  12  pund. 

. =  16  pund. 

.  =  3  bismerpund . =  36  pund. 

.  =  20  lispund . =320  pund. 


MONETARY  WEIGHTS.  (4) 
PHARMACY. 


Gran . {grain) . 

Skrupel . =20  gran . 

Drachme . =  3  skrupel . 

Unze . =  8  drachmen 

Pund  (5) . =12  unzen. . .  . 


=  <nVo  pund. 
=  irb  pund. 
=  b  pund. 
=  A  pund. 
=  1  pund. 


(l)  The  ducat  =  11  fr.  66c.  (2)  The  riksdaler  =  5  fr.  61c.,  or  $1,1023- 

(3)  The  pound  of  commerce  =  498.114  grammes. 

(4)  The  monetary  pound  is  equal  to  the  monetary  pound  of  Cologne ;  it  is  divided,  like  the  ordinary 
pound,  into  marks,  lods,  qvintins,  orts,  es,  and  grans.  It  is  equal  to  123144.  5  grans  of  the  commercial 
weight,  and  =  467.99  grammes. 

(5)  The  pharmaceutical  pound  is  equal  to  that  of  Nuremberg;  it  is  worth  94162.25  grains  of  the  com 
mercial  pound  =  357.85  grammes.  The  law  of  May  12, 1866,  prescribes  the  use  in  medicine  of  the  metric 
system  of  France. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS, 

MEASURES.  ' 

1.  Measures  of  length. 


35 


Line . 

Inch . 

tt?  alen . 

■£■  alen . 

Fod . {pied) 


Alen . . 

Favn . 

Rode . 

. ( perche ) 

Grenzmiil . 

. . (lieue).. 

Miil . . 

=  12  lines . . 

=  1£  inch . 

=  6  inches . . 

=  0.31374  metre. 


=  3  alen 
=  5  alen 


. =  rh  fod- 

.... .....  =  yTjf  fod. 

. =  i  fod. 

. =  Y  fod. 

This  is  of  the  length 

of  a  pendulum  heating 
seconds  in  vacuo  at  45° 
north  latitude,  and  at 
the  sea  level. 

. =  2  fods. 

. =  6  fods. 

. =  10  fods. 

. =  30000  fods. 

. =  36000  fods. 


2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 

TOndeland  (*) . ( arpent ) . =  14000  square  alens. 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 
Solids. — Ordinary  measures. 
Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. 


Ottingkar.. . 
Fjerdingkar 
Notting  .... 
Scetting  .... 
Skjeppe  .... 
Fjerding.... 
Tonde . 


Pogel . 

Pot  (2).. ., 
Kande.... 
Viertel  ... 
Anker 
Fisktonde 

Am . 

Oxlioved  . 


Dry  measures.  (2) 


.  ( demi-quarteron ) 
( quarter  on ) . . 


,  {boisseau) 
v( quartant ) 

.  {tonne)  . . . 


=  i  skjeppe . =2.25  pot. 

=  i  skjeppe . =  4. 50  pot. 

=  £  skjeppe . =6  pot. 

=  £  skjeppe . =9  pot. 

. . . =18  pot. 

. =36  pot. 

=  4  quartants  =  144  pot  =  4£  cubic  fod. 


Liquids. 

{ehopine) . =  £  pot. 

. =54  cubic  inches. 

. =2  pot. 

. . . =  i%  fisktonde . =  7. 5  pot. 

. =£  am . =40  pot. 

,  {tonne  de  poisson) . =3  anker . =  120  pot. 

. . =  $  oxhoved . =  160  pot. 

.{muid) . =2  fisktonde . =240  pot. 


(*)  The  Tondeland  =  5512.  5875  metres. 

(2)  The  unit  for  dry  and  liquid  materials  is  the  pot,  which  is  equal  to  0. 9651  of  the  litre. 


36 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


COINS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight. 

Value  in 
speciedaler. 

Silver 

Speciedaler  (J) . 

Mt 

28.  949 

1 

2  speciedaler  -  _ 

14.  474 

i 

k 

TO" 

‘H7T 

1  ort  ....... _ _ _ _ _ 

. do _ 

5.  970 

19  skilling  __ _ _ 

2. 890 

Bronze 

4  skilling . . . 

2  skilling. . . . . . . 

0  0 

Fo 

1  skilling  (2)  . . . ...... 

1  skilling . . . 

T2  0 

V4<J 

EUSSIA. 


At  the  commencement  of  the  last  century,  considering  the  commercial 
relations  between  Eussia  and  England,  Peter  the  Great  decreed  that  the 
unit  of  length,  the  sagene,  should  be  equal  to  seven  English  feet,  and 
should  be  divided  into  three  archines. 


Dolis . 

Zolotnick . 

Lotli . 

Founts  (3)  ....( lime ) 

Poude . 

Berkovetz . 


WEIGHTS. 

ORDINARY  WEIGHTS. 

. =  founte. 

=  96  dolis . =  k  founte. 

=  3  zolotnicks . =  k  founte. 

=  weight  in  vacuo  of  25.019  duime  of  distilled  water 
at  the  temperature  of  16f°  C. 

. =  40  founte. 

=  10  poudes .  =  400  founte. 


Grains . 

Scrupule . 

Drachme . 

Once . 

Founte  ....( livre ) 


PHARMACY. 


—  20  grains 
=  3  scrupules  . 
=  4  drachmes  . 
=  84  zolotnicks 


=  wk o  founte. 

=  yw  founte. 

=  Tfg-  founte. 

=  Y2-  founte. 

=  l  of  the  commercial  pound. 


MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

Lima . ( ligne ) . 

Duime . ( pouce ) . =  121inia . 

Verchok . 

Tchetverke . =  4  verchok . 

Foute . (pied) . =  12  duimes . 

Archine . =  4  tchetverk . 

Sagene  (4) . =  3  archines . . 

Vieersta . ( verste ) . =500  sagenes . 


=  TuVa  sagene. 

=  k  sagene. 

=  sagene. 

=  k  sagene. 

=  y  sagene. 

=  £  sagene. 

=  7  English  feet. 

=  3500  English  feet. 


(!)  The  speciedaler  =  5.  616  fr.,  or  $1. 0929 

(2)  The  skilling  =  0. 0468  fr. 

(3)  The  founte,  (Russian  pound,)  avoirdupois  and  monetary  pound  =  0.  40952  kilogramme. 

(4)  The  sagene  =  2. 13356  metres. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS, 


37 


2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 

Deciatina . . . =  2400s  quare  sagfcnes 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Ordinary  measures. — Solids. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. 


Garnetz . 

Tchetverkas _ 

Polou-tchetverik 
Tchetverik  (L) . 

Osminas . 

Tchetvert . 


Dry  measures. 

. =  i  tchetverik. 

.  =  2  garnetz . =  \  tchetverik. 

.  =  2  tchetverkas . =  tchetverik. 

. .  =  volume  of  64  litres  of  distilled  water  at.  16£° 
C.,  and  weighed  in  vacuo. 

.  =  4  tchetverik . . . =  4  tchetverik' 

.  =  2  osminas . =  8  tchetverik. 


In  the  official  catalogue  of  the  Russian  Section,  the  measures  of  volume  are  given  as 
follows : 


Laste . =  12  tchetvertes 

Tchetverte . =  2  osminas  . . . 

Osmina . =  4  tchetverik 

Tchetverik . =  8  garnetz - 

Garnetz . 

„  ,  ^8  stoffs . 

6  r° .  ^  lOkrouchkas. 

Krouchka . =  10  tcharkas  . . 

Tonneau . =  40  vedros _ 


==  25. 166  hectolitres. 
=  2. 097  hectolitres. 
=  1.  049  hectolitre. 
=  2. 621  hectolitres. 
=  3. 277  litres. 

=  1.229  decalitre. 
=  12. 290  litres. 

=  1.229  litre. 

=  4. 916  hectolitres. 


Tcharka . ( petit  verve) 

Quars . 

Polou-krouchka  (-£  cruche)  . . 

Polou-stoff . (-£  pot) . 

Krouchka . ( cruche ) _ 

Stoff . {pot) . . 

Polou-vedro _ (£  seau) _ 

Yedro  (3) . ( seau ) . 


Liquids. 

. =  t h>  vedro. 

. =  3V  vedro. 

=  2£  krouchka . =  vedro. 

=  2  quars . =  ^  vedro. 

=  10  tcharkas . =  iV  vedro. 

=  2  demi-stoffs . . =  vedro. 

=  4  stoffs . =  i  vedro. 

=  volume  of  750. 57  cubic  inches  ( duime )  of 
distilled  water  =  volume  of  30  pounds 
weighed  in  vacuo  at  16|°  C. 


0)  The  tchetverik  =  26.238  litres. 


(2)  The  vedro  —  12.299  litres. 


38 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Metal. 


Gold . . 
Silver. 


Bro**e. 


COINS. 


Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight. 

mr 

. do _ 

Zolotnik.  Dolis. 

1  51 

4  83£ 

2  41 

1  22 

941 

70 

48 

24 

Pnltinriik _ _ _ 

Tchetvertak . 

. do  .... 

Abassis . 

. do _ 

Zloty -Polski . 

. do  .... 

Grivenik . 

Piatak . 

. do _ 

Kopek . 

Deneschika . 

Polushka . . 

Value  in 
rubles. 


5 


0.50 


0.15 
0. 10 
0.  05 
0.  05 
0.  03 
0.  02 
0.  01 
0.  005 
0. 0025 


ITALY. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  metric  system  was  adopted  on  the  11th  of  September,  1845,  and 
the  decree  has  been  in  force  since  January  1,  1846.  * 

COINS. 

The  same  as  the  French.  The  franc  is  called  lira. 


TURKEY. 

There  exist  in  Turkey  a  great  many  systems  of  weights  and  measures 
varying  with  the  provinces  and  the  nature  of  the  substances  to  be 
measured.  The  following  is  in  use  at  Con  stantinople.  It  has  recently 
been  decided  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Works  that  the  unit  of  length, 
the  arehine  or  pik,  shall  hereafter  have  a  length  of  75  centimetres  ex¬ 
actly.  But  there  is  no  law  obliging  the  public  to  use  this  official  unit : 


WEIGHTS. 

Karat . 

Denke . 

Dirlieme . ( drachme ) . 

1  occa .  . 

OCCA  (2) . 

Kantar . ( quintal ) . 

Tch6ki  (3) . . . 


=  32  subdivisions  =  occa 

=  4  karats . =  t-6Vtt  occa 

=  4denkes.i...  =  occa 
=  100  dirhemes . .  =  1  occa 

=  400  dirkkmes . .  ==  1  occa 

. =  44  occa 

—  4  kantars . =  176  occa 


(*)  The  rouble  =  4  fr.  04  c.,  or  $0.7779. 

(2)  The  occa  =  1285.56  grammes.  The  prototype  of  the  occa,  in  platina,  was  constructed  in  1847  by 
M..  Dehevil. 

(3)  There  are  many  other  tch6kis  in  use  for  different  commodities ;  the  above  is  used  in  the  wood  trade- 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS.  39 


MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

For  construction  and  topography. 


Nocktat . 

Hatt . 

Parmack. ... 
Archine  (x) 

.(point) . 

.(ligne) . 

.  ( ponce ) . 

For  measuring  piece  goods. 

Guirah . 

Ouroub . 

Endaz£  (2) . . 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 

The  squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

3.  Measures  of  volume. 

For  cereals. 


Chinik . =i  kil6. 

Kil6  (3) . . . =  4  chiniks . =  volume  of  21  occas . 

COINS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight. 

Value  in 
piasters, 
(kourouche.) 

Dirh&mes. 

Karats. 

Gold . - . 

Becheyuslyk . 

11 

4 

500 

Ykiyuzlyk . 

5 

10 

250 

Y  usilykmedj  id . 

2 

4 

100 

Ellyklyk . 

1 

2 

50 

Yirmibechlyk . 

0 

9 

25 

Silver . 

Yrmilykmedjid . 

iWo' 

7 

8 

20 

Onlyk . 

3 

12 

10 

Bechelyk . 

1 

14 

5 

Ikylyk . 

0 

12 

2 

Kourouche,  (4)  (piastre) 

- do . 

0 

6 

1 

Yaremlyk . 

o 

3 

4 

Bronze . 

40  paras . 

6 

10 

1 

20  paras  . 

3 

5M 

4 

10  paras  . 

1 

io  fi 

i 

5  paras  . 

0 

13 

4 

1  para  . 

0 

J  £ 

2  2  1 

-£o 

(')  The  archine  =  0.757738  metre.  (  The  prototypes  of  these  measures  of  length  were  made  in  1841 

(2)  The  endaz6  =  0.6528  metre.  \  by  M.  Dieu  Antoine. 

(3)  The  kile  is  without  relation  to  the  unit  of  length.  It  only  contains  21  occas  of  grain.  The  orig¬ 
inal  is  at  Constantinople.  Merchandise,  other  than  grain,  wine,  oil,  and  liquids  in  general,  are  weighed 
rather  than  measured. 

(4)  The  kourouche  (piaster)  =  0.225  fr.,  or  $0.04325. 


40 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


EGYPT. 

WEIGHTS. 

DIVISION  OP  THE  DARHIM. 


Kamha . ( grain ) . =  1  kamha. 

K6rat . =  4  kamha. 

Darhim  (l) . ( drachme ) . =24  k6rat. 

Mitkal,  (used  for  weighing  precious  substances.) 

NEW  WEIGHTS. 

^4  occa. . —  =  6.25  darhim. 

3^  occa . - . =  12. 50  darhim. 

occa . =  25  darhim. 

£  occa . =  50  darhim. 

£  occa . =  100  darhim. 

£  occa . =  200  darhim. 

1  Occa  (2) . =  400  darhim. 

OLD  WEIGHTS. 

rottoli . =  6  darhim. 

oukich . =  12  darhim. 

£  oukich . =  24  darhim. 

£  oukich . =  36  darhim. 

£  oukich . =  72  darhim. 

1  Rottoli  (3) . =  144  darhim. 


MEASURES. 


1.  Measures  op  length. 


KArat . 

Abdat . ( palme ) 

Kadam . (pied) . 

Deraa  (4) . (pic)  .. 

Cassaba  of  the  cadastre.. 


=  4  kerats . 

=  3  abdats . 

=  2  kadam . 

=  3  metres  55  centimetres. 


=  2*4  deraa. 
=  £  deraa. 
=  i  derad. 
=  1  derad. 


Bddh . (Irasse) 

Cassaba . 

Mili . (mille)  . 

Farsdk . (lieue).. 

Baride . (tiape)  . 

Safar-yome . (journfo  de  marche)... 


2i  derad. 

=  2  bddh . =  5  derad. 

=  500  cassabas . =  2, 500  derad. 

=  3  mili . =  7, 500  derad. 

=  4  farsdk . =  30, 000  derad. 

=  2  baride . =60, 000  der^d. 


Hoad  measure.  (5) 


(0  The  darhim  (drachme)  =  3. 0934  grammes. 

(2)  The  occa  =  1. 23739  kilogramme. 

(3)  The  rottoli  =  0. 445458  kilogramme. 

(4)  There  are  six  kinds  of  derad,  all  sub-divided  into  abdats  and  karats  ;  they  are : 

Derad  Nili  (pik  of  the  Nile)  =  0.  2545  metre. 

Derad  Baladi  (pik  indigene)  =  0.  5682  metre. 

Derad  Istambouli  (pik  or  archine  of  Constantinople)  =  0.  6691  metre. 

Derad  Hendazeh  (of  the  merchants,  or  yard)  =  0.  6479  metre. 

Derad  Meimari  (for  construction)  =  0.  75  metre. 

Derad  itindraire  =  0.  7389  metre. 

(6)  The  degree  of  the  meridian  is  divided  into  21  safar-yome,  (day’s  march,)  into  20  farsdk,  (leagues,)  or 
into  60  mili. 


41 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 

Land  measures. 

Square  of  the  derad  meimari  and  of  the  cassaba  of  the  cadastre. 


Faddan  (]) . =  333£  square  cassahas. 

K6rat . —ih  faddan. 


Kerat . 

Kharroubah  .... 
Thoumn-kaddah 
Roubb-kaddali  . 
Nisf-kaddah 

Kaddah  (3) _ 

Maluah . 

Roubouh  . 

K616 . 

Ouebeh  . . 

Ardebb . 


Guirbeh  (3) 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 
Dry  measures. 


.  2  k6rat . 

.  2  kharroubah - 

.  2  thoumn-kaddah 

. .  2  roubb-kaddah  . . 

.  2  nisf-kaddah _ 

.  2  kaddah . 

. 2  maluah . 

. • . 2  roubouh . 

. •  2~k6\6 . 

.  6  ouebeh . 

Liquids. 

( voie  d'eau) . 


=  kaddah. 
=  kaddah. 
=  £  kaddah. 
=  i  kaddah. 
=  \  kaddah. 
=  1  kaddah. 
=  2  kaddah. 
=  4  kaddah. 
=  8  kaddah. 
=  16  kaddah. 
=  96  kaddah. 


=  66.666  litres. 


COINS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Value  in 
piasters. 

Gold . 

Livre,  (4)  or  Egyptian  guinea . 

uhh 

....do . 

8.  53927 

100 

Half  livre . 

4.  26964 

50 

■gig  livre,  (quite  rare) . 

_ do . 

0. 41891 

5 

Silver . 

Tallari,  (Egyptian  dollar) 

_ do . 

27.  84126 

20 

Half  tallari . 

13.  92063 

10 

Quarter  tallari . 

_ do . 

6. 96031 

5 

Piaster,  (5) . 

iWo 

_ do . 

1. 35339 

1 

Half  piaster . 

0. 67664 

0. 50 

Quarter  piaster . 

_ do . 

0.  33832 

0.25 

Copper . 

Piaster  . 

51.  814 

1 

Piece  of  20  paras . 

25.  907 

0.  50 

Piece  of  10  paras . 

12.  95339 

0.25 

Piece  of  5  paras . 

6.  47669 

0. 125 

JAPAN. 

WEIGHTS. 

The  exhibition  by  Japan  in  the  pavilion  for  weights,  measures,  and 
coins  included  a  balance  ( tembilianakari )  for  weighing  gold  and  silver 
coins,  with  a  series  of  nineteen  weights,  of  which  the  smallest  weighed 

(9  The  faddan  =  420.  8383  square  metres  ==  333^  square  cassahas  ;  it  is  divided  into  24  kerats. 

(2)  The  kaddah  =  1.9112  litre  .  (*#)  The  guirbeh  =  66.666  litres. 

(4)  The  livre  is  worth  25.923  ft*.,  or  $4,969.  (B)  The  piaster  is  worth  0.259  fr.,  or  $0.0495. 


42  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

*  f 

about  two  decigrammes,  and  the  others  of  the  series  w'ere  formed  by 
doubling  each  term  successively ;  also,  a  series  of  five  tigoueri ,  (like 
steel-yards,)  graduated  decimally.  The  two  largest  are  intended  for 
ordinary  traffic ;  the  two  smallest,  in  ivory,  are  used  in  pharmacy. 

MEASURES. 

1.  Measures  of  length. 

The  exhibition  of  scales  of  lineal  measure  contained  six  specimens  made  of  bamboo, 
well  finished. 

No.  1.  The  kofkoudassi,  divided  into  twenty  parts,  with  ten  subdivisions  ;  used  for 
measuring  cloth,  silk,  &c. 

No.  2.  The  kanedassi ;  used  for  measuring  stones  and  metals. 

No.  3.  The  kanedassi,  equal  to  three-quarters  of  No.  2,  divided  into  fifteen  parts, 
each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  ten  ;  used  in  building. 

No.  4.  The  koikoudassi,  equivalent  to  the  half  of  No.  1,  divided  into  ten  parts,  each 
decimally  divided. 

No.  5.  A  kanedassi  about  thirty  centimetres  long,  equal  to  two-thirds  of  No.  3,  and 
also  used  in  building. 

No.  6.  A  kanisaci,  square,  in  copper,  with  the  sides  graduated ;  used  by  builders, 
cabinet-makers,  and  carpenters. 

2.  Measures  of  volume. 

Itchighau . =1.68  litre  (about) . =  T£xr  ittomassA 

Gonghau . =5  itchigau . =  -Aq-  ittomassA 

Ischiomasse . =2  gonghau . =  -fa  ittomassA 

IttomassA . 1 . =10  ischiomass^ . =  1  ittomassA 

These  measures  are  parallelopipeds  of  wood,  with  a  diagonal  rod  of  iron  serving  as 
a  handle;  used  for  all  kinds  of  merchandise. 


COINS. 


Metal. 

Name. 

Form. 

Mean  value 
in  francs.  (*) 

Observations. 

Gold  and  silver . 

Oban 

Oval 

250 

Not  in  circulation. 

Gold . 

Hnndji-RnbfiTi 

fin 

33.  60 

Do. 

Gold . 

Koban 

fin 

16.  60 

Do. 

Silver  and  copper . 

Tebnn^nno- 

Tp 

4.  80 

Do. 

Silver  and  copper . 

Manneeins:  _  _ 

do 

Do. 

Gold  and  silver . 

oto  --------- 

Nibou 

Square 

4.  80 

Current  coins. 

Gold . 

Itzibou 

fin 

2.  40 

Do. 

Silver . 

Ttzibnn 

fin 

2.  40 

Do. 

Gold  and  Silver . 

Nishou . 

fin 

1.  20 

Do. 

Silver . 

Ischiou 

fin 

0.  60 

Do. 

Brass . 

Tempo  _ 

Oval  (^) 

0. 15 

Do. 

Copper . 

Djunimon . 

fin 

a-iA 

Do. 

Copper . 

Hatchimon  .... 

dn 

Do. 

Copper  or  iron . 

Simon . 

dn 

i  ‘i 

W- 

Do. 

Copper  or  iron . 

Itchimon . 

X  4 

w 

Do. 

(*)  This  valuation  varies  daily  with  the  demand. 


(2)  With  a  hole  in  the  center. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


43 


PORTUGAL. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  metrical  system,  by  law  of  the  29th  of  July,  1864. 

COINS.  0) 


Metal. 


Gold 


Silver. 


Copper 


Name. 

Fineness. 

■Hr 

Weight. 

Coroa,  (2)  (crown) . 

916 

1000 

_ do . 

Grammes. 

17.733 

8.867 

3.  547 

1.  774 

12.5 

5 

2.5 

C25 

£  coroa  . 

coroa . 

_ _ do . 

_ do . 

-ig.  coroa . 

5  tostaos 

_ do . 

2  tostaos 

....  do . 

1  tost&o  ( tcston ) 

_ do . 

i  tost&o  . 

_ do . 

Value  in 
reis. 


10000 

5Q00 

2000 

1000 

500 

200 

100 

50 

20 

10 

5 


BRAZIL. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  metric  system  was  made  obligatory  by  a  law  which  will  not  be 
put  into  execution  until  the  first  of  January,  1873.  The  old  system  is 
still  in  use. 

COINS.  (3) 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Gold . 

Piece  of  10000  reis . 

8. 963 

Piece  of  5000  reis _ _ 

_ do . 

4. 486 

Silver . 

Piece  of  2000  reis . 

_ do . 

25.  495 

Piece  of  1000  reis . 

_ do . 

12.  747 

Piece  of  500  reis. . . 

....do . 

6.  373 

Piece  of  200  reis . . . 

_ do . 

2.  549 

Copper . 

Piece  of  9(1  reis 

Piece  of  10  reis . 

(*)  The  silver  coins  are  only  used  for  change.  4500  reis  =  1  pound  sterling.  180  reis  =  1  franc. 
(2)  The  coroa,  (crown  =  10000  reis,)  legal  =  $5.8257. 

(*)  350  reis  =  1  franc.  20  milreis,  legal  =  $10.  9235. 


44 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


The  metric  system  has  been  optional  in  the  United  States  since  the 
law  of  1866. 


WEIGHTS. 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 


Dram . ( drachme ) . 

Ounce . (once) - 

Pound  p) . ( livre )  — 

Quarter . (quart)  . . . 

Hundred  weight  (cwt.) - (quintal)  . 

Ton . (tonne)  ... 


.  =  vfa  pound. 

=  16  drams . =  ^  pound. 

=  16  ounces . =1  pound. 

—  25  pounds .  =  25  pounds. 

—  4  quarters .  =  100  pounds. 

=  20  cwt .  =  2000  pounds. 


Grain  ....  .. 
Pennyweight 

Ounce . 

Pound  (3) . . . . 


Grain  .. 
Scruple 
Drachm 
Ounce  . 
Pound . 


TROY  WEIGHT. 

(grain) .  =  fa&o  pound. 

(denier  poids) ... .  =  20  grains .  =  pound. 

(once) .  =24  pennyweights  =  A  pound. 

(livre) .  =  12  ounces . =  1  pound. 

apothecaries’  weight. 

(grain) .  =  3-^  pound. 

(scrupule) . =20  grains .  =  ^g-g-  pound. 

(drachme) .  =  3  scruples .  =  fa  pound. 

(once). .  =  8  drams .  =  fa  pound. 

(livre) .  =12  ounces . =  pound  Troy. 

MEASURES. 


MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 


Line . 

. (ligne) . 

...  — 

F6F 

yard. 

Inch . 

. —  10  lines . . 

. . .  — 

h 

yard. 

Hand . 

. (palme) . . 

. —  4  inches . 

.. .  = 

l 

yard. 

Foot  . . . 

. —  3  hands . . 

. ..  — 

l- 

yard. 

Yard  (3) . 

...  — 

1 

yard. 

Fathom . 

...  — 

2 

yards. 

Rod . 

. —  5£  yards . 

...  — 

H 

yards. 

1  Furlong . (stade) . . 

. —  40  rods . 

...  — 

220 

yards. 

Road  measure. 

<  Statute  mile . .  (mille) . 

_ — 

1760 

yards. 

v  League . (lieue) . 

...  — 

4280 

yards. 

2.  Measures  of  surface. 


Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 

Rood  of  land . =40  square  rods. 

Acre  (4) .  . —  4  roods. (*) 


(*)  The  avoirdupois  pound  =  453.59265  grammes.  [The  standard  avoirdupois  pound  of  the  United 
States,  as  determined  by  Mr.  Hassler,  is  the  weight  of  27.7015  cubic  inches  of  distilled  water.]  This 
weight  is  in  general  use  for  most  articles  of  merchandise. 

(2)  The  Troy  pound  =  373.242  grammes. 

(3)  The  yard  =  0.91438348  metre. 

(4)  The  acre  =  0.40467  hectare. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 


45 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Dry  measures. 

Pint . ( pinte ) . =  A  bushel. 

Quart . {quart).. . =  2  pints . =  A  bushel. 

Peck . ( picotin ) . — 8  quarts . =  £  bushel. 

Bushel  (*) . ( boisseau ) . =  4  pecks . =  1  bushel. 


Gill . . 

Pint . {pinte)... 

Quart . . . {quart)  . . 

Gallon  (2) . 

Barrel . {baril)  . . . 

Hogshead . {poingon) 


Liquids. 

. . =  'h 

..  —  4  gills . - 1--.  =  i 

..=  2  pints . =  i 

..=  4  quarts . . =  1 

. .  =  31£  gallons . . . =  31£  gallons. 

..  =  2  barrels . =63  gallons. 


gallon. 

gallon. 

gallon. 

gallon. 


COINS. 


Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grains  Troy. 

Double  eagle,  (double  aigle ) . 

. . .  do _ 

516 

Eagle . 

258 

Half  eagle,  (1  aigle) . 

...  do _ 

129 

3  dollars . 

. . .  do _ 

77.  4 

21  dollars . 

. . .  do _ 

64.5 

Dollar  (3) . . 

. . .  do _ 

25.8 

Dollar . 

_ do _ 

412.  50 

Half-dollar  (1  dollar) . 

_ do _ 

192 

Quarter-dollar . 

.  .  do _ 

96 

Dime . 

...do.... 

38.  40 

Half-dime  (1  dime) . 

. . .  do _ 

19.  20 

3  cents . 

. . .  do _ 

11.52 

n  cents  .  . . . . . 

3  cents . 

2  cents  . 

1  cent . 

Metal. 


Value  in 
dollars. 


Gold 


Silver. 


Nickel . 
Bronze. 


20 

10 

5 

3 

2.50 

1 

1 

0.50 
0.25 
0. 10 
0.  05 
0.03 
0.  05 
0.03 
0.  02 
0.  01 


GEEAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 

The  use  of  the  metric  system  has  been  optional  in  England  since  1864. 

WEIGHTS. 


TROY  WEIGHT. 


Grain . {grain) . . . =  rho  pound. 

Pennyweight . =24  grains . =  pound. 

Ounce . {once) . =20  pennyweight _ =  A  pound. 

Pound  (4) . {livre) . =12  ounces . =  1  pound. 


(1)  The  busliel  =  35.2432  litres. 

(3)  The  dollar  =  5  it.  17c.  It  weighs  25.8  grains  Troy  =  1.67  grammes, 
piece  of  five  francs  of  France  by  57.5  milligrammes. 

(4)  The  pound  troy  =  373.241948  grammes. 


(2)  The  gallon  =  3.786  litres. 
Its  weight  exceeds  that  of  the 


46 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 


Dram . 

pound. 

Ounce . 

. (once) - 

. —  16  drams . . 

- — 

Tfg-  pound. 

Pound  . 

- — 

1  pound. 

Stone  . 

. =14  pounds . . 

- — 

14  pounds. 

Quarter . 

_ ...(quart)  ... 

. . —  2  stones . 

- — 

28  pounds. 

Hundredweight  (cwt) .  (quintal)  . 

...  — 

112  pounds. 

Ton . 

. (tonneau)  . 

....  = 

2240  pounds. 

apothecaries’  weight. 

Grain . 

....  — 

rftjo  pound. 

Scruple . 

- — 

izh  pound. 

Dram . 

. (drachme) . . 

,.  ..  — 

^  pound. 

Ounce . 

. —  8  drams . 

_ — 

■fa  pound. 

Pound  . . 

. (livre) . 

....  = 

1  pound  Troy. 

MEASURES. 

1. 

Measures  of  length. 

Inch . 

. (pouce) _ 

--  =  is  yard. 

Foot . 

. . (pied) . 

. —  12  inches . 

--  =  i  yard. 

Yard  (*) . 

. .  —  1  yard. 

Fathom . 

. . —  2  yards . . 

..  —  2  yards. 

Pole . 

. —  5i  yards . 

..  —  yards. 

Chain . 

. . (chaine  d'arpenteur) . .  —  100  links . . 

. .  —  22  yards. 

Furlong . 

. —  40  poles . 

. .  —  220  yards. 

Mile . . 

. —  8  furlongs . 

..  —  1760  yards. 

2. 

Measures  of  surface. 

Ordinary  measures. 

Squares  of  the  measures  of  length. 

Land  measures. 


Rood . . . =  1210  square  yards. 

Acre  (3) . =  4840  square  yards. 


3.  Measures  of  volume. 
Ordinary  measures. 

Cubes  of  the  measures  of  length.  (4) 


Dry  measures. 

Gallon  (6) . ( gallon ) . 

Peck . ( picotin ) . =  2  gallons  . 

Bushel . ( hoisseau ) . =4  pecks  . . 

Sack . (sac) . =3  bushels  . 

Coomb . =  4  bushels  . 

Quarter . (quart) . . . =2  coombs  . 

Load . (charge) . =5  quarters 

Last . (lest) . . . .  =  2  loads _ 


=  1  gallon. 

=  2  gallons. 

=  8  gallons. 

=  24  gallons. 
—  32  gallons. 
=  64  gallons. 
=  320  gallons 
=  640  gallons. 


(*)  The  pound  avoirdupois  =  453.592645  grammes.  (2)  The  yard  =  0.91438348  metre. 

(3)  The  acre  =  0.404671  hectare.  (4)  For  fire*wood,  the  cord  =  128  cubic  feet. 

(5)  The  gallon  =  4.5434  58  litres. 


WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  COINS. 
Liquids. 


47 


Gill . (gill) . 

Pint . (pinte) . =  4  gills . 

Quart . (i  gallon)  . =  '2  pints . 

Gallon . ( gallon ) . =  4  quarts - 

Firkin . . . ( quarteau ) . =  9  gallons  . . . 

Kilderkin . (i  baril) . . . =18  gallons  ... 

Barrel . ( baril ) . =36  gallons  ... 

Hogshead . (muid) . =54  gallons  ... 

Pipe . (pipe) . . =  2  hogsheads 

Ton . (tonne) . =  2  pipes . 


=  gallon. 
=  i  gallon. 
=  i  gallon. 
=  1  gallon. 

=  9  gallons. 

=  18  gallons. 
=  36  gallons. 
=  54  gallons. 
=  108  gallons. 
=  216  gallons. 


COINS.  (*) 


Metal. 

Name. 

Fineness. 

Weight  in 
grammes. 

Value  in 
pounds. 

Gold 

5  pounds,  (5  livres) . 

To1^ 

5 

Snverei  <rn  p)  ^sni/.vp.rn,in)  . 

do . 

7.  981 

1 

Half  sovereign,  (i  souverain) . 

_ do . 

3.  995 

1 

Silver  . . . 

Crown,  (couronne) . 

28.  250 

i 

Half  crown,  (i  couronne) . 

_ do . 

14. 125 

1 

"Florin  .  . . . 

11. 300 

Trjr 

Shilling  (3) . .' . 

- do . 

5.650 

1  0 

ih 

Six-pence . 

- do . 

2.  825 

TU 

Groat,  (4  pence) . 

- do . 

1.  883 

VO 

Three-pence . 

- do . 

1.  412 

FO 

Two-pence . 

0.  941 

xio 

One-penny . 

- do . 

0.470 

VXTT 

Bronze 

Penny  . 

VXo 

Half-penny . 

xiv 

Farthing . 

2Vo 

p)  The  standard  is  the  pound  ( £)  sterling. 

(2)  The  pound  sterling  or  sovereign,  legal  ==  $4.  8666,  by  United  States  custom-house  valuation  $4.84. 

(3)  The  shilling,  legal  =  $0.  2261. 


I  ■ 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION,  1867. 
REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


OF  THE 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  OF  1867, 


WILLIAM  P.  BLAKE. 

COMMISSIONER  FROM  THE  STATE  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1870. 


BIBLIOGKAPHY 


An  observant  visitor  at  the  Paris  Exposition  could  not  fail  to  be  im¬ 
pressed  with  the  fact  that  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  statistical  informa¬ 
tion  was  there  gathered  together.  Each  country  (with  few  exceptions) 
brought  forward  the  latest  attainable  commercial  and  industrial  statis¬ 
tics,  so  that  in  making  the  circuit  of  the  building  one  could  collect  the 
materials  for  a  statistical  summary  of  the  extent,  resources,  and  indus¬ 
trial  condition  of  the  principal  nations.  The  publications  of  this  nature 
made  in  the  form  of  catalogues,  with  introductions  to  the  various  classes, 
published  in  special  brochures,  and,  in  many  cases,  (as  for  example 
Russia,  Brazil,  Australia,)  in  volumes  of  good  size,  have  more  than  a' 
transient  importance,  and  when  brought  together  and  grouped  with  the 
special  technical  reports  by  the  commissioners,  juries,  and  by  various 
experts,  form  a  collection  which  gives  a  most  accurate  and  complete 
picture  of  the  present  condition  of  the  industries  of  the  world. 

The  value  and  importance  of  such  a  collection  is  evident.  Many  of 
the  publications  so  made  were  collected  and  sent  in  by  the  Commissioner 
General  at  the  close  of  the  Exposition,  and  the  Editor  has  since  en¬ 
deavored  to  add  to  thetn  so  as  to  form  a  complete  collection  of  the 
books  published  in  connection  with  the  Exposition,  to  be  deposited  in 
the  library  of  the  State  Department. 

In  forming  this  collection  the  bibliographical  list  has  been  prepared 
with  the  object  of  facilitating  the  collection  of  the  publications,  and  also 
with  the  conviction  that  it  would  prove  useful  to  investigators  in  various 
departments  of  industry  and  science,  and  to  the  reader  of  the  Exposi¬ 
tion  reports.  It  is  also  hoped  that  it  may  have  some  influence  induc¬ 
ing  the  formation  of  special  collections  of  such  books  in  connection  with 
some  of  our  libraries. 

The  value  of  the  statistical  publications  made  for  distribution  upon 
the  occasion  of  great  international  exhibitions  would  be  greatly  enhanced 
if  some  comprehensive  plan  of  collection  and  presentation  of  the  statistics 
could  be  adopted  by  each  of  the  participating  countries.  It  would  be 
well  if  a  general  and  simultaneous  decennial  census  could  be  agreed  upon, 
or  a  simultaneous  summing  up  of  the  yearly  statistical  returns  of  every 
country,  and  that  a  great  international  exhibition  should  immediately 
follow,  and  be  accompanied  by  carefully  prepared  statistical  abstracts  for 
distribution  and  exchange. 

The  idea  of  forming  a  bibliographical  list  of  publications  connected 
with,  or  immediately  resulting  from  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867,  is  not 
a  novel  one.  M.  Leon  Morillot,  of  Paris,  published  a  list  in  1869,  in  the 


4 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


bulletin  of  tlie  “  Association  Internationale  pour  le  developpeinent  du 
commerce  et  des  expositions/'  and  I  am  indebted  to  that  list  as  the 
foundation  upon  which  mine  has  been  prepared  and  for  titles  of  some  of 
the  works  I  have  not  been  able  to  procure.  There  are  doubtless  many 
publications  upon  the  Exposition  unknown  to  me,  and  which  do  not 
therefore  appear  in  the  list.  An  effort  has  been  made  to  include  all 
published  up  to  January,  1870,  and  if  time  had  permitted,  the  titles  of 
the  principal  reports  upon  the  previous  great  exhibitions  would  have 
been  included. 

The  list  now  presented  contains  over  three  hundred  titles,  and  shows  in 
a  most  striking  manner  the  value  of  great  international  exhibitions  in 
stimulating  the  preparation  and  publication  of  industrial  works.  It  is 
chiefly  by  such  publications  that  the  great  object  of  the  exhibitions,  the 
general  elevation  and  advancement  of  art  and  industry,  is  effected. 
They  supplement  the  exhibitions.  Their  influence  is  not  circumscribed 
by  the  walls  of  the  exhibition  buildings  nor  confined  to  the  country  in 
which  the  exhibitions  are  made.  They  reach  every  center  of  human 
industry,  and  carry  the  fruits  of  the  exhibitions  to  families  and  work¬ 
shops  in  all  countries. 

AMERICA.— UNITED  STATES. 

The  preliminary  publications,  calling  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States  to  the  Exposition  and  setting  forth  from  time  to  time  the 
progress  made,  appeared  at  intervals  until  the  time  of  opening  in  1867. 
These  publications,  in  the  order  of  their  issue,  were  entitled  as  follows: 

French  Universal  Exposition  for  1867,  to  open  April  1, 1867,  close 
October  31,  1867.  Official  correspondence  on  the  subject,  published 
by  the  Department  of  State  for  the  information  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  containing  general  regulations,  classification  of  articles, 
&c.  Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1865.  Quarto  pamphlet, 
28  pp.  A  second  edition  of  this  was  printed  with  additions,  42  pp. 

The  French  Universal  Exposition  of  1867.  Interesting  letters 
from  United  States  Commissioner  Beckwith,  and  other  papers,  con¬ 
taining  valuable  advice  and  information  for  exhibitors.  Government 
Printing  Office,  1865.  Quarto  pamphlet,  7  pp. 

The  following  circulars  and  documents  in  octavo  form  appeared  in 
regular  succession  and  included  the  letters  published  in  the  former  cir¬ 
culars  : 

Message  from  the  President  of  the  United  States,  December  11,  1865, 
transmitting  a  report  from  the  Secretary  of  State,  concerning  the 
Universal  Exposition  to  be  held  at  Paris  in  the  year  1867.  8°.  14  pp. 

Supplemental  circular  relative  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867  :  Proceedings  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  1866.  8°.  14  pp. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


5 


Speech  of  Hon.  N.  P.  Banks,  of  Massachusetts,  upon  the  representa¬ 
tion  of  the  United  States  at  the  Exposition  of  the  World’s  Industry, 
Paris,  1867.  Washington,  D.  C.,  Mansfield  &  Martin,  publishers,  1866. 
8°.  24  pp. 

Second  supplemental  pamphlet,  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867 :  Details  of  organization.  Washington,  Government  Printing 
Office,  1866.  8°.  64  pp. 

Third  supplemental  circular  respecting  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1867  :  Importance  of  prompt  action,  &e.  J.  0.  Derby,  general  agent 
for  the  United  States.  Washington,  Government  Printing  Office, 
1866.  8°.  71pp. 

President’s  message.  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  No.  5,  39th  Congress,  2d  ses¬ 
sion  :  Message  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  communicating, 
in  compliance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Senate  of  the  19th  December, 

1866,  information  in  respect  to-  the  progress  made  in  collecting  the 
products,  and  the  weights,  measures,  and  coins  of  the  United  States, 
for  exhibition  at  the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris  in  April  next. 
8o.  52  pp. 

The  following  were  published  after  the  opening  of  the  Exposition  : 

Official  catalogue  of  the  products  of  the  United  States  of  America 
exhibited  at  Paris,  1867,  with  statistical  notices.  Catalogue  in 
English.  Catalogue  Frangais.  Deutscher  Catalog.  (Printed  in  the 
three  languages  together,  with  the  exception  of  the  statistical  notices, 
wThich  were  in  French.)  Paris,  Imprimerie  centrale  des  chemins  de 
fer.  A.  Chaix  et  cie,  Rue  Bergere  20,  1867.  12°.  (There  were  three 
editions  printed,)  3d  edition,  160  pp. 

Minerals  of  the  United  States  of  America.  Catalogue  compiled  by 
H.  F.  Q.  d’Aligny.  Paris,  Briere,  257  Rue  Saint  Honore,  1867.  8°. 
91  pp. 

Colorado  in  the  United  States  of  America.  Schedule  of  ores  con¬ 
tributed  by  sundry  persons  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867, 
with  some  information  about  the  region  and  its  resources,  by  J.  P. 
Whitney,  commissioner  from  the  Territory.  London,  Cassell,  Petter, 
and  Galpin,  1867.  Large  8°.  62  pp.  The  French  edition  ,*  Paris, 

Berger,  1867.  71  pp.  (Large  octavo,  wide  margin,  editions  published 

separately  in  English,  French,  and  in  German.) 

Alabama. — The  State  of  Alabama,  (United  States  of  America,)  its  min¬ 
eral,  agricultural,  and  manufacturing  resources,  by  Hiram  Haines. 
Paris,  Simon  Ragon,  1867.  8°.  120  pp.  Also  an  edition  in  French. 

Munitions  of  war. — Report  to  the  government  of  the  United  States 
on  the  munitions  of  war  exhibited  at  the  Paris  Universal  Exhibition, 

1867,  by  Ch.  B.  Norton  and  W.  J.  Valentine,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioners.  New  York,  Office  of  Army  and  Navy  Journal,  39  Park  Row. 
London,  Spon,  48  Charing  Cross,  1868.  8°.  286  pp. 


G  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Iron  and  steel. — The  production  of  iron  and  steel  in  its  economic  and 
social  relations,  by  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  United  States  Commissioner  to 
the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris,  1867.  Washington,  1868.  8°. 
pp.  iv  to  101.  (House  document,  ordered  to  be  printed  March  28, 1868.) 

S ilk. — Report  on  silk  and  silk  manufactures,  by  Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  esq., 
commissioner  to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867.  (Transmitted  to  the 
House  of  Eepresentatives  March  25, 1868,  and  ordered  to  be  printed.) 

Silk. _ Report  to  the  Department  of  State  on  silk  and  silk  manufactures, 

by  Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  United  States  Commissioner.  [Author’s  edition.] 
8°.  114  pp.  Washington,  1868. 

Etats-Unis  d’Amerique. — Exposition  Universelle  de  1867.  Etats-Unis 
d’Amerique.  Le  Nevada  Oriental:  Geographic,  ressources,  climat,  et 
etat  social.  Rapport  adress6  au  comity  local  pour  l’Exposition  de 
Paris,  par  Myron  Angel.  lre  edition  de  cinq  cents  exemplaires.  9 
Rue  de  Fleurus,  juillet  1867.  12°.  164  pp.  Paris,  Imprimerie  gene- 
rale  de  Ch.  Lahure.  (Printed  in  French  and  in  English.) 

New  York. — Norton,  C.  B.  Report  of  the  New  York  State  commissioner 
to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867. 

New  York. — Second  report  of  the  New  York  State  commissioner  to  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1867.  Printed  by  order  of  the  New  York  State 
senate.  8°.  125  pp.  With  plates.  Albany,  1868. 

California. — Report  of  the  commissioner  to  the  Paris  Exposition,  1867. 
Notes  upon  the  Universal  Exposition  at  Paris,  1867,  by  William  P. 
Blake,  commissioner  for  the  State  of  California  to  the  Universal  Expo¬ 
sition  at  Paris,  1867,  and  delegate  of  the  State  board  of  agriculture. 
8°.  100  pp.  Sacramento,  D.  W.  Gel  wicks,  State  printer,  1868. 

State  of  Illinois  and  the  Universal  Exposition  of  1867  at  Paris, 
France.  Report  of  John  P.  Reynolds,  delegate  from  the  Illinois  State 
Agricultural  Society  and  commissioner  for  the  State.  8°.  viii-134 
pp.  Springfield,  State  Journal  office,  1868. 

The  following  list  gives  the  titles  of  the  final  official  reports,  alphabeti¬ 
cally  arrau ged  according  to  the  subjects.  The  reports  all  bear  the  imprint 
of  tlie  Government  Printing  Office  and  the  year  of  publication.  This  im¬ 
print  is  omitted  in  the  list,  but  the  exact  date  of  publication  is  supplied. 
The  copies  of  reports  not  separately  issued  as  above  have  been  grouped 
together  and  bound  in  six  volumes,  under  the  general  title  of  u  Reports 
of  the  United  States  Commissioners  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition 
of  1867 ;  published  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  by 
authority  of  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.” 

A  list  of  the  reports,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  grouped  in  vol¬ 
umes,  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  Volume  I  and  of  Volume  VI. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


7 


LIST  OF  THE  REPOETS,  BY  THEIR  TITLES,  ARRANGED 
ALPHABETICALLY  ACCORDING  TO  THE  SUBJECTS. 

Arts. — Machinery  and  processes  of  the  industrial  arts  and  apparatus 
of  the  exact  sciences,  by  Frederick  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.  D.,  United 
States  Commissioner. — pp.  ix,  669.  August  4,  1869.  (In  volume  iii.) 

Asphalt  and  bitumen. — Report  on  asphalt  and  bitumen,  as  applied 
to  the  construction  of  streets  and  sidewalks  in  Paris ;  also  to  terraces, 
roofs,  &c.,  and  to  various  products  in  the  Exposition  of  1867 ;  with 
observations  upon  macadamized  streets  and  roads,  by  Arthur  Beck¬ 
with,  Civil  Engineer. — pp.  31.  January  15,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Beet-sugar. — The  manufacture  of  beet-sugar  and  alcohol  and  the  cul¬ 
tivation  of  sugar-beet,  by  Henry  F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner. — pp.  90.  November  3,  1869.  (In  volume  v.)  * 

Beton-Coignet. — Report  on  Beton-Coignet,  its  fabrication  and  uses — 
construction  of  sewers,  water-pipes,  tanks,  foundations,  walls,  arches, 
buildings,  floors,  terraces ;  marine  experiments,  &c.,  by  Leonard  F. 
Beckwith,  Civil  Engineer. — pp.  21.  January  15, 1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Bibliography. — Bibliography  of  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867,  by  William  P.  Blake,  Commissioner  of  the  State  of  California  to 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867.  June,  1870.  (In  volume  i.) 

Buildings. — Report  upon  buildings,  building  materials,  and  methods 
of  building,  by  James  H.  Bowen,  United  States  Commissioner. — 
pp.  96.  September  28,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Cereals. — Report  on  cereals :  The  quantities  of  cereals  produced  in 
different  countries  compared,  by  Samuel  B.  Ruggles,  Vice-President  * 
of  the  United  States  Commission.  The  quality  and  characteristics  of 
the  cereals  exhibited,  by  George  S.  Hazard,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner. — x>p.  26.  September  28,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Chemistry. — The  progress  and  condition  of  several  departments  of 
industrial  chemistry,  by  J.  Lawrence  Smith,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner. — pp.  ix,  146.  September  7,  1869.  (In  volume  ii.) 

Civil  engineering. — Civil  engineering  and  public  works,  by  William 
P.  Blake,  Commissioner  of  the  State  of  California. — pp.  49.  March 
5,  1870.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Clothing. — Report  on  clothing  and  woven  fabrics ;  being  classes 
twenty-seven  to  thirty -nine  of  group  four.  By  Paran  Stevens,  United 
States  Commissioner.  In  press,  April,  1870.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Coal. — Report  on  the  manufacture  of  pressed  or  agglomerated  coal,  by 
Henry  F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  19.  Octo¬ 
ber  8,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Cotton. — Report  ujion  cotton,  by  E.  R.  Mudge,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner,  with  a  supplemental  report  by  B.  F.  Nourse,  Honorary  Com¬ 
missioner. — pp.  ii,  115.  June  28,  1869.  (In  volume  vi.) 


8  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Education.— Report  on  education,  by  J.  W.  Hoyt,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioner.— pp.  398.  June,  1870.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Report  on  school-houses  and  the  means  of  promoting  popular  edu¬ 
cation,  by  J.  R.  Freese,  United  States  Commissioner.— pp.  13.  Octo¬ 
ber  8,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Engineering.— Report  upon  steam- engineering,  as  illustrated  by  the 
Paris  Universal  Exposition,  1867,  by  William  S.  Auchincloss,  Honor¬ 
ary  Commissioner.— pp.  72.  August  2,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Fine  arts. — Report  on  the  fine  arts,  by  Frank  Leslie,  United  States 
Commissioner.— pp.  43.  February  6,  1869.  (In  volume  i.) 

The  fine  arts  applied  to  the  useful  arts — report  by  the  committee, 
Frank  Leslie,  S.  F.  B.  Morse,  Thomas  W.  Evans,  United  States  Com¬ 
missioners. — pp.  8,  with  33  leaves  of  wood  engravings.  February  6, 
1869.  (In  volume  i.) 

Food. — Report  on  the  preparation  of  food,  by  W.  E.  Johnston,  M.  D., 
Honorary  Commissioner. — pp.  19.  October  8,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

General  survey. — General  survey  of  the  Exposition,  with  a  report 
on  the  character  and  condition  of  the  United  States  Section. — pp. 
325.  January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  i.) 

Gold  and  silver. — (See  Precious  metals.) 

Introduction. — Introduction,  with  selections  from  the  correspondence 
of  United  States  Commissioner  General  Beckwith  and  others,  show¬ 
ing  the  organization  and  administration  of  the  United  States  Section. — 
pp.  184.  May,  1870.  (In  volume  i.) 

Iron  and  steel. — The  production  of  iron  and  steel,  in  its  economic 
and  social  relations,  by  Abram  S.  Hewitt,  United  States  Commis¬ 
sioner,  1868. — pp.  183.  January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  ii.) 

Mining. — Report  on  mining  and  the  mechanical  preparation  of  ores,  by 
Henry  F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  United  States  Commissioner,  and  Alfred  Huet, 
F.  Geyler,  and  C.  Lepainteur,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineers,  Paris, 
France.  February  19,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Munitions  of  war. — Report  on  the  munitions  of  war,  by  Charles  B. 
Norton  and  W.  J.  Valentine,  United  States  Commissioners. — pp.  213. 
January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Musical  instruments. — Report  upon  musical  instruments,  by  Paran 
Stevens,  United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  18.  June  21,  1869.  (In 
volume  v.) 

Ores,  mechanical  preparation  of. — (See  Mining.) 

Photography. — Photographs  and  photographic  apparatus,  by  Henry 
F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  19.  October  8, 
1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Precious  metals. — Report  upon  the  precious  metals,  being  statistical 
notices  of  the  principal  gold  and  silver  producing  regions  of  the  world 
represented  at  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition,  by  William  P.  Blake, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


9 


Commissioner  of  the  State  of  California. — pp.  viii,  369.  March  11, 
1869.  (In  volume  ii.) 

School-houses. — (See  Education.) 

Silk. — Report  on  silk  and  silk  manufactures,  by  Elliot  C.  Cowdin,  Uni¬ 
ted  States  Commissioner _ pp.  51.  January  7,  1869.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Surgery. — Report  on  instruments  and  apparatus  of  medicine,  surgery, 
and  hygiene,  surgical  dentistry  and  the  materials  which  it  employs, 
anatomical  preparations,  ambulance  tents  and  carriages,  and  military 
sanitary  institutions  in  Europe,  by  Thomas  W.  Evans,  M.  D.,  United 
States  Commissioner. — pp.  70.  January  28,  1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

Telegraphy.— Examination  of  the  telegraphic  apparatus  and  the  pro¬ 
cesses  in  telegraphy,  by  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  LL.  D.,  United  States 
Commissioner. — pp.  166.  November  20,  1869.  (In  volume  iv.) 

Outline  of  the  history  of  the  Atlantic  cables,  by  H.  F.  Q.  D’Aligny, 
United  States  Commissioner. — pp.  13.  October  8, 1869.  (In  volume  v.) 

United  States  Section,  report  on. — (See  General  survey ,  &c.) 

Vine. — Report  upon  the  culture  and  products  of  the  vine,  by  Marshall 
P.  Wilder,  Alexander  Thompson,  William  J.  Flagg,  Patrick  Barry, 
committee. — pp.  28.  October  8,  1869.  (In  volume*v.) 

Wool. — Report  upon  wool  and  manufactures  of  wool,  by  E.  R.  Mudge, 
United  States  Commissioner,  assisted  by  John  L.  Hayes,  Secretary  of 
the  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers. — pp.  143.  January 
7,  1869.  (In  volume  vi.) 

Weights,  measures,  and  coins. — Extracts  from  the  report  of  the 
International  Committee  on  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins,  with  a 
notice  of  the  introduction  of  the  metrical  system  in  the  United 
States  and  its  relations  to  other  systems  of  weights  and  measures. — 
pp.  47.  June,  1870.  (In  volume  i.) 

AMERICA.— CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Republiques  de  l'Amerique  centrale  et  meridionale.  Notices  et  cata¬ 
logues.  (Bolivia,  Argentine  Confederation,  Costa  Rica,  Ecuador, 
Hayti,  Nicaragua,  New  Granada,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Salvador,  Uruguay, 
Venezuela.)  Paris,  Bouchard- Huzard,  5  Rue  de  FlSperon,  1867. 

IStats  Americains.  Leurs  produits,  leur  commerce,  en  vue  de  l’Ex- 
position  Universelle  de  Paris,  par  Tenre.  Paris,  Henri  Plon,  1867. 

Chili. — Notice  statistique  sur  le  Chili.  Moutereau,  Zanote. 

Squateur. — Republique  de  PBquateur.  Notice  et  catalogue.  Paris, 
Bouchard-Huzard,  5  Rue  de  1‘Bperon,  1867. 

Chili. — Notice  statistique  sur  le  Chili  et  catalogue  des  mineraux  envoyes 
a  l’Exposition  Universelle.  Paris,  Poitevin,  2  Rue  Damiette,  1867. 
8o  83  pp. 

La  Confederation  Argentine,  48  pp. 


10 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


La  Republique  Argentine,  &c.  Rapport,  adresse  au  gouvernement 
de  sa  Majesty  britannique,  par  M.  Frances  Clair  Ford,  secretaire  de 
la  legation  britannique  a  Buenos  Ayres,  &c.  8°.  79  pp.  (Translated 

from  tlie  British  Blue  Book.) 

Republique  de  Nicaragua. — (Single  sheet  of  statistics.) 

AUSTRIA. 

Katalog  der  bsterreichischen  Abtheilnng,  herausgegeben  vom  k.  k. 
Central-Comity  fur  die  Pariser  Ausstellung.  Wien. 

Catalogue  special  du  royaume  de  Hongrie.  Paris,  Aug.  Marc,  22 
Rue  de  Yerneuil,  1867. 

Katalog  der  vom  k.  k.  Ministerium  fur  Cultus  und  Unterricht  ausge- 
stellten  Unterrichtsgegenstande,  herausgegeben  vom  k.  k.  Central- 
Comite  fur  die  Pariser  Ausstellung.  Wien. 

Officieller  Ausstellungsbericht,  herausgegeben  durch  das  k.  k. 
osterreichische  Central-Comity.  Ausstellung  zu  Paris,  1867.  Wien, 
Wilhelm  Braum tiller,  1867-1869.  In  seven  volumes  8°.,  including 
one  volume  of  illustrations. 

Munzen,  Masse„und  Gewichte. — Die  internation  ale  Miinz-  Mass  und 
Gewichts-  Commission  der  Pariser  Ausstellung  von  1867.  Yortrag 
gehalten  in  der  Wochenversammlung  des  Yereins  vom  21.  December, 
1867,  von  F.  Bomches.  Wien,  Yerlag  des  Yerfassers,  1868. 

Forets. — Les  ri chesses  forestieres  de  FAutriche  et  leur  exportation. 
Explication  relative  aux  objets  faisant  partiede  Fexposition  forestiere 
de  FAutriche  a  Paris,  par  Joseph  Wessely.  Yienne,  1867. 

Yerzeichniss  der  Anmeldungen  fur  die  Welt- Ausstellung  zu  Paris  im 
Jahre  1867.  Im  Auftrage  des  k.  k.  Central-Comites  fiir  die  Agri- 
cultur-  Kunst-  und  Industrie- Ausstellung  zu  Paris,  zusammengestellt 
von  Dr.  E.  Hornig.  Wien,  1866. 

MinistLre  de  la  guerre. — Notice  sur  les  objets  formant  Fexposition 
collective  du  ininistere  de  la  guerre  I.  R.  d’Autriche  a  FExposition  de 
Paris.  Paris,  Aug.  Marc,  1867. 

Kurze  Mittiieilungen  liber  Berg-  und  Hiittenwesens-Maschinen  und 
Baugegenstande  auf  der  allgemeinen  Industrie- Ausstellung  zu  Paris, 
1867,  in  111  selbstandigen,  durch  Holzschnitte  illustrirten,  Artikeln, 
von  Peter  Ritter  von  Rittinger.  Wien,  Druck  und  Yerlag  der  k.  k. 
Hof-  und  Staats-Druckerei,  1867. 

L’Institut  gisologique  imperial  et  royal  d’Autriche,  par  F.  de  Hauer. 
Yienne,  Geitler,  1867. 

La  Slavonie.  Sa  production  et  son  commerce.  Aper^u  redige  a 
l’occasion  de  FExposition  Universelle  a  Paris,  par  Felix  Lay.  Essegg, 
1867. 

AutricHE. — Notice  sur  les  objets  formant  Fexposition  collective  du 
ministere  de  la  guerre  I.-R.  d’Autriche,  a  l’Exposition  Internationale 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


11 

de  Paris,  1867.  8°.  54  pp.  Paris,  Typographic  Auguste  Marc, 
1867. 

BADEN. 

Les  exposants  du  grand-duche  de  Bade  et  leurs  produits.  Publica¬ 
tion  de  la  Commission  Grand-ducale.  Carlsruhe,  Fr.  Muller,  1867. 

Die  Betheiligung  des  Grossherzogthums  Baden  an  der  Universal-Aus- 
stellung  zu  Paris,  (1867,)  lierausgegeben  von  der  badischen  Ausstel- 
lung-Com mission.  Carlsruhe,  F.  Muller,  1867. 

BAVARIA. 

Catalogue  de  Fexposition  des  beaux-arts.  (Notices.)  Paris,  Kugel- 
maun,  13  Rue  Grange-Bateliere,  1867. 

Die  Industrie  und  Landwirthschaft  Bayerns  auf  der  internationalen 
Ausstellung  zu  Paris  im  Jahre  1867.  Mittheilungen  und  Aufschliisse 
iiber  die  bayerischen  Aussteller  und  deren  Producte.  Miinchen,  C. 
Wolf  und  Sohn,  1867. 

L’Industrie  de  la  Baviere  a  FExposition  Universelle  de  Paris  en  1867. 
Notes  d^taillees  sur  les  exposants  et  leurs  produits.  Paris,  Kugel- 
mann,  1867. 

'  * 

Konigreich  Bayern.  Statistisclie  Mittheilungen.  Miinchen,  M. 

Possenbacher’  sche  Buchdruckerei. 

Die  bayerische  Landwirthschaft  auf  der  Ausstellung  zu  Paris,  1867. 
Miinchen,  Possenbacher’  sche  Buchdruckerei. 

Expose  de  la  fondation,  du  developpement  et  de  Factivite  de  Fficole 
Royale  des'  Beaux- Arts  et  des  Metiers  &  Nuremberg,  servant  dupli¬ 
cation  aux  travaux  de  Fecole  destines  a  FExposition  de  Paris  en  1867. 
Nuremberg,  Bieling  (Dietz.) 

BELGIUM. 

Catalogue  des  produits  industriels  et  des  oeuvres  d’art.  Bruxelles, 
Bruyant-Cliristophe.  12°.  685  pp.  Bruxelles,  Imprimerie  Bruylaut- 
Christophe  &  Cie.  33  Rue  Blaes,  1867. 

Notice  sur  les  constructions  elevees  dans  la  partie  du  pare  reservee  a 
la  Belgique,  par  Du  Pre,  rnembre  delegue  a  Paris  de  la  Commission 
Beige.  Bruxelles,  Van  Dooren,  25  Chaussee  de  Wavre,  1867. 

R^sum^  de  statistique  belge,  d’apres  les  documents  officiels,  par 
Faider,  delegue  de  la  Belgique  et  des  Pays-Bas  au  jury  special  institue 
liour  un  Nouvel  Ordre  de  Recompenses.  Bruxelles,  Bruyant-Chris-  , 
tophe,  1867. 

Materiel  et  proced^s  des  exploitations  rurales  et  forestieres,  par 
Leclerc,  inspecteur  general  de  Fagriculture  et  des  chemins  vicinaux 
en  Belgique.  A  volume  containing  7  pla  tes  and  59  figures  interspersed 
in  the  text.  Paris,  Librairie  agricole,  26  Rue  Jacob.  Bruxelles, 
Librairie  polytechnique,  9  Rue  de  la  Madeleine,  1868. 


12 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Du  Pre. — Note  sur  la  transmission  telodynamique,  invents  par  Hirn, 
par  Du  Pre,  ing^nieur-en-chef  honoraire  des  pouts  et  chaussees  beiges. 
Bruxelles,  Yan  Dooren,  1869. 

BRAZIL. 

L’Empire  du  Brazil  a  PExposition  TJuiverselle  de  1867  a  Paris.  8°. 
200  pp.  Rio  Janeiro,  Laemmert,  61  B.,  Rue  des  Invalides,  1867. 

Brazil. — The  empire  of  Brazil  at  the  Paris  International  Exhibition 
of  1867.  Printed  by  E.  &  H.  Laemmert.  8°.  197  pp.  Rio  de  Ja¬ 
neiro,  61  B.,  Rua  dos  Invalidos,  1867.  (An  edition  in  French,  also,  as 
above.) 

Relatorio  sobre  a  exposigao  universal  de  1867,  redigido  pelo  secretario 
da  commissao  brazileira  Julio  Constancio  de  Villeneuve.  2  volumes. 
Paris,  Glaye,  7  Rue  Saint  Benoit,  1868. 

Travaux  au  sujet  des  produits  du  Bresil,  qui  sont  a  PExposition  Uni- 
verselle  de  Paris  en  1867,  par  Jose  de  Saldanha  da  Gama.  Paris, 
Briere,  257  Rue  Saint-Honore,  1867.  29  pp. 

Breve  noticia  sobre  a  collec§ao  das  madeiras  do  Brazil  apresentada 
na  exposi§ao  internacional  de  1867,  pelos  Srs.  Freire  Allemao,  Cus. 
tudio  Alves  Serrao,  Ladislau  Netto  e  J.  de  Saldanha  da  Gama.  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  1867. 

Classement  botanique  des  plantes  alimentaires  du  Bresil,  par  Jose 
de  Saldanha  da  Gama.  Paris,  Martinet,  2  Rue  Mignon,  1867. 

Blumenau. — La  colonie  de  Blumenau.  (A  small  pamphlet.)  Paris, 
Berger,  5  Impasse  des  Filles-Dieu,  1867. 

DENMARK. 

Le  Danemark  a  PExposition  TJuiverselle  de  1867,  publie  par  la  Com¬ 
mission  danoise;  la  partie  historique,  par  Yaldemar  Schmidt.  Paris, 
Reinwald,  15,  Rue  des  Saints-Peres,  1867. 

EGYPT. 

L’ISgypte  a  PExposition  Universelle  de  1867,  par  Charles  Edmond, 
commissaire  general  de  Pexposition  vice-royale  d’Pgypte ;  ouvrage 
orne  du  portrait  de  S.  A.  le  vice-roi  d’figypte,  et  de  trois  belles  plan¬ 
ches  :  Temple,  “  Selainlik,”  “  Okel.7-  Paris,  Dentu,  1867. 

Aper£U  de  Phistoire  ancienne  d’figyiite,  pour  l’intelligence  des  monu¬ 
ments  exposes  dans  le  temple  egyptien  du  pare,  par  Mariette-Bey. 
Paris,  Dentu. 

FRANCE. 

Catalogue  general,  publie  par  la  Commission  Imperiale.  Three 
editions,  one  in  one  volume,  another  in  two  volumes,  and  the  last  in 
nine  numbers.  8°.  1538-xxviii  pp.  Paris,  Dentu.  No  date,  [1867.]— 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


13 


Londres,  Johnson  &  Sons,  Castle  street,  Holborn,  1867. — The  edition 
in  two  volumes,  as  well  as  that  in  nine  numbers,  contain  interesting 
introductions  to  each  of  the  classes.  Edition  in  English  in  one  octavo 
volume,  Johnson  &  J^ons. 

Catalogue  general,  public  par  la  Commission  Imperiale.  Histoire 
du  travail  et  des  monuments  historiques,  2  volumes.  Paris,  Dentil. 
Londres,  Johnson  &  Sons. 

Catalogue  general,  publie  par  la  Commission  Imperiale.  Annexe 
agricole;  Billancourt,  instruments  et  specimens  de  culture.  Paris, 
Dentu,  1867. 

Catalogue  special  de  Texposition  d’horticulture.  Paris,  Dentu,  1867. 

Catalogue  raisonne  des  collections  exposees  par  Padministration  des 
forets  de  France.  Paris,  Imprimerie  imperiale,  1867. 

Catalogue  et  notices  des  missions  protestantes  et  evangeliques. 
Paris,  Dentu,  1867.  Large  8°.  191  pp. 

DixiLme  groupe. — L’enquete  du  dixieme  groupe :  catalogue  analytique 
des  documents,  memoires,  et  rapports  exposes  hors  classe  daps  le 
dixieme  groupe  et  relatifs  aux  institutions  publiques  et  privees,  creees 
par  l’6tat,  les  departements,  les  communes  et  les  particuliers,  pour 
ameliorer  la  condition  physique  et  morale  de  la  population.  Paris, 
Dentu,  1867.  8°  283  pp. 

Poids  et  mesures. — Bapports,  proces-verbaux  et  catalogue  du  comite 
des  poids  et  mesures  et  des  monnaies. — pp.  163.  Paris,  Dentu. 

Exposants  recompenses. — Catalogue  officiel  des  exposants  recom¬ 
penses  par  le  jury  international.  Paris  Dentu,  [1867.]  8°.  About 
500  pages  ;  each  group  separately  paged. 

Bapports  du  jury  international,  publies  sous  la  direction  de  M. 
Michel  Chevalier,  13  volumes.  8°.  Paris,  Paul  Dupont,  1868. 

The  majority  of  the  different  reports  contained  in  this  collection 
have  been  printed  separately,  and  form  as  many  interesting  mono¬ 
graphs. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  titles  of  the  reports  in  the  series  in  their 

order  of  succession,  from  the  Introduction,  in  Volume  I,  to  the  end  of 

Volume  XIII  : 

RAPPORTS  DU  JURY  INTERNATIONAL. 

Introduction,  par  M.  Michel  Chevalier.  Tome  premier,  pp.  i-dxcvi. 
A  general  view  of  the  whole  range  of  human  industry  and  art  as  pre¬ 
sented  at  the  Exposition,  followed  by  a  list  of  authors  of  reports  in 
the  series,  and  a  complete  table  of  contents  for  the  thirteen  volumes. 

Peinture,  dessins,  sculpture,  architecture,  gravure  et  lithographic,  par 
M.  Ernest  Chesneau.  (Group  I,  Classes  1-5.)  Bapports  du  jury  inter¬ 
national,  tome  1,  pp.  1-133. 


14 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Histoire  du  travail  :  Rapport  de  M.  du  Sommerard,  commissaire 
del^gue.  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  1,  pp.  137-246. 

Monuments  et  specimens  d’architecture  eleves  dans  le  pare  du  Champ 
de  Mars.  Rapport  special  de  M.  A.  de  Saint-Yves.  Rapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  1,  pp.  247-354. 

Nouvel  ordre  de  recompenses,  institue  eu  faveur  des  etablisse- 
ments  et  des  localites  qui  ont  developpe  la  bonne  harmonie  entre  les 
personnes  cooperant  aux  inemes  travaux  et  qui  ont  assure  aux  ouvriers 
le  bien-etre  materiel,  intellectuel  et  moral.  Rapport  par  M.  Alfred  Le- 
roux,  vice-president  du  corps  legislatif,  membre  de  la  Commission 
Imperiale.  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  1,  pp.  355-534. 

Produits  d’imprimerie  et  de  librairie,  par  M.  Paul  Boiteau.  (Group 
II,  Class  6.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  2,  pp.  4-99. 

Ob  jets  de  papeterie  :  Materiel  des  arts,  de  la  peinture  et  du  dessin : 
Section  I.  Papeterie,  par  M.  Roulhac.  Section  II.  Papiers.  Sucee- 
danes  des  chiffons,  par  M.  Anselme  Payen.  Section  III.  Materiels  des 
arts,  de  la  peinture  et  du  dessin,  par  M.  Roulhac.  (Group  II,  Class  7.) 
Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  2,  pp.  103-139. 

Application  du  dessin  et  la  plastique  aux  artsindustriels:  Section  I. 
Proeedes  et  enseignement  de  Tart  industriel,  par  M.  Baltard.  Section 

II.  Applications  de  Part  a  Tindustrie,  par  M.  Edmund  Taigny.  Section 

III.  Gravures  sur  pierres  dures,  par  M.  Barre.  (Group  II,  Class  8.) 
Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  2,  pp.  145-189. 

fipREUVES  et  appareils  de  photographie,  par  M.  Davanne.  (Group  II, 
Class  9.)  Rapport  du  jury  international,  tome  2,  pp.  193-234. 

Instruments  de  m:usique,  par  M.  Fetis.  (Group  II,  Class  10.)  Rap¬ 
ports  du  jury  international,  tome  2,  pp.  289-318. 

Appareils  et  instruments  de  Part  medical,  ambulances  civiles  et  mili- 
taires:  Section  I.  Hygiene  et  medecine,  par  MM.  les  Docteurs  A. 
Tardieu  et  Sir  John  Oliffe.  Section  II.  Instruments  de  chirurgie,  par 
M.  le  Docteur  Nelaton.  Section  III.  Appareils  et  ouvrages  de  gymn an¬ 
tique,  par  M.  le  Docteur  Demarquay.  Section  IY.  Appareils  orthope- 
diques,  prosthese  chirurgicale,  bandages,  secoursaux  blesses,  parM.  le 
Docteur  Tillaux.  Section  Y.  Yoitures  et  tentes  d’ambulance,  par  M.  le 
Docteur  Thomas  W.  Evans.  Section  YL  Chirurgie  dentaire,  par  M. 
le  Docteur  Thomas  W.  Evans.  (Group  II,  Class  2.)  Rapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  2,  pp.  321-411. 

Instruments  de  precision  et  materiel  de  l’enseignement  des  sciences : 
Section  I.  Observations  generates,  par  M.  Lissajous.  Section  II.  Appa¬ 
reils  d’electricite,  de  magnetisme  et  de  physique  mecanique,  par  M.  Pri- 
vat-Descliauel.  Section  III.  Instruments  d’astronomie,  de  geodesie,  de 
topographie,  de  marine,  d’optique  et  d’acoustique,  par  M.  Lissajous. 
Section  IY.  Poids  et  mesures,  monnaies,  par  M.  de  Lapparent.  Section 
Y.  Appareils  densimetriques,  par  M.  L.  II.  de  Baumhauer.  Section  YI. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


15 


Instruments  de  math^matiques  et  modeles  pour  Penseignement  des 
sciences,  par  M.  Ed.  Grateau.  Section  VII.  Modeles  d’anatomie,  par  M. 
Tillaux.  (Group  II,  Class  12.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome 

2,  pp.  415-553. 

Cartes  et  appareils  de  geograpliie,  de  geologie  et  de  cosmograpliie : 
Section  I.  Cartes  topographiques,  hydrographiques  et  geographiques, 
plans  en  relief,  par  M.  le  Colonel  Ferri  Pisani.  Section  II.  Cartes  ma¬ 
rines,  par  M.  Darondeau.  Section  III.  Cartes  geologiques,  (premiere 
partie,)  par  M.  Edmond  Fuclis;  cartes  geologiques,  (seconde  partie,) 
par  M.  Daubree.  (Group  II,  Class  13.)  Eapports  du  jury  international, 
tome  2,  pp.  557-653. 

Meubles  de  luxe  :  Section  I.  Considerations  sur  l’art  dans  ses  applica¬ 
tions  &  Pindustrie,  par  M.  E.  Guicliard.  Section  II.  Meubles  de  luxe, 
par  MM.  Dieterle  et  Pollen.  (Group  III,  Class  14.)  Eapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  3,  pp.  5-35. 

Ouyrages  de  tapissier  et  de  decorateur,  par  MM.  Jules  Dieterle  et  Digby 
Wyatt.  (Group  III,  Class  15.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome 

3,  pp.  39-56. 

Cristaux,  verrerie  de  luxe  et  vitraux:  Section  I.  Verrerie,  par  MM. 
E.  Peligot  et  G.  Bontemps.  Section  II.  Vitraux,  par  MM.  Bontemps  et 
Bceswilwald.  (Group  III,  Class  16.)  Eapports  du  jury  international, 
tome  3,  pp.  59-97. 

Porcelaines,  faiences  et  autres  poteries  de  luxe :  Section  I.  Terres 
cuites  et  gres,  par  M.  Chandelon.  Section  II.  Faiences  fines,  faiences 
decoratives  et  porcelaines  tendres,  par  M.  Aime  Gerard.  Section  III. 
Porcelaines  dures,  par  M.  F.  Dommartin.  (Group  III,  Class  17.)  Eap¬ 
ports  du  jury  international,  tome  3,  pp.  103-181. 

Tapis,  tapisseries  et  tissus  d’ameublement Section  I.  Tapis  et  tapis- 
series,  par  M.  Badin.  Section  II.  Tapis  d’un  usage  ordinaire,  par  M. 
W.  Chocqueel.  Section  III.  Tissus  d’aineublement,  par  M.  Carlhian. 
Section  IV.  Toiles  cirees,  par  M.  Persoz  fils.  (Group  III,  Class  18.) 
Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  3,  pp.  187-218. 

Papiers  peints,  par  M.  Aldrophe.  (Group  III,  Class  19.)  Eapports 
du  jury  international,  tome  3,  pp.  221-236. 

Coutellerie,  par  M.  Dubocq.  (Group  III,  Class  20.)  Eapports  du 
jury  international,  tome  3,  pp.  239-256. 

Orfevrerie  :  Section  I.  Orfevrerie,  par  M.  Paul  Christofle.  Section 
II.  Emaux  et  damasquine,  par  M.  Philippe  Delaroche.  (Group  III, 
Class  21.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  3,  pp.  259-280. 
Bronzes  d’art,  fontes  d’art  diverses,  objets  en  metaux  repousses,  par 
M.  Barbedienne.  (Group  III,  Class  22.)  Eapports  du  jury  interna¬ 
tional,  tome  3,  pp.  283-313. 

Horlogerie,  par  M.  Breguet.  (Group  III,  Class  23.)  Eapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  3,  pp.  317-336. 


16 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Appareils  et  procedes  de  chauffage  et  d’eclairage :  Section  I.  Appa- 
reils  d’economie  domestique,  par  M.  Muller.  Section  II.  Chauffage  et 
ventilation,  par  M.  Louis  Ser.  Section  III.  Lampes  servant  a  l’eclai 
rage  au  moyen  des  huiles  animates,  v^getales,  on  minerales  accessories 
de  l’eclairage,  par  M.  Henri  Peligot.  Section  IY.  Allumettes,  par  M. 
Henri  Peligot.  (Group  III,  Class  24.)  Bapports  du  jury  international, 
tome  3,  pp.  339-400. 

Parfumerie,  par  M.  Barreswil.  (Group  III,  Class  25.)  Bapports  du 
jury  international,  tome  3,  pp.  403-423. 

Ob  jets  de  maroquinerie,  de  tabletterie,  et  de  vannerie :  Section  I.  Be- 
liure,  par  M.  Paul  Boiteau.  Section  II.  Objets  divers  de  maroquinerie, 
de  tabletterie,  et  de  vannerie,  par  M.  Louis  Aucoc.  Group  III,  Class 
26.)  Bapports  du  jury  international,  tome  3,  pp.  427-500. 

Pils  et  tissus  du  coton :  Section  I.  Filature  du  coton,  par  M.  Mimerel 
fils.  Section  II.  Industrie  cotonniere,  tissage,  par  M.  Gustave  Boy. 
Section  III.  Tissus  de  coton  imprimes,  par  M.  Jules  Kcechlin.  (Group 
IY,  Class  27.)  Bapports  du  jury  international,  tome  4,  pp.  6-65. 

Fils  et  tissus  de  lin,  de  cbanvre,  &c. :  Section  I.  Lins  et  chanvres,  par 
M.  Casse.  Section  II.  Tissus  de  fibres  vegetates,  equivalents  du  lin  et 
du  cbanvre,  jute,  China-grass,  et  textiles  divers,  par  M.  A.  F.  Legentil. 
(Group  IY,  Class  28.)  Bapports  du  jury  international,  tome  4,  pp. 
69-104. 

Fils  et  tissus  de  laine  peignee:  Section  I.  Laines  peignees  et  fils  de 
laine  peignee,  par  M.  J.  E.  Charles  Seydoux.  Section  II.  Tissus  de  pure 
laine  peignee,  tissus  de  laine  melangee  d’autres  matieres,  et  etoffes  de 
fantaisie  en  laine  cardee  legerement  foulee,  par  M.  Larsonnier.  (Group 
IY,  Class  29.)  Bapports  du  jury  international,  tome  4,  pp.  108-137. 

Fils  et  tissus  de  laine  cardee :  Section  I.  Filature  de  la  laine  cardee, 
par  M.  Balsan.  Section  II.  Industrie  drapiere,  par  M.  Yauquelin. 
(Group  IY,  Class  30.)  Bapports  du  jury  international,  tome  4,  pp. 
141-158. 

Soies  et  tissus  de  soie  :  Section  I.  Soies,  par  M.  Jules  Baimbert.  Sec¬ 
tion  II.  Tissus  de  soie,  par  M.  Alphonse  Payen.  Section  III.  Bubans, 
par  M.  Girodon.  (Group  IY,  Class  31.)  Bapports  du  jury  interna¬ 
tional,  tome  4,  pp.  162-230. 

Chales,  par  M.  David  Gerson.  (Group  IY,  Class  32.)  Bapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  4,  pp.  223-230. 

Dentelles,  tulles,  broderies  et  passementeries :  Section  I.  Dentelles, 
par  M.  Felix  Aubry.  Section  II.  Tissus  de  soie  et  de  coton  unis,  par  M. 
Delhaye.  Section  III.  Broderies,  par  M.  Bondelet.  Section  IY.  Passe¬ 
menterie,  par  M.  Louvet.  Section  Y.  Broderies  et  passementeries  ori¬ 
entates,  M.  de  Launay.  (Group  IY,  Class  33.)  Bapports  du  jury  inter¬ 
national,  tome  4,  pp.  233-280. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


17 


Articles  de  bonneterie  et  de  lingerie,  objets  accessoires  du  vetement: 
Section  I.  Bonneterie,  par  M.  Tailbonis.  Section  II.  Lingerie  confec¬ 
tion^  pour  borames :  chemises,  flanelles,  cols-cravates,  et  faux  cols,  par 
M.  Hayem  ainA  Section  III.  Industrie  des  corsets,  par  M.  E.  Des- 
champs.  Section  IY.  Parapluies  et  ombrelles,  Cannes,  fouets,  et  cra- 
vaches,  par  M.  Duvelleroy.  Section  Y.  Fabrication  des  eventails,  par 
M.  Duvelleroy.  Section  YI.  Gants  et  bretelles,  par  M.  Carcenac.  Sec¬ 
tion  YII.  Boutons,  par  M.  Trelon^  (Group  IY,  Class  34.)  Eapports  du 
jury  international,  tome  4,  pp.  283-344. 

Habillements  des  deux  sexes :  Section  I.  Yetements  d’homme  et  de 
femme,  par  M.  Auguste  Dusautoy.  Section  II.  Fleurs  et  plumes,  cha¬ 
peaux  de  paille,  modes  et  coilfures  de  femme,  par  M.  Charles  Petit.  Sec¬ 
tion  III.  Ouvrages  en  cheveux,  par  M.  Maxime  Gaussen.  Section  IY. 
Chaussures,  par  M.  Maxime  Gaussen.  Section  Y.  Chapellerie,  par  M . 
Laville.  (Group  IY,  Class  35.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome 
4,  pp.  347-408. 

Joaillerie  et  bijouterie,  par  MM.  Fossin  et  Beaugrand.  (Group  IY, 
Class  36.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  4,  pp.  411-438. 

Armes  portatives  :  Section  I.  Armes  de  guerre  portatives,  par  M.  le 
Baron  Treuille  de  Beaulieu.  Section  II.  Les  armes,  par  M.  Challeton 
de  Brughat.  Section  III.  Armes  de  tous  les  temps,  par  M.  Henri  Ber- 
thoud.  (Group  IY,  Class  37.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  4, 
pp.  442-498. 

Articles  de  voyage  et  de  campement,  par  M.  Teston.  (Group  IY, 
Class  38.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  4,  pp.  501-526. 

Bimbeloterie,  par  M.  Jules  Delbruck.  (Group  IY,  Class  39.)  Bap- 
ports  du  jury  international,  tome  4,  pp.  529-538. 

Produits  de  l’exploitation  des  mines  et  de  la  metallurgie :  Section  I. 
Substances  minerales,  par  M.  Daubree.  Section  II.  Combustibles  arti- 
ficiels,  par  Edmond  Fuchs.  Section  III.  Acier,  par  M.  Goldenberg. 
Section  IY.  L’acier  en  1867.  Section  Y.  Fontes  et  fers,  par  MM.  Ed¬ 
mond  Fuchs  et  P.  Worms  de  Bomilly.  Section  YI.  Fers  et  aciers  ou- 
vr£s,  par  M.  Martelet.  Section  YII.  Cuivres  bruts  et  affines,  par  M.  J. 
Martelet.  Section  YIII.  Exploitation  et  traitement  des  minerals  de 
plomb,  par  M.  L.  E.  Bivot.  Section  IX.  Zinc,  par  M.  Edmond  Fuchs. 
Section  X.  Platine,  oxygene,  silicium  et  bore,  glucinium,  par  M.  Sainte- 
Claire  Deville.  Section  XI.  Metaux rares,  par  M.  Sainte-Claire  Deville. 
Section  XII.  Metaux  divers,  par  M.  Petitgand.  Section  XIII.  Obser¬ 
vations  generates  sur  Fetat  du  travail  des  mines,  par  M.  Petitgand. 
(Group  Y,  Class  40.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  5,  pp. 
5-700. 

Produits  des  expositions  et  des  industries  forestieres :  Section  I.  Par 
M.  fimile  Fournier.  Section  II.  Matieres  tannantes,  par  M.  Cavare 
fils.  (Group  Y,  Class  41.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  6, 
pp.  3-102. 


18 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Produits  de  la  cliasse,  de  la  peche,  et  des  cueillettes :  Section  I.  Spe¬ 
cimens  et  collections  d’animaux  de  toute  sorte,  par  M.  Ad.  Focillon  ; 
produits  de  la  cliasse :  fourrures  et  pelleteries,  poils,  crins,  plumes,  du¬ 
vets,  cornes,  dents,  ivoire  ou  ecaille,  muse,  &c.,  par  M.  Servant.  Sec¬ 
tion  II.  Gommes,  resines,  et  gommes  resines,  par  M.  I.  M.  Da  Sylva 
Ooutliinlio.  Section  IY.  Blanc  de  baleine,  stearinerie,  par  M.  J.  Law¬ 
rence  Smith.  (Group  Y,  Glass  42.)  Rapports  du  jury  international, 
tome  6,  pp.  105-182. 

Produits  agricoles  (non  alimentaires)  de  facile  conservation  :  Section 
I.  Production  de  coton,  par  M.  Augel  Dolfus.  Section  II.  Essais  de 
culture  du  coton  en  France,  par  M.  Focillon.  Section  III.  Lins  et  chan- 
vres.  oar  M.  Moll.  Section  IY.  Laines,  par  M.  Louis  Moll.  Section  Y. 
Cocons,  par  M.  Bobinet.  Section  YI.  L’histoire  naturelle  medicale  a 
PExpositionUniverselle,  parM.Chatin.  Section  YII.  Houblons,  par  M. 
Yictor  Borie.  Section  YIII.  Tabacs,  par  M.  Barral.  Section  IX.  Four- 
rages,  par  M.  Barral.  Section  X.  Les  expositions  agricoles  collectives, 
par  M.  Jules  Lestiboudois.  Section  XI.  Exposition  collective  de  P Al¬ 
geria,  par  M.  Themistocle  Lestiboudois.  Section  XII.  Rtat  de  Pagricul- 
ture  et  de  Pindustrie  dans  le  Levant,  par  M.  Marie  de  Launay.  Section 
XIII.  Produits  agricoles,  non  alimentaires,  de  PAmerique  Meridionale, 
par  M.  Martin  de  Moussy.  Section  XIY.  L’Amerique  Centrale  et 
PAmerique  Meridionale  a  PExposition  Universelle  de  1867,  par  M.  Y. 
Martin  de  Moussy.  Section  XY.  Xotice  sur  les  lies  Hawaii,  par  M. 
William  Martin.  (Group  Y,  Class  43.)  Rapports  du  jury  interna¬ 
tional,  tome  6,  pp.  185-568. 

Produits  eliimiques  et  pharmaceutiques :  Section  I.  Produits  chimiques 
pour  la  grande  industrie,  par  M.  Balard.  Section  II.  La  metliode  des 
vases  clos  et  ses  applications,  par  M.  Berthelot.  Section  III.  Savons  et 
industrie  savonniere,  par  M.  Fourcade.  Section  IY.  Industrie  stea- 
rique  ;  bougies,  parafine,  par  M.  Alphonse  Fourcade.  Section  Y.  Pro¬ 
duits  de  Pindustrie  du  caoutchouc  et  de  la  gutta-percha,  parM.  G.  Ge¬ 
rard.  Section  YI.  Decouverte  des  nouvelles  couleurs  derivees  de  la 
houille,  par  M.  Balard.  Section  YII.  Matieres  colorantes  derivees  de 
la  houille,  par  MM.  A.  W.  Hofmann,  Georges  de  Laire  et  Charles 
Girard.  Section  YIII.  Produits  pharmaceutiques,  par  MM.  Fumouge 
et  Barreswil.  (Group  Y,  Class  44.)  Rapports  du  jury  international, 
tome  7,  pp.  7-318. 

Specimens  des  procedes  chimiques  de  blanchiment,  de  teinture,  d’im- 
pression  et  d’appret :  Section  I.  Considerations  generales  sur  Pindustrie 
du  blanchiment,  de  la  teinture,  de  Pimpression  et  de  Pappret,  sur  les 
matieres  textiles,  (laines,  soie,  coton,  lin  et  chanvre,)  par  M.  Aime  Bou- 
tarel.  Section  II.  Teintures  et  impressions,  par  M.  J.  Persoz  fils. 
(Group  Y,  Class  45.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  7,  pp. 
321-361. 

Cuirs  et  peaux,  par  M.  Fauler.  (Group  Y,  Class  46.)  Rapports  du 
jury  international,  tome  7,  pp.  365-379. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


19 


Materiel  et  process  de  l’exploitation  des  mines  et  de  la  metallurgie  : 
Section  I.  Sondages,  par  M.  Gernaert.  Section  II.  Details  des  tra- 
vaux  r^cents  de  sondage,  par  M.  Ch.  Laurent-Degous6e.  Section  III. 
Sondages  du  Sahara  Oriental  de  la  Province  de  Constantine,  par  M. 
Dubocq.  Section  IY.  Travaux  de  captage  des  eaux  minerales,  eta- 
blissements  thermaux,  par  M.  Jules  Frangois.  Section  Y.  Materiel  et 
procedes  de  Fexploitation  des  mines,  par  M.  Callon.  Section  YI.  Pro¬ 
cedes  metallurgiques,  par  M.  Lan.  Section  YII.  Foyers  fumivores, 
par  M.  Ed.  Grateau.  Section  YIII.  Galvanoplastie,  par  M.  de  Jacobi. 
Section  IX.  Applications  en  grand  de  la  galvanoplastie  et  de  l’electro- 
metallurgie,  par  M.  Oudry.  (Group  YI,  Class  47.)  Eapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  8,  pp.  5-171. 

Materiel  et  procedes  des  exploitations  rurales  et  forestieres :  Section 
I.  Materiel  et  procedes  des  exploitations  rurales,  par  M.  Boitel.  Sec¬ 
tion  II.  Machines  locomobiles  et  machines  routieres,  par  M.  Tresca. 
Section  III.  Materiel  et  procedes  des  exploitations  forestieres,  par  M. 
Serval.  Section  IY.  Matieres  fertilisantes  d’origine  orgauique  ou 
minerale,  par  M.  Le  Baron  Justus  de  Liebig.  (Traduit  de  rallemand, 
par  M.  Michel  Bempp.)  Section  Y.  Assaiuissement  des  fosses  et  con¬ 
version  des  vidanges  en  engrais,  par  M.  Dumas.  Section  YI.  Etat  de 
Findustrie  des  engrais,  par  M.  Paul  Boiteau.  (Group  YI,  Class  48.) 
Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  8,  pp.  175-258. 

Engins  et  instruments  de  la  chasse,  de  la  peche  et  des  cueillettes :  Sec¬ 
tion  I.  Articles  de  peche,  Cannes,  lignes,  moulinets,  hamegons,  appats, 
&c.,  filets  de  mer  et  d’eau  douce,  machine  fabriquer  les  filets,  par  M. 
le  Docteur  A.  Gillet  de  Grandmont.  Section  II.  Materiel  et  procedes 
de  pisciculture  fluviale,  par  M.  Coumes.  Section  III.  Appareils  plon- 
geurs  et  scaphandres,  par  M.  le  Docteur  A.  Gillet  de  Grandmont. 
(Group  YI,  Class  49.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  8,  pp. 
262-292. 

Materiel  et  procedes  des  usines  agricoles  et  des  industries  elemen- 
taires :  Section  I.  Outillage  pour  la  fabrication  du  sucre  de  betterave, 
par  M.  le  Baron  Thenard.  Section  II.  Petrisseurs  mecaniques,  par  M. 
Lebandy.  Section  III.  Materiel  de  la  chocolaterie,  par  M.  le  Baron 
Thenard.  Section  IY.  Fabrication  de  la  glace,  par  M.  Arnould  The¬ 
nard.  (Group  YI,  Class  50.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  8, 
pp.  295-377. 

Materiel  des  arts  chimiques  de  la  pharmacie  et  de  la  tannerie :  Sec¬ 
tion  1.  Industrie  stearique,  par  M.  Motard.  Section  II.  Usines  a  gaz, 
par  M.  Eugene  Pelouze.  Section  III.  Materiel  de  la  pharmacie,  par  M. 
Amedee  Yee.  Section  IY.  Preparation  des  tabacs,  par  M.  Cavare  fils. 
Section  Y.  Materiel  et  outillage  mecanique  de  la  tannerie  et  de  1a. 
megisserie,  par  M.  A.  Perrault.  Section  YI.  Produits  refractaires,  par 
M.  Chandelon.  Section  YII.  Materiaux  et  appareils  des  usines  a  gaz, 
par  M.  Lawrence  Smith,  (Group  YI,  Class  51.)  Eapports  du  jury  inter¬ 
national,  tome  8,  pp.  382-476. 


20 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Moteurs,  gen^rateurs  et  appareils  mecaniques  specialement  adaptes 
aux  besoins  de  FExposition:  Section  I.  Service  mecanique  et  service 
hydraulique,  par  MM.  Jacqmin  et  Cheysson.  Section  II.  Manuten- 
tion  et  appareils  de  levage  employes  au  dechargement  et  au  enlarge¬ 
ment  des  colis,  par  M.  E.  Hangard.  Section  III.  Distribution  du  gaz 
au  palais  et  dans  le  pare  du  Champ  de  Mars,  par  M.  Guerard.  Section 
IV.  Ventilation  du  palais,  par  M.  le  Vicomte  d’Ussel.  (Group  VI, 
Class  52.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  8,  pp.  479-597. 

Machines  et  appareils  de  mecanique  generate :  Section  I.  Pieces  de- 
tachees  de  machines,  paliers,  embrayages,  declics,  appareils  de  grais- 
sage,  compteurs,  dynamometres,  modeles  et  dessins  de  machines,  par 
M.  P.  Worms  de  Romilly.  Section  II.  Appareils  fumivores,  compteurs, 
appareils  de  jaugeage,  pompes,  presses,  &c.,  par  M.  Lebleu.  Section 
111.  Machines'  servant  a  elever  les  fardeaux,  grues,  monte-charges, 
cries,  courroies,  par  M.  P.  Worms  de  Romilly.  Section  IV.  Moteurs 
hydrauliques,  par  M.  P.  Worms  de  Romilly.  Section  V.  Machines  a 
vapeur,  chaudieres,  generateurs,  &c.,  par  M.  P.  Luuyt.  Section  VI. 
Machines  a  gaz,  a  air  chaud,*a  ammoniaque,  moteurs  electriques,  mou- 
lins  a  vent,  &c.,  par  M.  Lebleu.  (Group  VI,  Class  53.)  Rapports  du 
jury  international,  tome  9,  pp.  5-107. 

Machines-outils  et  procedes  de  la  confection  des  objets  de  mobilier  et 
d’habitation :  Section  I.  Machines-outils,  par  M.  Tresca.  Section  II. 
Machines-outils  servant  specialement  au  travail  des  bois,  par  MM. 
Tresca  et  Lecoeuvre.  Section  III.  Machines  servant  au  travail  des 
matieres  argileuses,  par  M.  Tresca.  (Group  VI,  Class  54.)  Rapports 
du  jury  international,  tome  9,  pp.  110-162. 

Materiel  et  procedes  de  la  filature,  par  MM.  Michel  Alcan  et  Edouard 
Simon.  (Group  VI,  Class  55.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome 
9,  pp.  165-193. 

Materiel  du  tissage  et  des  apprets,  par  MM.  Michel  Alcan  et  Edouard 
Simon.  (Group  VI,  Class  56.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  9, 
pp.  195-222. 

Materiel  et  procedes  de  la  couture  et  de  la  confection  des  vetements, 
par  M.  Henry  F.  Q.  d’Aligny.  (Group  VI,  Class  57.)  Rapports  dujury 
international,  tome  9,  pp.  225-255. 

Materiel  et  procedes  de  la  papeterie,  des  teintures  et  des  impressions, 
par  MM.  Doumerc,  Laboulaye  et  Norm  and.  (Group  VI,  Class  59.) 
Rapimrts  du  jury  international,  tome  9,  pp.  261-294. 

Machines,  instruments  et  proced<5s  usit£s  dans  divers  travaux,  par  MM. 
Charles  Callon  et  Ferd.  Kohn.  (Group  VI,  Class  60.)  Rapports  du 
jury  international,  tome  9,  pp.  297-312. 

Carrosseree  et  charronnagke,  par  MM.  L.  Binder  et  C.  Lavoltee. 
(Group  VI,  Class  61.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  9,  pp. 
318-327. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  21 

Bourrelerie  et  sellerie,  par  M.  Noisette.  (Group  VI,  Class  62.) 

Rapports  clu  jury  international,  tome  9,  pp.  332-335. 

Materiel  des  chemins  de  fer:  Section  I.  Cliemins  de  fer;  expose 
economique,  par  MM.  Eugene  Flachat  et  de  Goldschmidt.  Section  II. 
Voie  et  materiel  fixe  de  la  voie,  par  MM.  Eugene  Flachat  et  de  Gold¬ 
schmidt.  Section  III.  Locomotives,  par  M.  Couche.  Section  IV.  Mate- 
( riel  roulant,  voitures  et  wagons,  par  M.  Henry  Mathieu.  Section  V. 
Signaux  optiques  et  acoustiques,  par  M.  J.  Morandiere.  Section  VI. 
Modeles,  plans  et  dessins  de  gares,  de  stations,  de  remises  et  de 
d^pendances  de  Pexploitation  des  chemins  de  fer,  par  M.  J.  Morandiere. 
(Group  VI,  Class  63.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  9,  pp. 
340-532. 

Materiel  et  procedes  de  la  telegrapliie :  Section  I.  Application  de 
Pelectricite  a  la  telegrapliie,  par  M.  Ed.  Becquerel.  Section  II.  Pose  du 
cable  transatlantique,  par  M.  de  Vougy.  Section  III.  Applications  de 
Telectricite  consideree  au  point  de  vue  dynamique,  par  M.  Ed.  Bec- 
querel.  (Group  VI,  Class  64.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome 

10,  pp.  5-42. 

Materiel  et  procedes  du  genie  civil,  des  travaux  publics  et  de  Pagricul- 
ture :  Section  I.  Materiaux  de  construction,  par  M.  Delesse.  Section 

11.  Terres  cuites  et  poteries,  par  M.  E.  Baude.  Section  III.  Materiel 
des  travaux  du  genie  civil  et  de  Parchitecture,  par  M.  Viollet-Le-Duc. 
Section  IV.  Routes  et  pouts,  navigation  interieure,  fondations  et 
operations  diverses,  par  M.  E.  Baude.  Section  V.  Percement  du  Mont 
Cenis,  par  M.  Edmond  Huet.  Section  VI.  Percement  de  PIsthme  de 
Suez,  par  M.  E.  Baude.  Section  VII.  Alimentation  en  eau  et  assainis- 
sement  des  villes,  par  M.  Edmond  Huet.  Section  VIII.  Emploi  agri¬ 
cole  des  eaux  d’egout,  par  M.  Mille.  Section  IX.  Travaux  maritimes, 
par  M.  Charles  Marin.  Section  X.  Phares,  par  M.  Leonce  Reynaud. 
(Group  VI,  Class  65.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  10,  pp. 
45-354. 

Marine  :  Section  I.  Cales  et  bassins  de  Radout,  docks  flottants,  &c.,  par 
M.  Pasquier-Vauvillers.  Section  II.  Marine  commerciale,  M.  de  Fre- 
minville.  Section  III.  Marine  militaire,  par  M.  A.  de  Freminville. 
Section  IV.  Balisage,  par  M.  Dumoustier.  Section  V.  Sauvetage,  par 
M.  Dumoustier.  Section  VI.  Arsenaux  et  etablissements  de  la  marine 
militaire,  par  M.  Pasquier-Vauvillers.  (Group  VI,  Class  66.)  Rap¬ 
ports  du  jury  international,  tome  10,  pp.  358-481. 

Cereales  et  autres  produits  farineux  comestibles  avec  leurs  derives : 
Section  1.  Les  cereales  alimentaires,  par  M.  Gustave  Heuze.  Section 
II.  Cereales  et  autres  produits  farineux  comestibles  en  Orient,  par 
M.  Ohannes-Effendi  Tuyssuzian.  Section  III.  Notice  sur  les  princi- 
pales  productions  du  Mexique,  par  M.  Thomas.  Section  IV.  Levure 
pressee  allemande,  par  M.  Anselme  Payen.  Section  V.  Pates  d’ltalie, 
gluten  granule  et  couscous  des  Arabes,  par  M.  Payen.  (Group  VII, 
Class  67.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  11,  pp.  5-81. 


22 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Produits  de  la  boulangerie  et  de  la  patisserie,  par  MM.  A.  Husson  et 

L.  Foubert.  (Group  VII,  Class  68.)  Eapports  du  jury  international, 
tome  11,  pp.  85-102. 

Corps  gras  alimentaires,  laitages  et  ceufs :  Section  I.  Les  Indies,  par 

M.  J.  A.  Barral.  Section  II.  Corps  gras  alimentaires,  laitages  et  ceufs, 
par  M.  Poggiale.  (Group  VII,  Class  69.)  Eapports  du  jury  interna¬ 
tional,  tome  11,  pp.  106-148. 

Vi  Andes  et  poissons,  par  MM.  Payen  et  Martin  de  Moussy.  (Group 
VII,  Class  70.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  11,  pp.  151-182. 
Legumes  et  fruits  :  Section  I.  Fruits  et  legumes  a  Petat  frais,  par  M. 
Pepin.  Section  II.  Conserves  de  legumes,  par  M.  L.  Bignon.  Section 
III.  Legumes  et  fruits  secs,  par  M.  le  Docteur  Wittmack.  Section  IV. 
Oranges,  citrons  et  raisins  secs,  par  M.  le  Marquis  d’Arcicolar.  (Group 
VII,  Class  71.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  11,  pp.  185-250. 
Condiments  et  stimulants,  sucres  et  produits  de  la  confiserie  :  Section 
I.  Moutarde,  par  M.  fine  Baker.  Section  II.  Thes,  par  M.  firic  Baker. 
Section  III.  Cafe,  succedanes  du  cafe,  cacao  et  chocolat,  coca  et  mate, 
par  M.  Menier.  Section  IV.  fitat  de  Pindustrie  du  sucre,  par  M.  B. 
Dureau.  Section  V.  Confiserie,  par  M.  Jacquin.  (Group  VII,  Class  72.) 
Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  11,  pp.  253-333. 

Boissons  fermenters:  Section I.  Vins,parM. Teissoniere.  Section II. 
Production  des  vins  en  Amerique  et  dans  les  Colonies  Anglaises,  par 
M.  fimile  Cliedieu.  Section  III.  Biere,  par  M.  Anselme  Payen.  Sec¬ 
tion  IV.  Eaux-de-vie  et  alcools,  boissons  spiritueuses ;  genievre,  rlium, 
tafia,  kirsch,  &c.,  par  M.  Gustave  Claudon.  Section  V.  Liqueurs 
aromatisees  alcooliques,  par  M.  Champoiseau.  (Group  VII,  Class  73.) 
Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  11,  pp.  337-419. 

Specimens  Sexploitation s  rurales  et  d’usines  agricoles :  Section  I. 
Considerations  generates  sur  Pagriculture,  sur  ses  progres  et  ses 
besoins,  par  M.  Eugene  Tisserand.  Section  II.  Charrures,  semoirs,  dis- 
tributeurs  d’engrais,  moteurs  a  vapeur,  maneges,  moulins  a  bras,  a 
eau,  a  vapeurj  haclie-paille,  presses  et  pressoirs,  machines  a  elever 
l’eau,  par  M.  J.  A.  Grandvoinnet.  Section  III.  Principaux  instruments 
et  travaux  divers  de  Pagriculture,  par  M.  Aureliano.  Section  IV. 
Constructions  rustiques  par  M.  Albert  Le  Play.  Section  V.  Travaux 
divers  de  Pagriculture,  par  M.  Lesage.  Section  VI.  Dessecbement  du 
lac  Fucino  et  mise  en  culture  du  terrain  conquis,  par  M.  Ed.  Grateau. 
(Group  VIII,  Class  74.)  Eapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12, 
pp.  5-196. 

Ciievaux,  anes,  mulets,  &c.,  mar^chalerie :  Section  I.  Exposition  che- 
valine,  par  M.  Eouy.  Section  II.  Les  ciievaux  etrangers,  par  M.  Basile 
de  Kopteff.  Section  III.  Anes  et  mulets,  par  M.  Ed.  Prillieux.  Sec¬ 
tion  IV.  Chameaux,par  M.  Ed.Prillieux.  Section  V.  La  marecbalerie, 
par  M.  Bouley.  (Group  VIII,  Class  75.)  Eapports  du  jury  interna¬ 
tional,  tome  12,  pp.  199-264. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  *  23 

Bceufs  buffles,  par  M.  Andre  Sanson.  (Group  VIII,  Class  70.)  Rap¬ 
ports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  267-307. 

Moutons  et  chLvres,  par  M.  Magne.  (Group  VIII,  Class  77.)  Rap¬ 
ports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  312-332. 

Porcs  et  lapins  :  Section  I.  Pores,  par  M.  Reynal.  Section  II.  Lapins, 
par  M.  J.  Laverriere.  (Group  VIII,  Class  78.)  Rapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  12,  pp.  335-344. 

Oiseaux  de  basse-cour,  par  M.  Florent  Prevost.  (Group  VIII,  Class 
79.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  347-352. 

Races  canines,  par  M.  Pierre  Picliot.  (Group  VIII,  Class  80.)  Rap¬ 
ports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  355-399. 

Insectes  utiles  :  Section  I.  Les  insectes  utiles,  par  M.  Rmile  Blan¬ 
chard.  Section  II.  Sericiculture,  par  M.  de  Quatrefages.  (Group  VIII, 
Class  81.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  403-450. 
Poissons,  crustaces.  et  mollusques,  par  M.  de  Champeaux.  (Group 

VIII,  Class  82.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  453-466. 
Serres  et  materiel  de  Phorticulture  :  Section  I.  Expositions  d’horticul- 

ture,  par  M.  L.  Bouchard-Huzard.  Section  II.  Parcs  et  materiel  de 
Phorticulture,  par  M.  J.  Darcel.  (Group  IX,  Class  83.)  Rapports  du 
jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  472-521. 

Fleurs  et  plantes  d’ornement  de  pleine  terre,  par  M.  Verio t.  (Group 

IX,  Class  84.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  527-544. 
Plantes  potageres,  par  M.  Courtois-Gerard.  (Group  IX,  Class  85.) 

Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  550-565. 

Arbres  fruitiers  et  fruits  :  Section  I.  Arbres  fruitiers  et  fruits,  par  M. 
Alphonse  de  Galbert.  Section  II.  La  viticulture  et  ses  produits,  par 
M.  le  Docteur  Jules  Guyot.  (Group  IX,  Class  86.)  Rapports  du  jury 
international,  tome  12,  pp.  569-618. 

Graines  et  plantes  forestieres;  procedes  divers  de  repeuplement  des 
forets,  par  MM.  Frederic  Moreau  et  Eugene  de  Gayffier.  (Group  IX, 
Class  87.)  Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  621-642. 
Plantes  de  serres,  par  M.  Edouard  Morren.  (Group  IX,  Class  88.) 

Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  12,  pp.  645-711. 

Materiel  et  methodes  de  Penseignement  des  enfants ;  bibliotheques  et 
materiel  de  renseignement  donne  aux  adultes  dans  la  famille,  Patelier, 
le  commerce  ou  la  corporation :  Section  I.  Considerations  sur  le  Groupe 

X,  par  M.  Charles  Robert.  Section  II.  Introduction  aux  rapports  des 
Classes  89  et  90,  par  M.  Philibert  Pornpee.  Section  III.  Creches  et 
asiles,  par  M.  Philibert  Pornpee.  Section  IV.  Ecoles  primaires,  plans, 
mobilier  et  materiel  des  maisons  d’ecole,  par  M.  Ch.  Barbier.  Section 
V.  Methodes  de  lecture,  d’ecriture,  d’arithmetique  et  de  systeme 
metrique,  par  M.  Ch.  Barbier.  Section  VI.  Enseignement  special  des 
aveugles,  des  sourds-muets  et  des  idiots,  par  M.  P.  A.  Dufau.  Section 
VII.  Resultats  de  Pinstruction  primaire,  par  M.  Ph.  Pornpee.  Sec- 


24 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


tion  VIII.  Ecolesd’adultes,  par  M.  Pli.  Pompee.  Section  IX.  Enseigne- 
ment  secondaire  special,  par  M.  Oh.  Sauvestre.  Section  X.  Enseigne- 
ment  secondaire  des  adnltes,  cours  poly  techniques,  par  M.  Ph.  Pompee. 
Section  XI.  Globes,  cartes,  appareils  pour  Penseignement  de  la  geo¬ 
graphic,  par  M.  le  Baron  de  Watte ville.  Section  XII.  Enseignement 
de  la  musique,  par  M.  Laurent  de  Bille.  Section  XIII.  De  Fenseigne- 
ment  du  dessin  en  1867,  par  M.  Edouard  Brongniart.  Section  XIV. 
Enseignement  technique :  agriculture,  industrie,  marine  et  commerce, 
par  M.  Ph.  Pompee.  Section  XV.  Almanachs,  aides-memoires  et 
autres  publications  utiles  destinees  au  colportage,  par  M.  le  Comte 
Serurier.  Section  XVI.  Bibliotkeques,  par  M.  de  Mofras.  Section 
XVII.  Collections  diverses,  par  M.  Philibert  Pompee.  (Group  X, 
Classes  89  and  90.)  Rapports  du  Jury  International,  tome  13,  pp. 
5-772. 

Meubles,  vetements  et  aliments  de  toute  origine,  distingues  par  les 
qualites  utiles,  unies  aubon  marche  :  Chapitrel.  Introduction,  par  M. 
A.  Cochin.  Chajntre  II.  Mobilier,  par  M.  A.  Seliere.  Chapitre  III. 
Papiers  peints,  par  M.  Moreno-Henriques.  Chapitre  IV.  Tissus  de 
coton,  par  M.  A.  Seliere.  Chapitre  V.  Tissus  de  lin,  chanvre,  jute  et 
coton, par  M.  Fr.  Ducuing.  Chapitre VI.  Tissus  delaine  peignee  non 
foulee,  tissus  melanges  de  coton,  tissus  de  fil  et  de  coton,  chales,  par 
M.  Bouffard.  Chapitre  VII.  Draps,  par  MM.  V.  Darroux  et  Moreno- 
Henriques.  Chapitre  VIII.  Bonneterie,  tricots  a  la  main,  tissus  a 
mailles,  confections  en  tissus  a  mailles,  ganterie  de  tricots,  articles 
de  filets,  &c.,  par  M.  Moreno-Henriques.  Chapitre  IX.  Effilochages 
de  laine,  par  MM.  V.  Darroux  et  Moreno-Henriques.  Chapitre  X. 
Confection  de  vetements  pour  hommes,  femmes  et  enfants,  par  MM. 
Moreno-Henriques  et  V.  Darroux.  Chapitre  XI.  Ckaussures  a  bon 
marche,  par  M.  V.  Darroux.  Chapitre  XII.  Industries  accessoires, 
par  M.  Fred.  Jourdain.  (Group  X,  Class  91.)  Rapports  du  jury  inter¬ 
national,  tome  13,  pp.  775-853. 

Specimens  des  costumes  populaires  des  diverses  contrees,  par  M. 
Armand-Dumaresq.  (Group  X,  Class  92.)  Rapports  du  jury  interna¬ 
tional,  tome  13,  pp.  857-878. 

Habitations  caracterisees  par  le  bon  marche  uni  aux  conditions  d?hy- 
giene  et  de  bien-etre,  par  M.  E.  Degrand,  ingenieur  des  ponts  et  ckaus- 
sees,  et  M.  le  Docteur  J.  Fauclier  (de  Berlin.)  (Group  X,  Class  93.) 
Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  13,  pp.  881-952. 

Produits  de  toute  sorte,  fabriques  par  des  ouvriers  chefs  de  metiers, 
parM.  A.  Saint- Yves,  ingenieur  des  ponts  et  chaussees,  et  M.  Auguste 
Vitu,  redacteur-en-chef de  FEtendard.  (Group  X,  Class  94.)  Rapports 
du  jury  international,  tome  13,  pp.  355-984. 

Instruments  et  procedes  de  travail  speciaux  aux  ouvriers  chefs  de 
metiers,  par  M.  Darimon,  depute  au  corps  legislatif,  et  M.  Van  Blaren- 
berghe,  ing6nieur-en-ckef  des  ponts  et  chaussees.  (Group  X,  Class  95.) 
Rapports  du  jury  international,  tome  13,  pp.  987-1012. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


25 


Bapports  des  delegations  ouvrieres,  publies  par  la  commission  d’encou- 
ragement  des  etudes  des  ouvriers  a  l’Exposition  Universelle  de  1867,  3 
volumes.  4°.  Paris,  Morel,  13  Bue  Bonaparte. 

Bapports  addresses  a  s.  exc.  le  ministre  de  Pinstruction  publique,  par 
les  membres  de  la  commission  chargee  d’examiner  les  travaux  d’eleves 
et  les  moyens  d’enseignement  exposes  au  ministere  et  au  Champ  de 
Mars.  Paris,  Imprimerie  imperiale,  1867. 

Bapports  sur  les  progres  accomplis  pendant  les  vingt  dernieres  annees, 
dans  les  sciences  et  dans  les  lettres,  publics  par  ordre  de  s.  exc.  le 
ministre  de  Pinstruction  publique. 

Twenty-eight  reports,  forming  28  large  volumes  in  octavo,  have  ap¬ 
peared  as  follows : 

Analyse  mathematique,  par  M.  Bertrand,  de  Plnstitut.  Mecanique 
appliquee,  par  MM.  Combes,  de  Plnstitut,  Phillips  et  Collignon. 
Mineralogie,  par  M.  Delafosse,  de  Plnstitut.  Instruction  publique, 
par  M.  Jourdain,  de  Plnstitut.  Hygiene  navale,  par  M.  Leroy  de 
Mericourt.  Hygiene  militaire,  par  M.  Michel  Levy.  Medecine  vete- 
rinaire,  par  M.  Magne.  Archeologie,  par  M.  Maury,  de  Plnstitut. 
Astronomie,  par  M.  Delaunay,  de  Plnstitut.  Authropologie,  par  M. 
de  Quatrefages,  de  Plnstitut.  Electricite,  magn^tisme,  capillarite,  par 
M.  Quet.  Zoologie,  par  M.  Milne-Edwards,  de  Plnstitut.  Chirurgie, 
par  MM.  Yelpau  et  Nelaton,  de  Plnstitut.  Thermodynamique,  par  M. 
Bertin.  Hygiene  civile,  par  M.  Boucliardat.  Physiologie,  par  M. 
Claude  Bernard,  de  Plnstitut.  Geologie  experimental,  par  M.  Dau- 
bree,  de  Plnstitut.  Medecine,  par  MM.  Beclard  et  Axenfeld.  Progres 
des  etudes  relatives  a  l’Egypte  et  a  l’Orient,  sous  la  direction  de  M. 
Guiguiaut,  de  Plnstitut.  Etudes  historiques,  par  MM.  Geffroy,  Zeller 
et  Thienot.  Paleontologie,  par  M.  d’Archiac,  de  Plnstitut.  Etat  des 
lettres,  par  MM.  de  Sacy,  de  Plnstitut,  Paul  Feval  et  E.  Thierry. 
Philosophie,  par  M.  Bavaisson,  de  Plnstitut.  Etudes  classiques  et  du 
moyen-age,  sous  la  direction  de  M.  Guigniaut,  de  Plnstitut.  Theorie 
de  la  chaleur,  par  M.  Desains,  de  Plnstitut.  Botanique  physiologique, 
par  M.  Duchartre.  Botanique  pliytographique,  par  M.  Brongniart, 
de  Plnstitut.  Stratigraphie,  par  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  de  Plnstitut. 

The  following  named  ten  volumes  remained  to  be  published  in  1867, 
some  or  all  of  which  have  since  appeared : 

La  geologie,  (phenomenes  eruptifs,)  par  MM.  Ch.  Sainte-Claire 
Deville,  de  Plnstitut,  et  Fouque.  La  chimie,  par  M.  Dumas,  de  Pln¬ 
stitut.  L’optique,  par  M.  Jamin,  de  Plnstitut.  La  geometrie,  par  M. 
Chasles,  de  Plnstitut.  Le  droit  des  gens,  par  M.  de  La  Gueronniere, 
senateur.  La  legislation  civile  et  penale,  par  M.  Duvergier,  president 
de  section  au  conseil  d’etat.  L’histoire  du  droit,  par  M.  Giraud,  de 
Plnstitut.  Le  droit  public  et  administratif,  par  M.  Boulatignier,  con- 
seiller  d’etat.  L’economie  politique,  par  M.  Michel  Chevalier,  de  Pln¬ 
stitut.  L’epigraphie  grecque  et  latiue,  par  MM.  Leon  Benier,  de 
Plnstitut,  et  Frescher. 


26 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Conferences  pedagogiques  faites  &  la  Sorbonne  aux  instituteurs 
primaires  venus  a  Pads  pour  FExposition  XJniverselle  de  1867.  Or¬ 
ganization  pedagogique  des  ecoles ;  legislation  scolaire ;  maisons 
d’ecole;  hygiene  j  matieres  de  Fenseiguement,  3  volumes.  Paris,  Ha- 
chette,  1868. 

Constructions  civiles. — Rapports  du  jury  international  sur  les 
travaux  publics  et  les  constructions  civiles,  reunis  par  ordre  de  s. 
exc.  M.  de  Forcade  la  Roquette,  ministre  de  Fagriculture,  du  com¬ 
merce  et  des  travaux  publics.  Paris,  P.  Dupont,  1868. 

Nouvel  Ordre  de  Recompenses. — Rapport  sur  le  Nouvel  Ordre  de 
Recompenses  institue  en  faveur  des  etablissements  et  des  localites  qui 
ont  develope  la  bonne  harmonie  entre  les  personnes  cooperant  aux 
memes  travaux  et  qui  ont  assure  aux  ouvriers  le  bien-etre  materiel, 
intellectuel  et  moral,  par  Alfred  Le  Roux,  vice-president  du  corps 
legislatif,  membre  de  la  Commission  Imperiale  et  du  jury  special. 
Paris,  Paul  Dupont,  1867. 

Phares  et  balises,  (extrait  du  catalogue  du  ministere  de  Fagriculture, 
du  commerce  et  des  travaux  publics.)  Notices.  Paris,  1867. 

Travaux  publics. — Notices  sur  les  modeles,  cartes,  et  dessins  relatifs 
aux  travaux  publics,  reunis  par  les  soins  du  ministere  de  Fagriculture, 
du  commerce  et  des  travaux  publics.  Paris,  Tliunot  &  cie,  26  Rue 
Racine,  1867. 

Cartes  et  dessins. — Notices  sur  les  collections,  cartes  et  dessins  rela¬ 
tifs  au  service  du  corps  imperial  des  mines,  reunis  par  les  soins  du 
ministere  de  Fagriculture,  du  commerce,  et  des  travaux  publics. 
Paris,  Paul  Dupont,  1869. 

Rapports  du  comitd  departemental  de  la  Seine-Inferieure  sur  FExposi¬ 
tion  XJniverselle  de  1867.  Yerrerie,  terre  refractaire,  horlogerie,  chro- 
nometrie,  indiennes,  rouenneries,  teintures,  apprets,  laines  cardees, 
draperie,  chimie  industrielle  et  agricole„cuirs  et  peaux,  instruments 
agricoles,  produits  agricoles  et  bestiaux,  industrie  cotonniere.  Rouen, 
Lapierre  &  cie,  1  Rue  Saint-Rtieime  des  Tonneliers,  1867. 

LTndustrie  liniere  a  FExposition  XJniverselle  de  1867  dans  ses  rap¬ 
ports  avec  les  interets  du  departement  des  Cotes-du-Nord.  (Extrait 
des  annales  du  comit6  linier  du  littoral.)  Saint-Brienne,  L.  Prud7- 
homme,  1867. 

L’Industrie  sucriLre  de  Farrondissement  de  Valenciennes  a  FExposi¬ 
tion  XJniverselle  de  1867.  Rapport  dresse  par  ordre  du  comity  des  fa- 
bricants  de  sucre  des  arrondissements  de  Valenciennes  et  d’Avesnes, 
suivi  de  notes  sur  la  fabrication  du  sucre  dans  Farrondissement 
d’Avesnes,  &c.,  par  Mariage.  Valenciennes.  Lemaitre,  14  Rue  du 
Quesnoy,  1867. 

Rtudes  sur  l’Exposition  de  1867,  annales  et  archives  de  Findustrie 
au  XIXrae  siecle  5  nouvelle  technologie  des  arts  et  metiers,  des  manu- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


27 


factures,  de  Fagriculture,  des  mines,  &c.,  description  generate  ency- 
clopedique,  methodique  et  raisonnee  de  Fetat  actuel  des  arts,  des 
sciences,  de  Findustrie  et  de  Fagriculture  chez  toutes  les  nations ; 
recueil  de  travaux  historiques,  techniques,  theoriques  et  pratiques, 
par  les  redacteurs  de  Annales  du  Genie  Civil,  8  volumes,  (No.  8  a  15 
des  Annales  du  Genie  Civil,)  plus  2  atlas.  Paris,  E.  Lacroix,  54  Rue 
des  Saints-Peres. 

Promenade  a  l’exposition  scolaire  de  1867,  souvenir  de  la  visite  des 
instituteurs,  par  Charles  Defodon.  Ouvrage  contenant  des  gravures, 
plans  et  vignettes.  Paris,  Hacliette,  1868. 

L’Exposition  Eniverselle  de  1867  illustree.  Publication  interna- 
tionale  autorisee  par  la  Commission  Imperiale.  Moitie  texte,  moitie 
gravures.  2  volumes.  4°.  Each  484  pp.  Paris,  1867. 

Les  merveilles  de  FExposition  de  1867  par  Jules  Mesnard.  2  vol¬ 
umes.  4°.  Illustrated,  Paris. 

Revue  de  l’Exposition.  Noblet,  editeur.  From  the  Revue  Univer- 
selle  des  Mines,  &c. 

Histoire  generale  de  FExposition  Universelle  de  1867,  par  Ayrnar- 
Bression.  1  volume.  Paris,  41  Rue  du  Cardinal  Fesch,  1868. 

Magasin  pittoresque. — A  series  of  articles  on  the  Exposition,  pub¬ 
lished  during  the  years  1867  and  1868,  in  volumes  35  and  36  of  the 
collection.  Paris,  29  Quai  des  Grands-Augustins. 

Promenades  prehistoriques  a  FExposition  Eniverselle,  par  G.  de 
Mortilet,  directeur  des  materiaux  pour  Fhistoire  primitive  de  Fhomme. 
Paris,  Reinwald,  15  Rue  des  Saints-Peres,  1867. 

Visites  d’un  ingenieur  a  FExposition  Eniverselle  de  1867.  Notes  et 
croquis,  cliiffres,  et  faits  utiles,  par  C.  A.  Oppermann.  1  volume  et  un 
atlas.  Paris,  Baudry,  15  Rue  des  Saints-Peres,  1867. 

La  production  animale  et  veget  ale.— Etudes  faites  a  FExposition 
Eniverselle  de  1867.  Societe  imperiale  d’acclimatation.  Paris,  au 
siege  de  la  Societe,  19  Rue  de  Lille,  et  chez  Dentu,  1867. 

Aisne. — L’Exposition  Eniverselle  de  1867,  etudiee  au  point  de  vue  des 
interets  du  departement  de  F Aisne.  Laon,  Coquet  &  Stenger,  22  Rue 
Serurier,  1868. 

Allier. — Le  departement  de  FAllier  a  FExposition  Eniverselle  de  1867, 
par  Lavergne,  avec  une  introduction  par  le  Marquis  de  Montlaur, 
membre  du  conseil  general  de  FAllier.  Moulin s,  Desrosiers,  1868. 

Arts  textiles. — Etudes  sur  les  arts  textiles  a  FExposition  Eniverselle 
de  1867,  comprenant  les  perfectionnements  recents  apportes  a  la  fila¬ 
ture,  au  retordage,  &c.,  du  coton,  du  chanvre,  du  lin,  de  la  laine,  de 
la  soie,  du  jute,  du  china-grass,  &c. ;  a  la  fabrication  des  cordages ; 
au  tissage  des  etoffes  a  fils  serres  et  a  mailles  unies  et  fagonnees  et  aux 
apprets  des  fils  et  des  etoffes,  par  Michel  Alcan.  1  volume,  8°.  pp. 
424,  et  1  atlas  en  4°.  Paris,  Baudry,  15  Rue  des  Saints-Peres,  1868. 


28 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Les  plantes  textiles,  etudes  faites  a  l’Exposition  Universelle  de 
1867,  par  Carcenac.  Paris,  Societe  d’acclimatation,  19  Rue  de  Lille, 
1867. 

Memoire  sur  les  6preuves  des  arcs  nfotalliques  de  la  galerie  des  ma¬ 
chines.  faites  par  ordre  de  la  Commission  Imperiale,  par  G.  Eiffel, 
ingenieur-constructeur. 

L’Exposition  Universelle  de  1867.  Guide  de  l’exposant  et  du  visi- 
teur,  avec  les  documents  officiels,  un  plan  et  une  vue  de  l’Exposition, 
par  Henri  de  Parville.  Paris,  Hachette,  1866. 

La  clef  de  PExposition  Universelle  de  1867.  Paris,  Alcan-Levy,  62 
Boulevard  de  Clichy. 

Guide-livret  international  de  PExposition  Universelle  de  1867,  pub¬ 
lished  in  five  languages,  (French,  English,  German,  Italian,  and 
Spanish.)  Paris,  Lebigre-Duquesne,  16  Rue  Hautefeuille,  1867. 

Notice  descriptive  de  Pexposition  ethnographique  de  la  societe  d’eth- 
nographie.  Paris,  Amyot,  1867. 

Lavollee. — Les  expositions  de  Pindustrie  et  PExposition  Universelle  de 
1867,  par  Lavollee.  Conferences  populaires  faites  a  Pasile  imperial 
de  Vincennes.  Paris,  Hachette. 

Suez. — Exposition  de  la  compagnie  universelle  du  canal  maritime  de 
Suez.  Catalogues  followed  by  a  notice  of  the  works  and  with  explan¬ 
atory  additions.  Paris,  Auguste  Vallee,  15  Rue  Breda,  1867. 

Les  vitraux  a  PExposition  Universelle  de  1867,  par  Edouard  Didrou. 
Paris,  Didron,  23  Rue  Saint-Dominique-Saint-Germain,  1868. 

Le  Creusot  :  Son  industrie,  sa  population.  Memorandum  delivered 
to  the  special  jury  for  the  New  Order  of  Rewards.  Paris,  Chaix,  20 
Rue  Bergere,  1867. 

Departement  de  la  guerre  et  de  la  marine. — Rapport  officiel 
de  la  commission  chargee  de  Pexamen  de  differentes  collections  de 
materiel  ressortissant  aux  departements  de  la  guerre  et  de  la  marine, 
admises  a  PExposition  Universelle  de  1867.  Paris,  Paul  Dupont,  1869. 

Rapport  de  l’ administration  de  la  Commission  Imperiale  sur  PExpo  - 
sition  Universelle  de  1867 ;  containing  an  abstract  of  the  administrative 
and  financial  operations ;  some  considerations  on  the  future  prospects 
of  the  exhibitions ;  the  general  list  of  the  collaborators  of  the  Imperial 
Commission ;  statistical  tables,  documents  and  plates.  1  volume  in 
octavo.  Imprimerie  imperiale. 

Collection  des  documents  officiels,  publies  par  la  Commission  Impe¬ 
riale  de  l’Exposition  de  1867.  1  volume.  4°.  Imprimerie  imperiale. 

Ceruse. — Notice  sur  la  fabrique  de  ceruse  de  MM.  Theodore  Lefebvre  & 
cie,  a  Lille,  (Nord.)  Lille,  Horemans,  1867.  8°.  14  pp. 

Engins  de  sauvetage  pour  les  naufrag^s.  Etude  sur  les  canons  et  les 
fusils  ports-amarres.  (Extrait  du  rapport  address^  par  le  jury,  a  s.  exc. 
M.  Rouher,  ministre  d’etat.)  Paris,  Paul  Dupont,  1867.  8°.  55  pp. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


29 


Association  internationale  pour  le  developpement  du  commerce  et  des 
expositions.  Bulletin.  Tome  premier;  annee  1868.  8°.  121  pp. 
Paris,  au  siege  provisoire  de  Fassociation,  19  juillet  1869.  (Contains 
the  u  Bibliographic  de  FExposition  Universelle,”  by  L6on  Morillot.) 

Turgan.  Etudes  sur  FExposition  Uniyerselle,  1867.  Large  8°.  viii, 
224  pp.  Paris,  Michel  Levy  freres,  2  Rue  Vivienne  et  15  Boulevard 
des  Italiens. 

Le  ver  a  soie  du  chene  a  FExposition  Universelle  de  1867.  Insectes 
utiles  vivants,  par  Camille  Personnat.  pp.  1-14.  Paris,  Librairie  agri- 
cole  de  la  Maison  Rustique,  1868. 

Les  insectes  utiles  (vers  a  soie  et  arbeilles)  et  les  insectes  nuisibles, 
par  Maurice  Girard.  8°.  pp.  1-40.  Paris,  Librairie  agricole,  1867. 

La  musique  a  FExposition  Universelle  de  1867,  par  le  Marquis  de  Pon- 
tecoulant.  8°.  lxxii-238  pp.  Paris,  au  bureau  du  journal  L’Art  Mu¬ 
sical,  1868. 

FRENCH  COLONIES. 

Catalogue  special,  accompagne  de  notices  sur  les  produits  agricoles  et 
industriels  de  FAlg6rie.  Paris,  Challamel  aine,  30  Rue  des.  Boulan¬ 
gers,  et  27  Rue  de  Bellechasse,  1867. 

Colonies  fran^aises. — Catalogue  des  produits  des  colonies  fran- 
§aises  precede  d’une  notice  statistique.  Paris,  Challamel  aine,  27 
Rue  de  Bellechasse,  1867. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Official  catalogue.  English  version,  translated  from  the  proof- 
sheets  of  the  French  catalogue  published  by  the  Imperial  Commission. 
London,  Johnson  &  Sons,  3  Castle  street,  Holborn,  1867. 

Catalogue  of  the  British  section,  containing  a  list  of  the  exhibitors  of 
the  United  Kingdom  and  its  colonies,  and  the  objects  which  they 
exhibit.  (In  English,  French,  German,  and  Italian.)  London,  New 
Street  square,  1867. 

Illustrations  of  printing. — Catalogue  of  the  illustrations  of  print¬ 
ing,  executed  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1866,  exhibited  in  Paris  in 
1867.  London,  Spottiswoode  &  Co.,  New  Street  square. 

Fine  arts  official  catalogue,  with  descriptive  notices  furnished  by  the 
artists  and  owners  of  many  of  the  most  important  pictures  and  works 
of  art  exhibited.  London,  Johnson  &  Sons,  3  Castle  street,  Holborn, 
1867. 

Fine  arts  division,  comprising  the  objects  illustrating  the  history  of 
labor  before  1800,  and  list  of  the  contributors  of  the  various  works  of 
art ;  also  a  catalogue  of  the  pictures,  sculptures,  mosaics,  &c.,  in  four 
languages.  London,  Spottiswoode. 

Reports  on  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition,  1867.  Presented  to  both 


30 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


houses  of  Parliament  by  command  of  her  Majesty.  London,  printed 
by  George  E.  Eyre  and  William  Spottiswoode,  printers  to  the  Queen’s 
most  excellent  Majesty,  for  her  Majesty’s  stationery  office,  (20,406.) 
In  six  volumes.  8°.  1868. 

Reports  of  artisans,  selected  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  coun¬ 
cil  of  the  Society  of  Arts  to  visit  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition, 
1867.  8°.  Loudon.  Published  for  the  Society  for  the  Encourage¬ 
ment  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce,  1867.  In  two  parts.  Part 
I :  vii,  476  pp.  Part  II :  xvi,  213  pp. 

ENGLISH  COLONIES. 

Nova  Scotia. — Catalogue  of  the  Nova  Scotian  department,  with  intro¬ 
duction  and  appendices.  Paris,  Gustave  Bossange,  25  Quai  Voltaire, 
1867. 

New  South  Wales. — Catalogue  of  the  natural  and  industrial  products 
of  New  South  Wales,  forwarded  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of 
1867.  Sydney,  Thomas  Richards. 

Victoria. — Catalogue  des  produits  de  la  colonie  de  Victoria,  (Australie,) 
figurant  a  l’Exposition  Universelle  de  1867,  precede  d’une  introduction 
ou  notes  sommaires  sur  la  colonie  et  l’exploitation  de  ses  mines.  Lon- 
dres,  Spottiswoode  et  cie,  New  Street  square,  1867. 

South  Australia. — Catalogue  of  contributions  to  the  Paris  Universal 
Exposition,  held  in  Paris,  1867. — pp.  31.  Adelaide,  W.  C.  Cox,  Victoria 
square,  1866. 

Queensland. — Catalogue  of  the  natural  and  industrial  products  of 
Queensland. — pp.  44.  London,  Ed.  Stanford,  6  Charing  Cross,  S.  W., 
1867. 

Indian  department. — Catalogue  of  the  articles  forwarded  from  India. 
London,  Spottiswoode,  1867. 

Natal. — Catalogue  of  contributions  from  the  colony  of  Natal,  by  Pen- 
iston.  London,  Jarrold  &  Sons,  12  Paternoster  Row,  1867. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope. — Catalogue  of  the  articles  contributed  to  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1867,  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  an  introductory 
sketch  of  the  colony,  its  institutions,  physical  features  and  products, 
by  J.  B.  Currey.  London,  Jarrold. 

British  Guiana. — Catalogue  of  contributions  transmitted  from  British 
Guiana  to  the  Paris  Universal  Exposition  of  1867.  London,  Ed.  Stan¬ 
ford,  6  Charing  Cross,  S.  W.,  1867. 

Guiana. — Exposition  Universelle  de  Paris,  1867.  Catalogue  des  produits 
exposes  par  la  Guyane  anglaise,  publie  par  la  comity  de  correspond- 
ance  de  la  societe  royale  d’agriculture  et  du  commerce,  cii-52  pp.  2 
maps,  1  tab.  8°.  Londres,  E.  Standford,  1867. 

Canada. — Esquisse  g6ologique  du  Canada,  suivie  d’un  catalogue  de- 
scriptif  de  la  collection  de  cartes  et  coupes  geologiques,  livres  imprimes, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  31 

roclies,  fossiles  et  mineraux  economiques  envoy^s  a  PExposition 
Universelle  (le  1867.  Paris,  Bossange,  25  Quai  Voltaire,  1867. 

Canada. — Catalogue  des  vegetaux  ligneux  du  Canada,  par  Pabbe  Ovide 
Brunet.  Quebec,  Darveau,  Rue  La  Montague,  1867. 

GREECE. 

Catalogue  definitif  redige  par  la  commission  centrale.  Athenes,  1867* 

HEP  I AHUTIKH .  r.epiypayrj  rwv  ecq  tt jv  7ia.yy.O(T/JU(ov  eyOeaivTwv  llapiaiujy  tou 
erouq  1867,  aTCOGraXrjGop.syujv  eXXrjvuwv  pappapiov  xai  opoxTUiv.  AOrjvai^  1866. 

GRAND-DUCHY  OF  HESSE. 

Special-Katalog  fur  das  Grosslierzogtlium  Hessen,  herausgegeben 
von  der  grossherzoglich-hessischen  Commission.  Darmstadt,  Bucli- 
druckerei  von  Heinrich  Brill,  1867. 

ITALY. 

Esposizione  universale  del  1867  a  Parigi.  Parte  prima  :  Atti  ufflciali 
della  r.  commissione  italiana.  Firenze,  Barbera,  1867.  4°.  pp.  334. 

Relazione  del  r.  commissario  al  ministro  di  agricoltura,  industria  e 
commercio  ed  elenco  dei  premia!!  della  sezione  italiana.  Firenze, 
Barbera,  66  Via  Faenza,  1868. 

L’Italie  economique  en  1867  avec  un  apercu  des  industries  italiennes 
A  PExposition  Universelle  de  Paris.  Florence,  Barbera,  1867. 

Elenco  dei  premiati  della  sezione  italiana.  Firenze,  Barbera,  66  Via 
Faenza,  1868. 

Les  produits  de  Pagriculture  du  Pi6mont,  de  la  Lombardie  et  de  la 
Venetie,  par  Gaetan  Cantoni.  Paris,  Librairie  agricole,  26  Rue  Jacob, 
1867. 

Relazioni  dei  giurati  italiani  sulla  Esposizione  Universale  del  1867. 
Firenze,  G.  Pellas,  1868. 

Esposizione  Universale  del  1867.  Sui  prodotti  greggi  e  Pavorati  delle 
industrie  estrattive.  Relazione  di  Giulio  Curioni,  giurati  al  esposizione 
di  Firenze  nel  1861,  di  Londra  nel  1862,  e  di  Parigi,  nel  1867.  Firenze, 
Stabilimento  di  Gius  Pellas,  1869.  8°.  1  pi.  159  pp. 

SystLme  Agudio.  Locomoteur  avec  adherence  au  moyen  du  rail  cen¬ 
tral.  Turin,  1867. 

Cenni  sugli  ultimi  perfezionamenti  delle  macchine  a  vapore,  locomotive 
preceduti  da  alcuni  principi  generali  di  termodinamica  di  Leonardo 
Carpi.  Paris,  Paul  Dupont,  1867. 

MOROCCO. 

Notice  sur  le  Maroc,  par  Auguste  Beaumier.  Brochure  lithographiee 
par  Valeur,  35  Rue  d’Argenteuil.  Paris. 


32 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


NETHERLANDS. 

Catalogue  special. — Edition  officielle  de  la  commission  royale  des 
Pays-Bas.  Preceded  by  a  statistical  notice  of  tlie  kingdom.  Harlem, 
Enschede  et  fils,  1867. 

PAPAL  STATES. 

Etats-Pontificaux. — (Catalogue  pour  PExposition  Uni verselle  de  1867 
a  Paris.)  Paris,  Adrien  Le  Clerc,  29  Rue  Cassette  1867. 

Elenco  generale  ragionato  di  tntti  gli  oggetti  spediti  dal  Governo 
Pontificio  alia  Esposizione  Universale  di  Parigi  nelP  anno  1867,  par 
mezzo  del  ministero  del  commercio,  belle  arti,  industria,  agricoltura  e 
lavori  publici.  Roma,  Tipografia  della  rev.  earn,  apostolica,  1867. 

Aper£U  general  sur  les  catacombes  de  Rome  et  description  du  modele 
d’une  catacombe  expose  a  Paris  en  1867,  par  J.  B.  de  Rossi.  Paris, 
Hachette,  1867. 

La  meteorologie  et  le  meteograplie  du  P.  Secchi  a  PExposition  Uni- 
verselle.  Paris,  Gauthiers-Villars,  55  Quai  des  Grands- Augustins. 
1867. 

PORTUGAL. 

Catalogue  special  de  la  section  portugaise.  Paris,  Dentu,  et  Paul 
Dupont,  1867. 

Catalogue  descriptif  de  la  collection  des  mineraux  utiles,  accom- 
pagne  d’une  notice  sur  Pindustrie  minerale  du  pays,  par  J.  A.  C.  das 
Neves  Cabral.  Paris,  Paul  Dupont,  1867. 

Notice  sur  le  Portugal,  par  J.  J.  Roderigues  de  Freitas,  ( junior.)  Paris, 
Paul  Dupont,  1867. 

Eaux  minerales. — Renseignements  sur  les  eaux  minerales  portugaises. 
Paris,  Dentu,  1867. 

Notice  ab regee  de  Pimprimerie  nationale  de  Lisbonne,  suivie  du  cata¬ 
logue  des  produits  qu’elle  presenta  dans  PExposition  Universelle  de 
Paris  en  1867.  Texte  fran^ais  et  portugais.  Lisbonne,  1867. 

PRUSSIA  AND  NORTHERN  GERMANY. 

Amtlicher  Special-Katalog  der  Ausstellung  Preussens  und  der 
Norddeutschen  Staaten. — 12°.  pp.  337.  Berlin,  Bernstein,  1867. 

Prusse  et  Stats  de  PAllemagne  du  Nord.  Catalogue  special.  Paris, 
Dentu,  1867. 

Katalog  der  auf  der  Pariser  allgemeinen  Ausstellung  in  1867  in  dem 
preussischen  Schulkause  aufgelegten  Lehrmittel.  Paris,  Renou  et 
Maulde,  1867. 

Katalog  fiir  die  Sammlung  der  Bergwerks-und  Steinbruchs-Produkte 
Preussens  auf  der  Industrie-und  Kunst- Ausstellung  zu  Paris,  im 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


3a 


Jahre  1807.  Im  Auftrage  Sr.  Excellenz  des  Herrn  Ministers  fiir 
Handel,  Gewerbe  und  offentliche  Arbeiten,  Grafen  von  Itzenplitz, 
verfasst  von  Dr.  Hermann  Wedding.  Berlin,  gedruckt  in  der  konig- 
liclien  Staatsdrnckerei.  8°.  70  pp. 

Statistique  agricole,  industrielle  et  commerciale  de  la  Prusse.  (Bro¬ 
chure  extraite  du  Moniteur  Prussien.)  Berlin,  R.  de  Decker,  75  Wil¬ 
helm  strasse,  1807. 

Bericht  tiber  difc  allgemeine  Ausstellnng  zu  Paris,  erstattet  von  den 
fiir  Preussen  und  die  Norddeutschen  Staaten  ernannten  Mitgliedern 
der  internationalen  Jury.  Berlin,  1808. 

Bericht  iiber  den  landwirthschaftlichen  Theil  der  Pariser  Welt-Aus- 
stellung  von  1807,  lierausgegeben  im  Auftrage  des  koniglich-preus- 
sischen  Ministeriums  fiir  die  landwirthschaftlichen  Angelegenheiten, 
von  Salviati.  Berlin,  1808. 

Die  landwirthschaftlichen  Maschinen  und  Gerathe  auf  der  Welt- 
Ausstellung  zu  Paris  1807.  Bericht  erstattet  dem  koniglich  preus- 
sischen  Ministerium  fiir  die  landwirthschaftlichen  Angelegenheiten, 
von  Emil  Perels.  Berlin,  1807. 

I/ficoLE  primaire  prussienne  a  l’Exposition  de  Paris.  1807. 

Bericht  iiber  literarische  Leistungen  im  Konigreiclie  Sachsen  lebender 
Schriftsteller  walirend  der  Jahre  1847-1807,  von  Oswald  Marbach. 
Leipzig,  Giesecke  und  Devrient,  1807. 

Instruction  publique. — Expose  de  Petal  de  Pinstruction  publique  dans 
le  royaume  de  Saxe.  Dresde,  Meinhold,  1807. 

Yerzeichniss  und  Beschreibung  der  von  der  koniglich  preussischen 
Direction  der  Mederschlesisch-Markischen  Eisenbahn  im  Jahre  1807 
zur  Ausstellung  nach  Paris  gesandten  Gegenstiinde.  (Brochure.) 
Yon  verschiedenen  verfassern.  xvi,  370  pp.,  17  1,  11  pi.  4°.  Berlin, 
Wiegardt  &  Kempel,  1808. 

Die  erzeugnisse  des  Pflanzen-  und  Thierreichs  und  das  Biistzeug  des 
Landwirths  mit  Ausnahme  der  Maschinen  und  Gerathe  auf  der  Welt- 
Ausstellung  zu  Paris  1807.  Bericht,  erstattet  dem  koniglich-preus- 
sischen  Ministerium  fiir  die  landwirthschaftlichen  Angelegenheiten. 

Acierie  de  Pried.  Krupp,  a  Essen,  (Prusse  rhenane.)  Paris,  Witters- 
heim,  1807. 

ROUMANIA. 

Boumanie. — Notice  sur  la  Boumanie,  principalement  au  point  de  vue  de 
son  economie  rurale,  industrielle  et  commerciale,  avec  une  carte  de  la 
principaute  de  Boumanie.  Paris,  Franck,  07  Bue  Richelieu,  1807. 

Kurtea. — L’eglise  du  monastere  episcopal  de  Kurtea  d’Argis  en  Ya- 
lachie,  with  four  plates  and  twenty-five  wood  engravings.  Yienne, 
Oh.  Gerold  fils,  18G7.  (There  is  a  German  edition.) 

3  B 


34 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


RUSSIA. 

Catalogue  special  de  la  section  russe  a  PExposition  Universelle  de 
Paris  en  1887.  Pnblie  par  la  Commission  Imperiale  de  Russie.  8°.  xii, 
289  pp.  Paris,  Imprimerie  generale  de  Ch.  Lahure,  9  Rue  de  Fleurus. 

Aperqu  statistique  des  forces  product! ves  de  la  Russie,  par  De 
Buschen,  membre  du  comite  central  de  statistique  de  Saint-Peters- 
bourg.  Annexe  an  catalogue  special  de  la  section  russe  de  PExpo- 
sition  Universelle  de  Paris  en  1867.  8°.  368  pp.  Paris,  Imprimerie 

generale  de  Cli.  Lahure,  9  Rue  de  Fleurus,  1867. 

Ministers  de  la  guerre.  Service  de  Pequipement  et  du  campement 
des  troupes  et  des  liopitaux  militaires.  Catalogue  de  la  collection 
presentee  a  PExposition  Universelle  de  Paris,  en  1867.  Moscou,  W. 
Gautier. 

Memoire  explicatif  de  la  collection  des  substances  preparees  dans  le 
laboratoire  de  Pinstitut  agricole  de  Saint- Petersbourg  ponr  PExposi¬ 
tion  de  Paris,  1867.  Paris,  Librairie  agricole,  26  Rue  Jacob. 


SIAM. 

Notice  sur  le  royaume  de  Siam,  publiee  par  A.  A.  Grehan,  Phra  Siam 
Dhuranwraks,  consul  de  S.  M.  le  supreme  roi  de  Siam  et  son  commis- 
saire  general  pres  PExposition  Universelle.  Paris,  Simon  Ra§on,  1 
Rue  d’Erfurth,  1867.  Deux  editions.  The  second  edition  is  ornamented 
with  a  portrait  of  H.  M.  the  king  of  Siam,  drawn  by  Riou,  and  with 
nine  photo-lithographs  representing  the  exhibition  by  Siam. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 

Exposition  d’horticulture  de  la  Suede.  Paris,  P.  Dupont,.  1867.  (Small 
pamphlet.) 

La  Su1;de  :  Son  developpement  moral,  industriel,  et  commercial,  d’apres 
des  documents  officiels,  par  C.  E.  Ljungberg.  Avec  une  carte  et 
trente-et-un  tableaux.  Traduit  par  L.  de  Lilliehook.  8°.  vii,  177 
pp.  Paris,  Imprimerie  de  Dubuisson  &  Cie.,  5  Rue  Coq-Heron,  1867, 
(With  map.) 

Aperqu  de  la  vegetation  et  des  plantes  cultivees  de  la  Suede,  par  N.  J. 
Anderson.  Stockholm,  Norstedt  et  fils,  1867. 

Fers  et  aciers. — Quelques  renseignements  sur  la  fabrication  des  fers 
et  aciers  de  la  Suede,  ainsi  que  sur  les  autres  objets  des  Classes  40  et 
47,  a  l’occasion  de  PExposition  Universelle  de  Paris  en  1867,  par  L. 
Rinmau,  ingenieur  et  metallurgiste  de  la  Suede.  Paris,  1866. 

Histoire  du  travail. — Notice  sommaire  sur  l’histoire  du  travail  dans 
le  royaume  de  Norvege.  Paris,  P.  Dupont,  1867. 

Norvege. — Notice  statistique  sur  le  royaume  de  Norvege.  Paris,  Du¬ 
pont,  1867. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


35 


Les  pitches  de  la  Norvege,  par  Herman  Baars,  [special  commissioner 
from  Norway,  for  tlie  fisheries  and  navigation,  at  the  Universal  Expo¬ 
sition  of  1867,  at  Paris.]  Paris,  J.  Bonaventure,  55  Quai  des  Grands- 
Augustins,  1867. 

SPAIN. 

Catalogo  general  de  la  seccion  espahola,  publicado  por  la  comision 
regia  de  Espafia.  Paris,  Lalmre,  1867. 

Catalogue  general  de  la  section  espagnole,  publie  par  la  commission 
royale  d’Espagne.  Paris,  Laliure,  1867. 

L’Espagne  a  Exposition  Universelle  de  1867,  par  Leon  Droux.  Paris, 
Dentu,  1868. 

Travaux  publics. — Notice  sur  l’etat  des  travaux  publics  en  Espagne 
et  sur  la  legislation  speciale  qui  les  regit.  Madrid,  Rivadeneyra,  3 
Rue  du  Due  d’Ossuna,  1867.  8°.  pp.  135. 

Notice  sur  les  documents  appartenant  a  la  collection  paleographique  de 
Jean  do  Troy  Ortolano,  presentes  a  Exposition  Universelle  de  1867, 
a  Paris.  Paris,  Laliure,  1867. 

SWITZERLAND. 

Rapports  sur  la  participation  de  la  Suisse  a  Exposition  Universelle  de 
1867,  avec  catalogue.  Berne,  C.  J.  Wyss,  1868. 

Les  institutions  ouvrieres  de  la  Suisse,  par  Gustave  Moynier. 
Memoire  redige  a  la  demande  de  la  commission  centrale  de  la  Con¬ 
federation  Suisse  pour  Exposition  Universelle  de  Paris.  Geneve, 
Oherbuliez.  Paris,  Cherbuliez,  33  Rue  de  Sein'e,  1867. 

TUNIS. 

Traduction  litterale  du  travail,  publie  en  Arabe  pour  M.  le  baron 
Jules  de  Lesseps,  commissaire  general  de  Tunis,  du  Maroc,  de  la 
Chine  et  du  Japon,  par  Soliman  Al-Harairi.  Paris,  Victor  Goupy,  5 
Rue  Garanciere,  1866.  The  Arab  text:  Paris,  Jousset,  Clet  et  cie,  8 
Rue  de  Eurstenberg. 

Tunis. — Notices  abregees  sur  la  regence  de  Tunis,  par  Ch.  Cubisol,  1866. 
Pamphlet  lithographed  by  Valeur,  35  Rue  d’Argenteuil,  Paris. 

TURKEY. 

La  Turquie  a  Exposition  Universelle  de  1867,  ouvrage  publie  par  les 
soins  et  sous  la  direction  de  s.  exc.  Salaheddin-Bey,  commissaire  im¬ 
perial  ottoman  pour  Exposition  Universelle.  Paris,  Hachette,  1867. 

Rapports  de  la  commission  scientifique  imperiale  ottomane,  reuni  a 
Paris  sous  la  presidence  de  s.  exc.  Djemil  Pacha.  (These  reports, 
were  expected  to  be  published  in  twelve  volumes.)  Paris,  Laliure. 


36 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


WURTEMBERG . 

Catalogue  descriptif  du  royaume  de  Wurtemberg.  Stuttgart, 
Metzler,  1867. 

Wurtemberg. — Descriptive  catalogue  of  the  products  of  the  kingdom 
of  Wurtemberg.  Published  by  authority  of  the  Royal  Wurtemberg 
Commission.  12°.  128  pp.  Stuttgart,  J.  B.  Metzler,  printer,  1867. 

Catalogue  pour  l’exposition  speciale  des  poids,  mesures,  et  monnaies 
du  royaume  de  Wurtemberg.  Stuttgart,  Griininger,  1867. 

Agriculture. — Exposition  des  produits  de  ragriculture  wurtember- 
geoise,  organisee  par  le  conseil  central  de  ragriculture  du  royaume  de 
Wurtemberg  a  Stuttgart.  1867. 

Rapport  sur  1’economie  politique  et  sociale  du  royaume  de  Wurtemberg, 
publie  sous  la  direction  du  conseil  royal  pour  l’industrie  et  le  com¬ 
merce,  par  Mtehrlen.  Stuttgart,  Griininger,  1868. 

Das  besondere  Preisgericht  und  die  neugeschaffenen  Preise  fur 
die  Ptlege  der  Eintracht  in  Fabriken  und  Ortschaften,  und  die  Sicher- 
ung  des  AVolilstandes,  der  Sittlichkeit  und  Intelligenz  in  den  Arbeiter- 
Kreisen.  Officieller  Bericht  von  Alfred  Le  Roux,  in’s  Deutsche  iiber- 
tragen  auf  Yeranlassung  und  unter  Revision  des  siiddeutschen  Mit- 
gliedes  und  Referenten  im  Preisgericht  Dr.  F.  Y.  Steinbeis.  Stutt¬ 
gart,  Griininger,  1868. 


LIST  OF  THE  REPORTS 


OF 

THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS 

IN  THE  ORDER  OF  SUCCESSION  IN  THE  VOLUMES. 


VOLUME  I. 

Introduction,  with  Selections  from  the  Correspondence  of 
Commissioner  General  K  M.  Beckwith  and  others. 

General  Survey  of  the  Exposition,  with  a  Report  on  the 
Character  and  Condition  of  the  United  States  Section. 

Report  on  the  Fine  Arts.  By  Frank  Leslie. 

The  Fine  Arts  Applied  to  the  Useful  Arts. 

Extract  from  the  Report  of  the  International  Committee 
on  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins. 

Bibliography  of  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867. 


VOLUME  II. 


The  Production  of  Iron  and  Steel  in  its  Economic  and  Social 
Relations.  By  Abram  S.  Hewitt. 

Report  upon  the  Precious  Metals,  being  Statistical  Notices, 
etc.  By  William  P.  Blake. 

The  Progress  and  Condition  of  Several  Departments  of  In¬ 
dustrial  Chemistry.  By  J.  Lawrence  Smith. 


38 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


VOLUME  III. 


Machinery  and  Processes  op  the  Industrial  Arts,  and 
Apparatus  of  the  Exact  Sciences.  By  Frederick  A.  P. 
Barnard,  LL.  D. 


VOLUME  IV. 

Examination  of  the  Telegraphic  Apparatus  and  the  Pro¬ 
cesses  in  Telegraphy.  By  Samuel  F.  B,  Morse,  LL.  D. 

Steam  Engineering  as  Illustrated  by  the  Paris  Universal 
Exposition.  By  William  S.  Auchincloss. 


Engineering  and  Public  Works.  By  William  P.  Blake. 

B^TON-CoiGNET  ;  ITS  FABRICATION  AND  USES,  ETC.  By  LEONARD 
F.  Beckwith. 


Asphalt  and  Bitumen  as  Applied  in  Construction,  etc.  By 
Arthur  Beckwith. 

Buildings,  Building  Materials,  and  Methods  of  Building. 
By  James  H.  Bowen. 

Mining  and  the  Mechanical  Preparation  of  Ores.  By  Henry 
F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  and  Messrs.  Huet,  Geyler,  and  Lepainteur. 


VOLUME  V. 

Quantities  of  Cereals  Produced  in  Different  Countries 
Compared.  By  Samuel  B.  Ruggles. 

The  Quality  and  Characteristics  of  the  Cereal  Products 
Exhibited.  By  George  S.  Hazard. 


Report  on  the  Preparation  of  Food.  By  W.  E.  Johnston,  M.  D. 


REPORTS  OF  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS.  39 

The  Manufacture  of  Beet  root  Sugar  and  Alcohol — The 
Manufacture  of  Pressed  or  Agglomerated  Coal — Photo¬ 
graphs  and  Photographic  Apparatus — Outline  of  the  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Atlantic  Cables.  By  Henry  F.  Q.  D’Aligny. 

Culture  and  Products  of  the  Vine,  with  an  Appendix  upon 
the  Production  of  Wine  in  California.  By  Commissioners 
Wilder,  Thompson,  Flagg,  and  Barry. 

School-houses,  and  the  Means  of  Promoting  Popular  Educa¬ 
tion.  By  Jacob  R.  Freese. 

Munitions  of  War  Exhibited  at  the  Paris  Universal  Expo¬ 
sition.  By  Charles  B.  Norton  and  W.  J.  Valentine. 

Instruments  and  Apparatus  of  Medicine,  Surgery,  Hygiene, 
etc.  By  Thomas  W.  Evans,  M.  D. 

Report  upon  Musical  Instruments.  By  Paran  Stevens. 


VOLUME  VI. 

Wool  and  Manufactures  of  Wool.  By  E.  E.  Mudge  and  John 
L.  Hayes. 

Report  upon  Cotton.  By  E.  R.  Mudge  and  B.  F.  Nourse. 

Silk  and  Silk  Manufactures.  By  Elliot  C.  Cowdin. 

Clothing  and  Woven  Fabrics.  By  Paran  Stevens. 

Report  on  Education.  By  J.  W.  Hoyt. 

List  of  the  Reports  in  the  Order  of  Succession  in  the 
Volumes. 


GENERAL  ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


TO  THE 

REPORTS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS 

TO  THE 

UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION  AT  PARIS,  1867. 


Note. — As  each  report  is  paged  separately,  it  is  necessary  to  specify  in  the  references  not  only  the 
volume  but  the  report.  This  has  been  done  by  giving,  first  the  number  of  the  volume  in  Roman  nu¬ 
merals,  next  an  abbreviation  of  the  title  of  the  report,  followed  by  the  number  of  the  page  or  pages  in 
Arabic  numerals.  When  a  subject  is  discussed  in  two  or  more  of  the  reports,  reference  is  made  to  each 
report,  and,  generally,  in  the  order  of  the  volumes. 

The  sequence  of  reports  in  each  of  the  volumes  may  be  ascertained  by  consulting  the  full  list  of  the 
reports  or  the  table  of  contents  in  each  volume.  The  running  titles  of  the  right-hand  pages  will  fur¬ 
ther  aid  in  finding  a  report  sought  for. 

A. 

Page. 

Academy  of  Paris ;  vi,  Education . .  93,  300,  305-308 

Academies  in  France ;  ib .  305 

Accouterments,  military;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  135 

Accumulation  of  force  by  means  of  water  under  heavy  pressure ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  151, 152 

in  fly-wheels — the  Mahovos;  ib .  153 

Acetate  of  alumina;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  52 

Acetic  vinegar ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar . .  48 

Acoustics;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  499 

Acoustic  flames;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  509 

Achard’s  electric  brake ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  273 

prize  awarded  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  France ;  ib.  275 

Advisory  committee ;  i,  Introduction .  5,37-46 

Aerial  motors,  advantages  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  119 

number  of  exhibitors  of ;  ib .  120 

Africa,  gold  fields,  and  production  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals.. . . .  107 

estimated  annual  production  of  gold  in,  by  Birkmyre  ;  ib .  107 

state  of  silk  industry  in ;  vi,  Silk .  18 

annual  production  of  wool  in  ;  vi,  Wool .  18 

Agassiz,  Professor,  views  on  the  effects  of  the  crosses  of  races  of  men  ;  vi,  Wool.  91 

opiniop  of,  in  regard  to  the  whiteness  of  animals ;  ib .  97 

Agglomerated  coal ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  309 

report  on ;  in  volume  v. 

machines  for  making  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  310,  311 

use  of,  on  railways  and  by  steamers  ;  ib .  311 

Agriculture  in  France;  i,  General  Survey .  163, 175 

employment  of  potash  salts  in  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  44 

schools  of;  vi,  Education .  135-153,  219 

Agricultural  machines  at  Billancourt ;  i,  Introduction .  107 

exhibition  of  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  223 

Air,  resistance  of  tubes  to  flow  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  137 

transmission  of  force  by  compressed  ;  ib .  136-150 


2 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Air-pump,  Giessler’s,  without  valves ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  490 

Ivravogl’s  mercurial ;  ib .  492 

Richard’s,  without  valves  ;  ib . . .  493 

Richard’s  eight-barreled ;  ib .  495 

Deleuil’s  free-piston ;  ib .  497 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  production  of ;  vi,  Wool . ... .  61 

Alauzet’s  printing  press  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  433 

Alhertus  Magnus,  calculating  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  633 

Alcan,  Professor,  silk-thread  testing  apparatus  of;  vi,  Silk . .  30 

other  machines  of;  ib .  31 

Alcohol ;  i,  General  Survey .  220, 307 

production  of,  from  the  beet;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar . ’ . .  40 

Alcohometer  and  volumeter  of  Siemens  and  Halske ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  220 

Algeria,  silver-mining  companies  of,  represented  at  the  Exhibition ;  ii,  Free. Met.  186 

Allemand’s  brick  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  253 

Allen,  J.  F.,  engine;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . . .  55 

Alloys  and  values,  rules  for  the  calculation  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  333 

Almaden  quicksilver  mine,  Spain,  ores  of,  and  the  annual  yield ;  ib .  196> 

Alum;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  52 

Alumina  and  its  compounds;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  50-52 

Ambulance  and  sanitary  materiel ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  29-70 

v,  Munitions  of  War .  143, 147 

American  Bible  Society,  exhibition  made  by ;  i,  General  Survey .  38 

American  goods,  qualities  of;  vi,  Wool .  .  21 

manufacturers,  duties  of ;  ib .  66 

American  merino  sheep,  table  of  measurements  of ;  vi,  Wool . .  •  72 

difference  in,  from  Spanish  merino ;  ib .  73 

Paular  family  of;  ib . . .  73 

Infantado  family  of ;  ib .  73 

washed  wool  of;  ib .  78 

scoured  fleeces  of;  ib .  78 

quality  of  wool  of;  ib .  79 

improvement  in  ;  ib.... .  74 

price  of  rams  ;  ib .  75 

ram  “  Twenty-one  per  cent.,”  (note  ;)  ib .  75 

increase  of  yolk  in;  ib .  76- 

American  Statistical  Association,  metric  system  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  282 

Ammonia  and  ammonia  salts  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  45-48 

Ammonia,  ammoniacal  products  of  gas  works;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  88,89-92 

Ammoniacal  gas-engines,  principle  of  construction  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts -  79 

advantages  of ;  ib .  73 

Frot’s ;  ib. .  73 

Delaporte’s ;  ib .  75 

economy  of,  compared  with  others;  ib .  76 

Ammoniacal  freezing  apparatus ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  368,  370 

Amsler’s  planimeter,  theory  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  625,  626, 627 

Analytical  engine  of  Babbage ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  648 

Anatomical  preparations;  v,  Surgical  Report .  11 

Ancyra,  description  of,  by  Tournefort ;  vi,  Wool .  94 

Andrews  &.  Brother,  Messrs.,  centrifugal  pump  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  187 

Andree,  Mr.  L.,  models  of  densimeters  in  aluminum  bronze ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  483 

Anemometer,  Secchi’s  self-registering;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  574 

Anesthetic  apparatus  ;  v,  Surgical  Report . .  27 

Angel’s  Camp  mines,  peculiarity  of  the  ores  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  8 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


3 


Page. 

Angora,  description  of  its  goats  by  Tournefort ;  vi,  Wool .  95 

number  of  goats  in  district  of;  ib .  99 

Angora  goat,  impracticability  of  crossing  with  common  goat  ;  vi,  Wool .  105 

importance  of  acclimatizing  the  breed  in  this  country  ;  ib .  105 

effect  of  crossing  black  female  with  white  buck;  ib.. .  98 

variety  of  sliawl-wool  goat ;  ib . 99 

power  to  resist  extreme  cold,  but  not  moisture  ;  ib .  97 

results  of  acclimation  in  Europe  and  America;  ib .  99,100 

differences  between  this  and  common  goat ;  ib .  88 

Aniline  and  other  coal-tar  colors  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . 102-117, 142-146 

Aniline  colors,  discovery  by  Ruhge  ;  vi,  Wool . .  43 

vi,  Clothing .  14 

Perkins’s  violet ;  ib .  43 

affinity  of,  for  materials  of  animal  origin;  ib .  44 

stability  of ;  ib .  44 

Animal  charcoal,  furnace  for  the  revivification  of;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  84 

Annular  brick  furnace  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  357 

Antiquity  of  the  woolen  trade  in  England  ;  ib .  131 

Anthracite  coal  waste,  suggestions  for  the  use  of;  v,  Pressed  Coal .  17 

Anzasca  Gold  Mining  Company,  Italy,  yield  of,  since  1883;  ii,  Precious  Metals  .  99 

Anzin,  saving  of  life  at  the  mines  of,  by  parachutes;  iv,  Mining .  76 

Apparatus  for  schools  in  different  countries;  v,  School-houses .  8,9-10 

Appalachian  gold  field,  discovery  of  gold  in;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  47 

extent  of;  ib .  48 

quality  and  character  of  gold  of;  ib .  48 

deposits  of  gold  from,  at  United  States  Mint ;  ib .  48 

decrease  in  production  of  gold  from ;  ib .  48 

App’s  gold  mine,  yield  of  from  May,  1859,  to  September,  1866 ;  ii,  Prec.  Met. . .  6 

Appian,  mention  of  stuffs  known  as  Kikuua  by;  vi,  Wool .  87 

Appleby  Brothers’ self-propelling  crane;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  37 

Appleton,  Mr.  Nathan,  “  History  of  the  introduction  of  the  power-loom  and  the 

origin  of  Lowell,”  by;  vi,  Wool . . . .  27 

Appold,  invention  of  centrifugal  pump  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  176 

Applied  art,  schools  of;  vi,  Education .  129-132 

Appropriations  and  expenses ;  i,  Introduction .  141-158 

Archad,  A.,  &  Co.,  apparatus  for  car  intercommunication ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . .  30 

Archaeology,  International  Congress  of;  i,  General  Survey .  17 

Arches,  method  of  easing  and  striking  the  centering  of;  iv,  Civil  Engineering..  47 

Arches  of  beton ;  i v,  Beton-Coignet .  13 

Archil  or  orseille,  a  new  kind  introduced;  vi,  Wool .  42 

Architecture,  schools  of;  vi,  Education .  180, 181,217,225 

Roumanian  chapel ;  iv,  Buildings .  28 

Architectural  designs  and  models;  i,  General  Survey .  34, 257 

iv,  Buildings .  5-10 

Argentine  Republic,  gold  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  72 

Arizona,  principal  mining  centers  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  43 

estimated  bullion  yield  for  1867 ;  ib .  43 

silver  mines  of;  ib .  153 

Arlincourt’s  printing  apparatus;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . . .  29-30 

Armor  of  Warrior  and  Minotaur;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  .  164 

of  Bellerophon ;  ib .  170 

Gouin’s ;  ib .  176 

15-inch  plates ;  ib .  182 

Armor-plates,  forging  of,  at  Atlas  Iron  Works,  (note;)  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  8 


4 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Arms,  portable ;  i,  General  Survey .  138,270 

v,  Munitions  of  War .  15-50 

Armstrong,  Sir  William,  exhibition  of  ordnance  by;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  9 

method  of  accumulating  force;  iii,  Industrial  Arts _  151 

Armstrong’s  dovetailing  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  240 

Armstrong  guns  and  vent  piece;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  52,  55-66, 112 

Arnold,  Commissioner,  on  school  systems  in  Holland;  vi,  Education .  20 

Arsenal  at  Ruelle,  France;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  88 

Arsenic,  separation  of,  from  sulphuric  acid;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  15 

in  hydrochloric  acid ;  ib .  55 

Artesian  wells,  diameter  of;  iv,  Mining . .* .  7 

improved  apparatus  for  boring ;  ib . . .  . .  i .  7, 24-28 

Artificial  stones  for  building;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  298 

iv,  Building .  44 

Artificial  stone  piers  at  Port  Said;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  43 

Artificial  eyes  and  limbs;  v,  Surgical  Report .  9 

teeth  of  ivory  and  of  porcelain;  ib .  13 

Artists’  materials;  i,  General  Survey .  42 

Arts,  industrial,  condition  of,  indicated  by  the  awards;  i,  Introduction .  122 

machinery  and  processes  of  the,  and  apparatus  of  the  exact 
sciences,  report  on,  by  F.  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.  D. ;  in  volume  iii. 

Arts  and  trades,  schools  of;  vi,  Education .  118-132 

Art  schools;  vi,  Education . .  112-116 

Art  museum  at  South  Kensington ;  vi,  Education .  130 

Asia,  movement  of  precious  metals  toward ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  231 

exports  of  gold  and  silver  to,  in  fourteen  years,  table;  ib .  232 

annual  production  of  wool  in;  vi,  Wool . . .  18 

Asiatic  countries,  state  of  silk  industry  in;  vi,  Silk .  18 

Asphalt  and  bitumen  as  applied  in  construction,  Ac.;  by  Arthur  Beckwith;  in 
volume  iv. 

Association  of  artisans;  vi,  Education .  128 

Association  Polyteclmique ;  vi,  Education  .  127 

Astronomical  photographs ;  v,  Photography .  7,13 

Astronomical  clock,  Bond’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  471 

Atlantic  telegraph  cables,  history  of;  in  volume  v. 

Atlas  Iron  Works,  armor  plates  manufactured  at;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  8 

Atwood,  Stephen,  Spanish  merinos  of;  vi,  Wool . . .  69,70 

Aubin’s  improved  millstones;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  279 

Auchincloss,  William  S.  Report  upon  steam  engineering,  &c. ;  in  volume  iv. 

Auclemar’s  parachute ;  iv,  Mining .  78-79 

Augusta  Cotton  Manufacturing  Company ;  vi,  Cotton .  71 

Aurelian,  the  Emperor,  his  opinion  of  silk  in  his  times,  (note  1 ;)  vi,  Silk .  21 

Aurora  borealis,  De  La  Rive’s  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  561,562 

Australia,  number  of  miners  in  gold  fields  of,  from  1859  to  1867,  inclusive, 

(table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  307 

average  earnings  of  miners  in,  (table;)  ib .  309 

number  of  steam-engines  and  stamp-heads  employed  in  mining  in, 

(table;)  ib .  310 

average  yield  of  quartz  per  ton  in  different  districts  in,  (table;)  ib..  311 

cost  of  crushing  quartz  and  cement  in;  ib . . .  311 

extraction  of  gold  from  auriferous  pyrites,  success  of  operations  in ;  ib.  312 

exhibition  of  specimens  of  gold  from ;  ib .  75 

model  and  description  of  “Welcome  nugget;”  ib .  76 

pyramid  representing  the  amount  of  gold  produced  from  1851  to 
1866;  ib .  7G 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


5 


Page. 

Australia,  weight  and  cost  of  stamps  in  mining  districts  of;  ib . .  313 

observations  by  Mr.  Selwyn  in  regard  to  placers  of;  ib .  78 

total  production  of  wool  in;  vi,  Wool .  Ill 

annual  production  of  wool  in ;  ib .  18 

Austria,  collections  of  silver  from,  at  the  Exposition;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  179 

principal  localities  of  silver  in ;  ib .  179 

production  of  silver  from  1855  to  1859;  ib .  179 

gold  production  in,  in  1865;  ib . .  97 

annual  production  of  gold  in,  from  1819  to  1865  inclusive,  (table;)  ib.  97 

production  of  gold  ores  for  three  years  ending  1866,  (table;)  ib .  98 

value  and  amount  of  production  of  wool  in ;  vi,  Wool .  61 

woolen  fabrics  of;  ib . 19 

Autoclave  of  De  Milly  for  decomposing  fats ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  127 

Automatic  regulators  of  the  electric  light ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  417 

Autodynamic  elevators,  Champsaur’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  172 

Reynolds’s  water-jet  elevator;  ib .  175 

Authors,  list  of;  i,  Introduction . % .  162 

Automatic  recording  telegraph;  iv,  Telegraph  Apparatus .  90-96 

generic  telegraph ; ib .  92 

electro-chemical  process;  ib . . , .  92 

electro-magnetic  mode;  ib .  93 

the  triple  pen ;  ib .  94 

the  printing  wheel ;  ib .  94 

the  steel  point ;  ib .  95 

modes  of  marking  or  recording ;  ib .  95-96 

control;  ib .  111-115 

Sortais’s  apparatus  for;  ib . . .  111-113 

Morse’s  stopping  apparatus ;  ib . • .  114 

Aveling  &  Porter’s  traction  engine;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  33 

Awards,  percentage  of,  to  exhibitors  from  various  countries;  i,  General  Survey..  7-9 
high  position  conceded  by  the  verdict  of  the  juries  to  the  United 

States ;  ib . . .  9, 248 

list  of,  to  the  exhibitors  from  the  United  States ;  ib .  315-324 

B. 

Babbage,  difference  engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 636,  645, 648 

analytical  engine  of;  ib .  648 

Babinet,  Mr.,  report  on  Marval’s  heating  apparatus ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  349 

Bachman,  Dr.  John,  reference  to  paper  on  Angora  goat  by;  vi,  Wool .  89 

Baden,  revision  of  old  school  system  of ;  vi,  Education .  26 

Bailey  light-house,  Wigham’s  gas-light  at;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  408 

Baird,  Professor,  affinity  of  Rocky  Mountain  goat  with  antelope;  vi,  Wool _  84 

Bakeries  and  bread  of  the  Exposition ;  v,  Food . . .  7 

mechanical ;  ib . ^ .  9 

Baking  by  Marval’s  heating  apparatus ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  346 

Balances ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  484 

tabular  statement  of  sensibility  of;  ib .  485 

Balard’s  process  for  the  production  of  potash  from  sea-water;  ii,  Industrial 

Chemistry .  33 

Balbeck’s  telemetric  double  telescope ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  585 

Ballarat,  mines  and  workings  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  86 

Ballast  Board  of  Dublin;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  411 

Balloon  frames,  construction  of;  iv,  Building .  58 

Ball’s  stamps  used  at  Lake  Superior;  iv,  Mining . . .  104 


6 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Pago. 

Band-saw,  Perm’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.. .  245 

Banks,  Hon.  N.  P.,  speech  of;  i,  Introduction . . .  5, 165 

letters  to;  ib .  146,147 

on  the  classification ;  ib .  165 

Bardonneche,  (Mt.  Cenis,)  compressed  air  at;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  142 

construction  of  compressors  used  at ;  ib .  144, 145 

Barlow,  conductibility  of  electric  current ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  9 

Barlow’s  planetarium;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  471 

Barnard,  E.  A.  P.,  LL.  D.,  report  on  the  machinery  and  processes  of  the  in¬ 
dustrial  arts  and  apparatus  of  the  exact  sciences ;  in  volume  iii. 

Barnhardt  mine,  gold  specimens  from ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  11 

Barometer,  Father  Secchi’s  self-registering ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  572 

Baron  de  Hock,  remarks  by,  on  monetary  unit ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  245 

Barrel-making  machinery ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  247 

Baryta  and  its  compounds;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  48 

Bashforth’s  electro-chronoscopic  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  568 

Basket  work,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey .  89,91,156 

Bath  apparatus,  &c. ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  8 

Bathometer,  an  instrument  for  deep-sea  sounding;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  609 

iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . .  73-77 

Baudouin  and  Digney  Freres,  inking  apparatus ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus _  16 

Bauendalil  &  Co.,  letter  of,  in  regard  to  mohair  or  goat’s  wool ;  vi,  Wool -  104 

in  Country  Gentleman  in  regard  to  mohair, 

(note;)  ib . .  105 

Beaueourt  real-estate  association ;  iv,  Building .  79 

Beaumont  and  Locock’s  drilling  engine  for  rocks;  iv,  Mining .  41 

Bechamp,  M.,  on  the  malady  among  silk-worms  ;  vi,  Silk .  25 

Beche,  Sir  Henry  de  la;  vi,  Education .  165 

Beckwith,  Arthur,  report  upon  asphalt  and  bitumen  as  applied  in  construc¬ 
tion  ;  in  volume  iv. 

Beckwith,  Leonard  F.,  report  upon  the  fabrication  and  uses  of  Coiguet’s  beton; 
in  volume  iv. 

Beckwith,  N.  M.,  Commissioner  General,  appointment  of;  i,  Introduction .  4, 10 

observations  on  monetary  treaty  and  international  coinage ; 

ii,  Precious  Metals .  253 

Becquerel,  M.,  comparison  of  electric  light  with  others;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  421,425 

thermo-electric  battery  of;  ib .  560 

Bedson’s  machine  for  making  wire  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  5 

Beet  roots,  varieties  and  cultivation  of;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  28,35 

preservation  of ;  ib .  35-39 

Beet-root  sugar,  history  of  the  cultivation  of  the  beet  for;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar.  7 

present  condition  of  the  industry;  ib .  11 

use  of  Robert’s  diffusion  process  in  making ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  324 
Beet-root  sugar  and  alcohol,  report  upon;  by  II.  F.  Q.  D’Aligny ;  in  volume  v. 

Beer  and  cider ;  i,  General  Survey .  221, 308 

Behrens,  rotary  steam-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  83 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  58 

Behrens,  Mr.  Jacob,  statistical  tables  of ;  vi,  Wool . .  133 

Belgium,  iron  industry  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  37 

production  of  stone  for  purposes  of  construction  in  ;  iv,  Civil  Eng.. .  9 

woolen  industry  of ;  vi,  Wool .  60 

woolen  fabrics  of;  ib .  19 

Bells  of  cast  steel;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . . .  12 

Belon,  Father,  mention  of  Angora  goat  first  by;  vi,  Wool .  87 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


7 


Page. 

Belou,  hot-air  engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  45 

Bengal,  mode  of  producing  ice  in;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  564 

Benton,  Col.  James  G.,  electro-ballistic  pendulum  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  565 

Benoville,  M.,  treatise  on  woolen  industry  of  France ;  vi,  Wool .  44 

Benzine  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . . .  88 

Berard’s  process  for  the  production  of  steel ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  295, 353 

Berard  &  Menier’s  coal-washing  machine  ;  iv,  Mining .  89 

Berendorf  boiler  tubes ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . .  51 

Berger  steel  gun,  breech-loader  ;  Munitions  of  War .  78,119 

Bergstroem’s  perforator  for  rocks;  iv,  Mining .  39 

Berlin,  university  at,  and  its  influences  ;  vi,  Education .  96, 349 

Bernstein,  Michel,  flock  of;  vi,  Wool .  16 

Berthollet,  M.,  work  on  dyeing  by ;  vi,  Wool .  39 

Bertscli’s  electrostatic  induction  machine;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  554 

Bessemer  steel;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  30-32, 35, 63 

report  on,  by  Frederick  J.  Slade  ;  ib .  63 

arrangement  of  plant  for  making ;  ib .  67 

principal  uses  of ;  ib . .  69 

for  small  articles;  ib .  81 

production  of,  in  various  countries . „ .  63-84 

experiments  on  the  strength  of;  ib .  105 

use  of,  in  Sweden  for  rails ;  ib .  134, 135 

process;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  284 

properties  which  the  products  exhibit ;  ib . .  287» 

statements  upon  the  value  and  importance  of  invention  of ;  ib.  238 

Austrian  and  Swedish  exhibitions  of;  ib .  289 

bridge  made  of,  over  the  Seine ;  ib .  293 

B6ton-Coignet,  its  fabrication  and  uses,  by  Leonard  F.  Beckwith ;  in  volume  iv. 

B6ton  agglomere  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  298 

iv,  Buildings .  38 

iv,  Civil  Engineering .  12 

method  of  mixing  and  using;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  300 

buildings  constructed  of ;  ib .  301 

crushing  weight  which  it  will  resist ;  ib .  302 

iv,  Beton-Coignet .  11 


nature  of;  iv,  Beton-Coignet . 

theory  of  concretion ;  ib . 

Coignet,  composition  of;  ib . 

varieties  of;  ib . 

fabrication  and  properties  of ;  ib . 

packing ;  ib . 

molding  ;  ib . . 

crushing  strength  of;  ib . . 

weight  of  cubic  yard  of;  ib . 

applications  of ;  ib . 

Coignet,  conclusions  respecting  it ;  ib . 

experiments  with ;  ib . 

iv,  Buildings . 

Clarke’s  adjustable  frame  for;  iv,  Buildings 

Tail’s  bracket  scaffolding;  ib . 

Bibliography  of  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1867 ;  in  volume  i. 

Bibliographical  list  of  publications  ;  i,  Bibliography . . 

Billancourt,  agricultural  machines  at;  i,  Introduction . 

island  of;  i,  General  Survey . 

exhibition  at ;  vi,  Wool . 


6 

6 

7 

9 

9 

11 

12 

12-17 

21 

18-21 

38 

38 

43 

3 

106 

11 

11 


8 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Bing’s  photometer;  v,  Photography.  .  9 

Binocular  microscopes ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  538 

Birkmyre,  table  by,  of  production  of  precious  metals;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  358 

estimates  by,  of  production  of  gold  and  silver  in  America  in  1801 ;  ib.  207 

Birmingham  Company’s  electro-magnetic  engine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  126 

Bisulphide  of  carbon,  use  of,  for  extraction  of  oils;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  319 

Black-ash,  Mond’s  process  of  obtaining  sulphur  from;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry.  4 

manufacture  of  soda  from ;  ib .  22-24 

Black-band  iron  ore ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  44 

Blake’s  rock-breaker;  iv,  Mining .  85-86,104 

Blake,  William  P.,  bibliography  of  the  Exposition  ;  in  volume  i. 

report  upon  the  precious  metals,  &c. ;  in  volume  ii. 
notes  upon  civil  engineering  and  public  works ;  in  volume  iv. 

Blast  furnaces  of  Sweden,  general  dimensions  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  16 

Blast  furnaces,  great  durability  of,  in  South  Wales;  ib .  19 

dimensions  of,  in  the  Cumberland  region  and  elsewhere;  ib. ..  20,21 

dimensions  of ;  ib .  65 

product  of,  in  Scotland;  ib .  23 

Bleaching  of  tissues;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  68 

Bleaching,  dyeing,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey .  165-166,280 

Blinds,  painted  or  printed ;  i,  General  Survey .  73 

Blonde  lace,  manufacture  and  beauty  of;  vi,  Silk .  43 

Blowing  machines,  exhibition  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  191 

Lloyd’s  noiseless  fan ;  ib .  191 

Schiele’s  compound  blowing  fan ;  ib .  192 

Evrard’s  rotary  compression  blower;  ib .  193 

Root’s  compression  rotary  blower ;  ib .  193 

Tliirion’s  hydfaulic  pressure  blower;  ib .  193 

Blue  Gravel  Mining  Company,  results  of  sluicing  by;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  15 

Blue  lead,  estimated  yield  of  gold  of  one  mile  of,  by  J.  H.  Crossman ;  ii,  Prec.  Met.  14 

Boats,  life-boats  and  pleasure  boats;  i,  General  Survey .  204,  303 

Bochum  Company,  exhibition  of  steel  by  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  12 

Boiler  fixtures  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  232-236 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  49-53 

Riedel’s  feeder;  iii,  Industrial  Arts,  232;  Steam  Engineering .. .  49 

water  gauges;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  49 

Houget  &  Teston’s  feeder ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  233-236 

Berendorfs  boiler  tubes ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  50 

Green’s  fuel  economizer ;  ib .  52 

Bolivia,  estimated  yield  of  the  mines  of  Potosi  since  1545  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  174 

average  annual  yield  from  discovery  to  1556;  ib .  174 

total  production  of  silver  from  1827  to  1848;  ib .  174 

production  of  gold  and  silver  of,  from  1800  to  1846,  (official  return  ',)  ib.  174 

Bond’s  astronomical  clock  and  chronograph;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  471 

Bonelli’s  apparatus  modified  by  Cook;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  33 

Bonnets  and  head-dresses ;  i,  General  Survey .  128 

Boots  and  shoes ;  i,  General  Survey .  131 

vi,  Clothing .  56 

Bordeaux  wine;  v,  Culture  and  Products  of  the  Vine .  1 

Borie’s  brick  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Boring  shafts  and  rock-drilling ;  i,  General  Survey .  172 

Boring  and  drilling  rocks  for  blasting  ;  iv,  Mining .  32-49 

Boring  shafts  of  large  section;  iv,  Mining .  7-24 

Artesian  wells ;  iv,  Mining .  7-31 


GENERAL  INDEX.  9 

Page. 

Borneo,  gold  production  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  106 

exports  of  gold  from;  ib .  329 

Borsig  of  Berlin,  exhibition  of  gigantic  puddle  balls  by;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  6 

Bottle-washing  and  corking  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  266 

Boulet  Brothers’  brick  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Bourbouz,  Mr.,  illustration  of  the  laws  of  falling  bodies;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.. .  489 

Bourdon’s  dynamometer;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  165 

Bourdon  E.,  water  gauges  for  boilers ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  49 

steam  gauger;  ib .  51 

Bournique  and  Vidard’s  freight  car;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  30 

Bowen,  James  H.,  report  upon  buildings,  building  materials,  and  methods  of 
building ;  in  volume ,  iv. 

Bowes,  Mr.,  statement  in  regard  to  Scotch  cassimeres;  vi,  Wool .  15 

statement  in  regard  to  American  merinos ;  ib .  10 

Bowling  Iron  Works,  weldless  iron  bands  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  6 

Braces,  garters,  and  buckles ;  i,  General  Survey .  118 

Bradford  Iron  Works,  visit  to;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  5 

Bradford,  manufacture  of;  vi,  Wool .  63 

Brakes  for  rail  cars,  .use  of  the  Mahovos  as  a  brake;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  159, 160 

safety  brakes ;  ib .  349 

Achard’s  electric;  ib . 273 

Brandt,  M.,  description  of  the  Angora  goat  by;  vi,  Wool .  82 

dimensions  of  specimen  examined  by ;  ib .  83 

argument  of,  in  support  of  his  assertion  in  regard  to  the  derivation 

of  the  domestic  goat ;  ib .  85 

observations  in  regard  to  spinning  Angora  goats’  hair;  ib .  85 

Brandy;  i,  General  Survey .  220 

production  in  California;  Culture  and  Products  of  the  Vine .  25 

Braun’s  panoramic  photographs ;  v,  Photography .  5 

Braune’s  parachute;  iv,  Mining .  80 

Brazil,  gold  districts  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals . . .  63 

Bread  at  the  Exposition ;  v,  Food . .  7 

machine-made;  ib .  9 

Bread-baking  by  Marval’s  heating  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  349 

Breech-loading  small  arms ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  15 

ordnance;  ib .  53 

Brest,  swing  bridge  of;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  49 

Brette’s  electro-clironoscope ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  566 

Breval,  Mr.,  rotary  steam-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  95 

Bricks ;  i,  General  Survey .  67 

annular  furnace  for  the  manufacture  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  357 

cost  of  production  in  Hoffman’s  furnace  compared ;  ib .  359 

Bricklayers  in  Paris;  iv,  Building . .  35 

Brick-making  machines;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  251-254 

Bridge  of  Bessemer  steel  over  the  Seine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  294 

Bright,  Sir  Charles,  sounder;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . . .  40 

British  artisans,  report  of,  upon  lace ;  vi,  Clothing .  64 

British  Columbia,  discovery  of  gold  of  the  Stickeen  River;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  41 

aggregate  gold  yield  at  Cariboo,  summer  of  1861 ;  ib .  41 

shipments  of  gold  from  Victoria  to  San  Francisco ;  ib .  41 

probable  product  for  1867 ;  ib .  42 

British  North  American  Provinces,  annual  production  of  wool  in ;  vi,  Wool.. . .  18 

Briquette  fuel ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . „ .  19 

Bromine,  production  of;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . — . .  72 


10 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Bronze,  period  of  man ;  i,  General  Survey .  17 

Bronzes  and  other  artistic  castings  and  repousse  work;  i,  General  Survey. 79-82, 250, 267 

Bronzed  iron,  Tucker’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  329 

Brook’s  parraffine  insulator;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  83 

Broom,  mechanical,  for  street  sweeping;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  275 

Brown,  Messrs.  J.,  &  Co.,  exhibition  of  a  large  plate  of  iron;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel. .  4 

exhibition  of  Bessemer  steel;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  288 

car  springs ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  31 

Broughton  gun;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  210 

Browne,  J.  Ross,  mining  and  bullion  statistics ;  ii,  Precious  Metals . . .  58 

Buenos  Ayres,  wools  of;  vi,  Wool .  8 

Buildings  of  the  Park;  i,  General  Survey .  11, 243 

Buildings,  materials  and  methods  of  building,  by  James  H.  Bowen;  in  vol¬ 
ume  iv. 

Building  materials,  &c.;  i,  General  Survey .  202 

iv,  Buildings . . .  31-60 

Civil  Engineering .  5-15 

Building  materials  and  method  of  construction ;  iv,  Building .  31-60 

use  of  plaster  in  Paris ;  ib .  32-35 

concrete  walls;  ib .  38-34 

artificial  stones,  &c. ;  ib . 44 

tiles  for  floors  and  walls;  ib .  46 

terra-cotta,  increasing  use  of;  ib .  48 

iron  work,  roofing  materials,  &c. ;  ib .  50 

roofing  felt ;  ib .  52 

use  of  paper  and  pasteboard ;  ib .  53 

carpenters’ and  joiners’ work;  ib .  55 

suggestions  for  fire-proof  walls  and  floors ;  ib .  59 

list  of  exhibitors  in  Class  93 ;  ib . * .  94 

Building  societies  in  France  ;  iv,  Building .  66 

Bullion  production  of  the  United  States  and  Territories  in  1867,  (table;)  ii, 

Precious  Metals .  57 

Buoys  for  lifting  vessels ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  337 

Bushel,  the  imperial  and  the  Winchester;  v,  Cereals .  9 

Butt  hinges  for  doors,  machine  for  making;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . ' .  350 

Buttons ;  i,  General  Survey .  117 

Byzantine  architecture ;  iv,  Building .  28 


C. 


Cables,  submarine  telegraph;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . 

method  of  laying  and  raising  of,  proposed  by  Sidney  E.  Morse  and  G. 

Livingston  Morse;  ib .  . 

exhibitors  of ;  ib . 

Cafe-restaurants;  v,  Food . 

Calcaire  grossier,  used  for  building  in  Paris ;  iv,  Building . 

Calculating  machines ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 

attempts  to  construct;  ib . 

Babbage’s  difference  engine;  ib . . . . 

exhibitors  of,  at  Exposition ;  ib . . . . 

arithmometer  of  Mr.  Thomas;  ib . . 

solution  of  problem  of  construction  of;  ib . 

Musina’s  pocket  machine ;  ib . 

range  of  Thomas’s  calculators;  ib . ’ . 


59-60 


77-82 

82 

5 

33 

629 

636 
636, 645 

637 
636,  638 

636 

637 
643 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


11 


Page. 

Calculating  machines;  examples  of  rapidity  of  calculation;  ib .  644 

difficulties  attending  construction  of ;  ib .  644 

Sclieutz’s  difference  engine ;  ib .  645,647 

method  of  differences ;  ib .  .  646 

Babbage’s  analytical  engine  ;  ib .  648 

Calles’s  hydro-aero-dynamic  wheel ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 134, 135, 136 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  64 

Calico  printing,  foundation  of;  vi,  Wool .  39 

California,  representation  of  the  products  of,  at  the  Exposition ;  i,  Introduction .  6 

collection  of  ores  from,  in  the  Exposition  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals...  ...  1 

extent  of  gold  field  in  ;  ib .  2 

early  discoveries  of  gold  in  ;  ib . .  2 

geology  and  gold-bearing  veins  of;  ib .  2 

character  of  the  auriferous  veins  of ;  ib .  3 

average  fineness  of  gold  of;  ib . „ .  4 

value  of  the  gold  production  in,  since  1848  ;  ib .  21 

discovery  of  silver  in  ;  ib .  145 

list  of  silver  mining  districts  in,  and  character  of  veins ;  ib .  145, 146 

present  production  and  export  of  quicksilver;  ib .  196, 199 

exports  of  treasure  from,  in  1867  and  1868,  (table  ;)  ib . . .  327 

receipts  of  treasure  for  nine  months  of  1867  and  1868;  ib .  328 

production  of  gold  in,  up  to  1851,  (table;)  ib .  329 

its  cocoons  at  the  Exposition  ;  vi,  Silk .  9 

excellence  of  its  silk- worm  'eggs  ;  ib .  9 

its  flourishing  silk  industry ;  ib . .  10 

admirably  adapted  to  silk  husbandry  ;  ib .  10 

Cambridge,  University  of ;  vi,  Education .  92 

Camp  equipment ;  i,  General  Survey . . .  143, 273 

v,  Munitions  of  War .  135-148 

Canada,  alluvial  gold  deposits  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals . .  49 

Canal  through  the  Isthmus  of  Suez ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  31 

Candles,  manufacture  of,  &c.;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  118-131 

Cannon  casting  at  Ruelle,  France;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  90 

Cannon  destroyer;  v,  Munitions  of  War . . .  83 

Cantonal  schools  of  Switzerland  ;  vi,  Education . . .  32 

Cape  wools  ;  vi,  Wool . 1 .  8 

Capital  and  labor,  harmony  between ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  39 

partnerships  of  industry;  ib .  59 

British  legislation  with  respect  to  the  working  classes  ;  ib.  59,  60 

Capra,  division  of  the  genus  by  Cuvier ;  vi,  Wool .  83 

division  of  the  genus  by  recent  zoologists ;  ib .  84 

Car  wheels  of  cast  steel,  by  Mr.  Krupp ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  32 

of  Messrs.  De  Dietrich  &  Co. ;  ib .  32 

of  the  Utrecht  foundry,  Holland ;  ib .  32 

of  A.  Gany  and  Mr.  Derno ;  ib .  32 

Carbolic  acid  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  99 

colors;  ib .  114 

Carbonation  of  beet-root  sugar  juice  ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar . 24,  68-72 

Carbonic  acid,  production  of;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  66 

Card-wool  fabrics  of  various  countries  ;  vi,  Wool .  20 

Carre,  Mr.  E.,  sulphuric  acid  ice  apparatus  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  366 

Carre,  Mr.  Ferdinand,  ammoniacal  freezing  apparatus  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  368 

Carrett,  Marshall  &  Co.,  Messrs.,  water-engine  of;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  101 

Carrett,  Marshall  &  Co.’s  coal  cutting  machine;  iv,  Mining .  51 


12 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Carnallite,  kainite,  sylvite,  and  other  compounds;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry _  37 

Caroline,  Queen,  her  robe  of  Georgia  silk ;  vi,  Silic .  7 

Carpenters’  and  joiners’  work  abroad  ;  iv,  Buildings .  55 

in  the  United  States ;  ib .  56 

Carpets,  tapestry,  and  furniture  stuffs;  i,  General  Survey .  69 

American;  vi,  Wool .  22 

Brussels  and  tapestry;  ib .  22 

Carriages  and  wheelwrights’  work ;  i,  General  Survey . . .  188, 299 

Carson  Hill  mine,  large  mass  of  gold  found  in  the  vein ;  ii,  Precious  Metals _  7 

Cartridges,  metallic  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War . . .  7-11 

paper ;  ib .  11-14 

for  Gatling  battery  ;  ib . . .  75 

Casselli,  Abb6,  telegraph  apparatus  of;  iv,  Telegraph  Apparatus .  36 

Case-shot,  Whitworth;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  131 

Casemates  of  granite  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  151, 156 

Casthelaz  &  Co.  of  Paris,  large  establishment  of;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  131 

Cashmere  shawls  ;  i,  General  Survey .  107 

goat,  (note;)  vi,  Wool .  84 

Catalogues  and  statistics ;  i,  Introduction .  102 

of  the  objects  exhibited;  i,  General  Survey .  253,255 

Cateau,  immense  establishment ;  vi,  Wool .  55 

perfection  of  machinery  and  processes;  ib .  56 

wages  and  condition  of  the  workmen  ;  ib .  56 

manufacture  of  imitation  Cashmere  shawls;  ib .  57 

Caton,  J.  D.,  Illinois,  pocket  field  telegraphic  apparatus;  i,  General  Survey .. .  301 

field  sounder ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  37 

Cathetometers  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  614 

Cazal’s  electro-magnetic  engine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 125 

Cazenave  &  Co.’s  brick  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Cellars  of  beton ;  i v,  Beton-Coignet .  12 

Celebes  and  Philippine  Islands,  gold  production  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  106 

Celsus’s  Be  Medicina;  vi,  Education .  237 

Cements  and  artificial  stones  ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering . .  10-12 

iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  303 

iv,  Buildings .  44 

Cement  deposits,  peculiarities  and  character  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  13 

Cenis,  Mount,  tunnel  through;  i,  General  Survey .  201 

iv,  Mining .  34,46 

use  of  compressed  air  at  the ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  137-143 

Cental,  importance  of  the  adoption  of,  as  the  cereal  unit ;  v,  Cereals .  11 

Central  America,  mines  and  production  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.,  j .  75 

Central  school  at  Lyons ;  vi,  Education . . .  122 

of  arts  and  manufactures ;  ib .  125 

Centers  of  woolen  industry  in  France ;  treatises  by  M.  Randoning  and  M.  Be- 

noville;  vi,  Wool .  44 

Centrifugal  pumps,  invention  of,  by  Appold ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  176 

principle  of  construction  of;  ib  . .  176 

Gwynne  &  Co.’s;  ib .  177 

Neut  &  Dumont’s ;  ib .  183 

Coignard  &  Co.’s;  ib .  185 

Andrews  &  Brother  ;  ib . 187 

root-cutters;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  43 

Cereals,  collected  by  exchange;  i,  Introduction .  133 

quantities  produced  in  various  countries  compared;  v,  Cereals .  5-14 

importance  of  the  adoption  of  the  cental  as  the  unit;  v,  Cereals .  11 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


13 


Page. 

Cereals,  comparative  cereal  product  of  Europe  and  of  tlie  United  States;  ib..  12 

qualities  and  characteristics  of  the  products  exhibited ;  ib .  15-26 

receipts  of  flour  and  wheat  at  San  Francisco ;  ib .  23 

and  other  eatable  farinaceous  products ;  i,  General  Survey.. _ _  201-210, 252 

Cess-pools  of  b6ton;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  15 

Chain  elevators ;  iv,  Mining .  103 

Chalmers’s  shield;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  152 

Dr.,  anticipation  of  the  introduction  of  illuminating  gas  by ;  ii,  In¬ 
dustrial  Chemistry .  75 

Chalopin’s  machine  for  corking  bottles;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  266 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  York,  action  of ;  i,  Introduction .  5,46 

Champ  de  Mars,  the  site  of  the  Exposition;  i,  General  Survey .  11, 12 

Champagne,  manufacture  of,  in  California;  v,  Culture  and  Products  of  the  Vine.  26 

Champsaur’s  autodynamic  water  elevator;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  171-174 

Cliampennois’s  rotary  root-cutter ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  42 

Chaparral  Hill  mine ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  7 

Chapin,  Mr.,  paper  of,  in  regard  to  Pacific  Mills ;  vi,  Wool .  25 

Charcoal,  preparation  of,  in  France;  i,  General  Survey .  155 

Charles  II,  his  coronation  robe  of  Virginia  silk ;  vi,  Silk .  7 

Chassepot  cartridge;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  11 

rifle ;  ib . 43 

Cheese  and  milk ;  i,  Genei'al  Survey...... . . .  210 

Chemical  works ;  i,  General  Survey .  164 

ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  131 

Chemical  department  of  Royal  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Vienna;  vi,  Education.  134 

Society  in  London,  publications  by ;  vi,  Wool . . .  39 

Chenailler’s  universal  evaporator ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  277 

Chenery,  Mr.  Winthrop  W.,  flock  of  Angora  goats  of,  (note;)  vi,  Wool .  101, 102 

Chenille,  manufacture  of,  in  France  and  England;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  258 

Chenille-making  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  258 

Chenot,  ferruginous  cement  of;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  12 

Chesbrough,  E.  S.,  plan  of  supplying  the  city  of  Chicago  with  water ;  iv,  Civil 

Engineering .  16-31 

Chesterfield,  Earl  of,  his  robe  of  South  Carolina  silk ;  vi,  Silk .  7 

Chester’s  Holtz-electrostatic  induction  machine’;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  553 

Chevalier,  estimates  of  production  of  gold  and  silver  by;  ii,  Precious  Metals..  207 

Cheviot  sheep,  character  of ;  vi,  Wool .  15 

character  of  wool  of;  ib .  14 

Chevreul,  M.,  lectures  of,  to  the  artisans  of  Lyons;  vi,  Wool .  38 

Chicago  houses;  i,  Introduction .  75 

iv,  Buildings .  92 


lake  tunnel  and  water-works ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering . 

Chili,  collection  of  silver  ores  from,  at  the  Exposition ;  ii,  Precious  Metals . 

mines  and  mining  industry  of;  ib . 

annual  silver  production  of;  ib . 

principal  silver  mines  of ;  ib . 

annual  silver  production  of,  as  estimated  by  Humboldt ;  ib . 

total  value  of  silver  production  of,  for  1866;  ib  . . 

metals  exported  from,  and  coined  at  mint,  from  1841  to  1849,  (table;)  ib. 

yearly  amount  of  gold  produced  by,  in  1800  ;  ib . 

important  mines  of ;  ib . 

China,  silk  originated  in ;  vi,  Silk . 

early  exportation  of  eggs  from ;  ib . 

curious  custom  of  the  Empress  of;  ib . 

state  of  silk  industry  in ;  ib . 


16-31 

166 

166 

166 

167 

168 
168 

169, 170 
70 


71 


5 

6 


14 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

China,  gold-producing  localities  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  102 

increase  of  exports  of  bullion  to,  from  California  since  1854;  ib .  103 

principal  silver-producing  localities  of;  ib .  187, 188 

Chloride  of  copper,  manufacture  of  chlorine  from;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry _  58 

lime,  its  manufacture  and  uses ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  58-60 

potassium,  at  Stassfurt;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . . .  37 

Chlorine;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  55-62 

fluorine,  &c. ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  53 

Chocolate ;  i,  General  Survey,  216 ;  v,  Food .  16 

Chollet-Cliampion’s  hydraulic  press ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  196 

mechanical  press;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  214 

Chretien’s  portable  crane ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  36 

Christiania,  University  of;  vi,  Education .  38 

Chromo-lithography;  i,  General  Survey .  3d 

Chronograph;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  515 

Clrronoscopes,  electro;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  563 

Chronoscope  and  chronograph,  distinction  between;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus.  8 

Churches  of  beton;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  12 

Churchill  County,  (Nevada,)  silver-mining  districts  in;  ii,  Precious  Metals _  139 

Cider  and  beer ;  i,  General  Survey .  221 

Cisterns  of  beton;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  15 

Civil  engineering,  public  works,  and  architecture;  i,  General  Survey .  200,302 

models  and  drawings ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  5 

progress  made  in,  since  1855;  ib . .  & 

public  works  of  Spain  ;  ib .  7 

Clang-analyzer,  Koenig’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  513 

Clarke’s  adjustable  frame  for  concrete  building;  iv.  Buildings .  39 

Classification;  i,  Introduction .  165 

i,  General  Survey .  15, 239 

Class  juries;  i,  General  Survey .  5 

Clayton,  Shuttleworth  &  Co.’s  engine;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  34 

Clear  Creek  gold  mines,  character  of  the  ores  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  4 

Clement’s  water-meter;  Hi,  Industrial  Arts .  224 

Clerical  robes;  vi,  Clothing .  50- 

Cleveland,  England,  iron  ore  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  21, 22, 23,  45 

Clip  for  rail  joints,  exhibited  by  G.  E.  Dering;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  21 

Cloakings,  Austrian ;  vi,  Wool .  24 

Clocks  and  watch-work  ;  i,  General  Survey . : .  82, 267 

Cloth-drying  by  machinery,  Tulpin’s  machines  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  271 

Clothing,  including  fabrics  and  other  objects;  i,  General  Survey .  93-146,268 

report  upon,  including  fabrics,  &c.,  by  Paran  Stevens;  in  volume  vi. 

variety  of;  vi,  Clothing .  7 

number  of  exhibitors  of;  ib . 7 

manufacture  of  the  United  States ;  ib .  56-58- 

Clothing  wools,  ability  to  grow  fine,  in  the  United  States;  vi,  Wool .  9 

Australian;  ib .  8 

Silesian  and  Saxon ;  ib .  8 

production  of,  in  the  United  States  in  1866;  ib .  9 

Clunes,  Australia,  gold  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  83 

Coal,  production  of,  in  Prussia;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  43 

measures  of  the  United  States ;  ib .  46 

agglomerated,  for  fuel ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  309 

report  upon  pressed  coal,  by  H.  F.  Q.  D’Aligny,  in  volume  v. 

machines  for  washing  and  drying;  v,  Pressed  Coal .  8, 9 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


15 


•  Page. 

Coal  mining  in  France ;  i,  General  Survey .  169 

cutting-machines ;  iv,  Mining .  49-52 

washing-machines ;  iv,  Mining .  89 

waste  at  the  anthracite  mines  of  Pennsylvania;  v,  Pressed  Coal . . .  17 

gas,  sulphur  from;  ii, Industrial  Chemistry .  7 

tar ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  92-100, 141-146 

tar-colors;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  102,141-146 

Cochin-China,  gold  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  105 

Cochran’s  water-meter ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  225 

Cocoons,  how  to  select  good ;  vi,  Silk  ... .  21 

treatment  of,  in  reeling  and  throwing ;  ih .  19, 27 

doubles;  ib .  21 

Codes,  telegraphic;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  43-50 

original  Morse  code ;  ib .  44-45 

modified  Morse  code ;  ib .  44-45 

improvement  of  punctuation  and  official  signs ;  ib .  48-49 

Coffee;  v,  Food . * . .. . „ .  16 

Coignet,  M.,  b6ton  agglomer^;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  298 

iv,  Buildings . • .  38 

iv,  Civil  Engineering .  12 

report  upon,  by  Mr.  Leonard  F.  Beckwith,  in 
volume  iv. 

Coignet,  experiments  of,  with  blocks  of  concrete ;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  18-20 

Coignard  &  Co.,  Messrs.,  centrifugal  pump  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  185 

Coinage,  French  statistics  in  regard  to ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  221 

in  France  according  to  decimal  system,  (table;)  ib .  223 

total,  at  United  States  Mint  from  1792  to  1868,  (table;)  ib .  342 

proposed  and  existing  systems  of,  compared,  (table;)  ib .  305 

comparison  of  German,  and  other  standards ;  ib .  306 

table  of,  at  the  Mint  and  branches  at  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  1868 ;  ib.  227 

averages  of,  for  each  decade  from  1793  to  1868,  inclusive ;  ib .  228 

estimated  cost  of  recoinage  for  the  United  States ;  ib . . . .  226 

tables  of  value  of  foreign  coins ;  i,  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins .  15-47 

Coke,  used  abroad  for  smelting  iron,  analysis  of ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  22, 23 

made  in  the  gas-works  of  Paris ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  45 

Colbert,  regulations  for  dyeing  wools ;  vi,  Wool .  38 

Cold,  artificial  production  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  361,  384 

useful  applications  of;  ib .  362 

Colladon,  Mr.,  floating  water-wheel  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  109 

College  Imperial  of  France;  vi,  Education .  94, 106 

Colorado,  display  of  ores  of,  at  Exposition  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  44 

discovery  of  gold  in,  and  principal  gold  localities  ;  ib .  44,  45 

character  of  the  ores  of;  ib .  45 

publication  by  Mr.  J.  P.  Whitney  on  silver  ores  of;  ib .  150, 151 

assays  of  silver  ores  of;  ib.. .  153 

different  methods  employed  in,  for  extracting  gold ;  ib .  45 

number  of  stamp  mills  and  stamps  in ;  ib .  46 

estimated  production  of  gold  in,  since  discovery;  ib . .  46 

estimated  production  for  1867  ;  ib .  46 

collection  of  gold  ores  from ;  ib .  3 

Color  printing  presses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  436 

Colors,  pigments,  from  coal  tar;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  102, 141-146 

Columbia  College  of  New  York;  vi,  Education .  379 

mining  school  of;  vi,  Education .  165-174 


16 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


•  Page. 

Columella,  no  mention  of  Angora  goat  by;  vi,  Wool .  87 

Combing  wools,  growth  of,  in  the  United  States;  vi,  Wool. .  13 

price  of  English  fleeces  in  1855  and  1864 ;  ib .  13 

profit  of  growing,  in  United  States ;  ib .  14 

French  and  Australian ;  ib . 10 

present  consumption  of,  in  United  States ;  ib .  13 

English;  ib .  13 

necessity  of  growth  of,  in  United  States ;  ib .  113 

extraordinary  care  taken  in  growth  of,  in  England;  ib .  112 

amount  of,  produced  in  Canada . -  -  -  113 

Combing- wool  sheep,  profit  in  keeping.  Table  by  Mr.  Winnie ;  vi,  Wool .  120 

Commerce,  schools  of ;  vi,  Education .  187-197 

Commercial  school  at  Antwerp ;  vi,  Education .  22 

Commercial  Academy  of  Vienna ;  vi,  Education .  192 

Commission  of  the  United  States;  i,  Introduction .  123-131, 183 

record  of  sessions  and  attendance;  ib .  129,131 

list  of  commissioners  y  ib .  183 

instructions  to,  and  regulations;  ib.  126, 127 

Commissioner  General  Beckwith,  appointment  of ;  i,  Introduction .  4, 10 

estimates  of  cost  of  the  Exposition ;  ib  ....  144 

duties  of;  ib .  128 

letters  upon  the  progress  of  the  Exposi¬ 
tion;  ib .  1-158 

report  of  expenditures ;  ib .  156 

Connnunial  schools ;  vi,  Education .  21 

Commutators  for  magneto-electric  machines  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  420 

Comparative  rates  of  interest  in  France,  England,  and  United  States,  table  of; 

vi,  Wool .  30 

Competition  between  countries  in  the  growth  of  merino  wool;  vi,  Wool....  119 

Comparators;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  615 

Compasses,  nautical ;  in,  Industrial  Arts . .  603,604 

Composing  machines;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  451 

Compositor,  Flamm’s  typographic  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  449 

Compositors,  wages  of,  in  France ;  i,  General  Survey . .  37 

Compressed  air,  employed  for  the  transmission  of  force;  iii,  Industrial  Arts. ..  135 

resistance  of  tubes  to  flow  of  ;  ib . 136, 137, 138, 148 

power  of,  varies  as  the  product  of  its  pressure  and  its  vol¬ 
ume;  ib .  138 

engines  and  machinery  for  compression ;  ib . . .  144, 145 

effects  of  the  heat  developed  in  the  compression  of;  ib .  146 

economy  of  transmitting  power  by  ;  ib .  148 

transmission  of  force  by,  and  by  cable,  compared;  ib .  149 

Comstock  lode,  discovery  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  2 

monthly  shipment  of  bullion  from,  for  1865  and  1866,  (table ; )  ib .  125 

bullion  product  of  leading  claims  on,  for  1866  and  1867, 

(table;)  ib .  126,127 

total  bullion  product  of;  ib . 128 

relative  value  of  gold  and  silver  ores  from,  (table;)  ib .  129 

mining  claims  on,  (table  ;)  ib .  113 

pumping  hoisting  engines  on,  (table;)  ib . .  114 

annual  consumption  of  lumber,  and  cost  of  mining;  ib .  115 

average  yield  of  ores  from  principal  mines  of;  ib .  121 

dividends  of  companies  of,  for  1866  and  1867,  (table;)  ib .  123, 124 

Concentrated  meats  ;  v,  Food .  13 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


17 


Page. 

Concreting  and  packing  around  tlie  tubbing  of  shafts  ;  iv,  Mining .  21 

Concrete  building  with  movable  scaffolding;  iv,  Building .  39-44 

Stone  Company,  process  of  making  stone  by ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  305 

Condiments  and  stimulants,  confectionery,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey _  215,  218, 252, 306 

Conductors ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  59 

Coney  mines,  richness  of  the  sulpliurets  of,  worked  by  Plattner’s  process;  ii, 

Precious  Metals .  8 

Congress,  action  of,  in  relation  to  the  Exposition;  i,  Introduction .  142 

Conical  ore  separators ;  i v,  Mining .  97 

Conservatory  of  Arts  and  Trades ;  vi,  Education .  126 

Conte  process  of  engraving ;  i,  Fine  Arts .  37 

Continuous  freezing  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  370 

Co-operative  establishments  abroad;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  38-42,113 

asociations  in  Germany .  40 

possibility  of  introducing  the  system  in  the  United  States .  41 

transcripts  of  Prussian,  French,  and  English  laws .  112 

Co-operative  association  for  real  estate,  of  Paris;  iv,  Building .  74 

Coopering ;  i,  General  Survey .  156 

Cool,  Ferguson  &  Co.’s  barrel-making  machinery;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  247 

Copenhagen,  University  of;  vi,  Education .  36 

Copper  plates ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . .  18 

tubes;  ib .  68 

Coque,  Mr.  A.,  peculiarities  of  construction  of  water-engine  of;  Industrial  Arts .  105 

Cork,  nature  and  sources  of;  i,  General  Survey .  154 

Corliss  engine ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  54 

Cornell  University ;  vi,  Education .  380 

Cornish  pumping  engine ;  iv,  Mining .  60 

Corset- weaving  machinery ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  256, 257 . 

Coscia,  experiments  at,  on  resistance  of  tubes  to  flow  of  air ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  137 

laws  deduced  from  experiments  at;  ib .  137 

Coster,  M.,  of  Amsterdam,  diamond-cutting  establishment  of;  i,  General  Survey.  136 

Coston,  Madame  Martha  J.,  night  signals;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  42 

Costumes,  and  specimens  of  clothing  worn  by  the  people  of  various  nations ; 

i,  Introduction,  $c .  65 

i,  General  Survey . . .  310 

various,  as  exhibited  at  the  Exposition;  vi,  Clothing . .  15 

historical ;  ib .  15-25 

of  various  countries ;  ib . 15 

Cottage,  the  American  farmer’s;  iv,  Building .  55 

the  Louisiana ;  ib .  55 

for  working  men ;  ib .  66 

portable ;  ib .  25 

the  English,  in  the  park ;  ib .  26 

the  Swiss,  in  the  park;  ib .  26 

Cotton,  scarcity  of,  during  civil  war  in  United  States ;  vi,  Cotton .  3 

excise  tax  on ;  ib .  6 

importance  of  the  production  of,  to  the  Southern  States ;  ib .  7 

list  of  samples  referred  to  in  the  report  of  the  committee ;  ib .  8 

repeal  of  tax  on,  and  its  effects ;  ib .  10 

future  production  of;  ib .  13 

wealth  from  the  production  of ;  ib .  15-18 

large  plantations  must  give  place  to  cotton  farms  ;  ib .  19 

mineral  manures  for  ;  ib .  19 

history  of  the  culture  of,  in  the  United  States  and  other  countries ;  ib.  22 

2 


18 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Cotton  crops  of  the  United  States  from  1826  to  1867 ;  ib .  30-35 

culture  and  imports  in  British  India;  ib .  37,90, 106 

comparative  value  of  American  and  other  kinds  ;  ib .  46 

manufacturing  in  the  United  States ;  ib .  50, 106 

defective  statistics  of  cotton  production ;  ib .  36, 57, 91 

capital  invested  in  culture  of;  ib .  70 

statistical  tables  of  cotton  production  and  consumption ;  ib .  74-89, 105 

principal  exhibitors  and  the  awards ;  ib . .  93 

production  and  consumption  of,  before  and  after  the  war  in  the  United 

States  ;  ib .  96 

sources  of  supply  of  the  various  kinds  employed  in  manufactures ;  ib .  113 

yarns,  thread,  and  tissues ;  i,  General  Survey .  95, 268 

and  wool  machinery  for  working  up ;  ib .  182 

fabrics  of  France,  and  various  countries ;  vi,  Clothing .  27 

Cotton-gin,  consequences  of  the  invention  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  5 

effect  of  Whitney’s  invention  of ;  vi,  Cotton .  27 

Coulterville  and  Hite’s  Cove,  vein  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  6 

Councillor  Hecker,  establishment  of  school;  vi,  Education .  79 

Councils,  central  and  provincial;  vi,  Education .  23 

having  control  of  schools  ;  ib .  24 

Counterpoise,  hydraulic,  of  Mr.  fkloux;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  208 

Cowdin,  E.  C.,  report  upon  silk  and  silk  manufactures ;  in  volume  vi. 

Cranes;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . A .  35-38 

of  C.  Neustadt;  ib .  35 

single-pivot  cranes  of  Messrs.  Haute-Vireaux  &  Co. ;  ib .  35 

Chretien’s  portable;  ib .  36 

British;  ib .  36 

boiler  for  Thompson’s  crane ;  ib .  37 

self-propelling;  ib .  37 

Crank  shafts  of  large  size ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  6 

of  cast  steel ;  ib .  8 

Cravats  and  Shirts ;  i,  General  Survey .  123 

Creamer’s  safety-brakes  for  rail  cars ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  272 

Credit  banks  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  40, 41 

Creosote;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . 88,94 

Crescent  mine,  yield  of,  in  1865;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  11 

Creusot,  pavilion  and  exhibition  of  the  products  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  12, 36 

Siemen’s  furnaces  at;  ib .  25 

exhibition  of  hoisting  engines;  iv,  Mining .  57 

Crompton,  George,  loom  of;  vi,  Silk .  42 

Crompton  loom,  the ;  vi,  Wool .  20 

Crossman,  J.  H.,  map  of  cement  gold  deposits,  by;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  13 

estimated  yield  of  one  mile  of  blue  lead,  by ;  ib .  14 

Cruikshank’s  battery ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  51 

Crushing  machinery;  iv,  Mining .  85-87 

Cryolite  as  a  source  of  soda;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  20,25-30 

Crystallization  of  sugar  from  the  beet ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  25, 76 

Cuba  and  San  Domingo,  specimens  of  gold  from  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  75 

Cummings,  William  and  Son,  hospital  car ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  29 

Cutlery;  i,  General  Survey .  74-76,266 

Cylinders,  cast-steel,  for  locomotives;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  18 

D. 

Dabbadie’s  theodolite ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  596 

Dakota,  gold  placers  and  veins  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  47 


GENERAL  INDEX.  19 

Page. 

Danson,  Mr.,  estimated  silver  product  of  Mexico  for  1847-48 ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  156 

Dauaid,  the,  description  and  advantages  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  117 

Dana,  Dr.,  of  Lowell,  honorable  mention  of,  by  French  savans ;  vi,  Wool .  44 

Danish  university ;  vi,  Education .  108 

Dannemora  iron  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  17 

Daubenton  establishes  a  course  of  instruction  in  agriculture  ;  vi,  Education. . .  136 

Davidson,  George,  spirit-level  sextant ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  600 

David  &  Co.’s  brick  machine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  252 

Davis,  Dr.  J.  B.,  importation  of  Angora  goats  by,  in  1849  ;  vi,  Wool .  101 

Davies,  D.,  universal  striker  for  forgings ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  40-42 

Day’s  kerite  insulator ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . .  85 

D’Aliguy,  Henry  F.  Q.,  report  on  mining,  &c. ;  in  volume  iv. 

on  photography ;  in  volume  v. 
on  beet-root  sugar,  &c. ;  in  volume  v. 
on  the  manufacture  of  pressed  and  agglomerated 
coal ;  in  volume  v. 

Decimal  system  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins,  ii,  Precious  Metals .  246 

report  on  weights,  measures,  and  coins ;  in  volume  i. 

Decolorizing  sugar ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  81 

Decoration  of  buildings,  &c. ;  iv,  Building .  49,50 

wrought-iron  work ;  ib .  50 

Decrease  in  the  production  of  gold,  effect  of,  on  value  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals . .  237 

De  Dietrich  &  Co.,  car  wheels  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  32 

Deep-sea  sounding,  velocity  of  descent  of  apparatus  for ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  609 

Trowbridge’s  apparatus ;  ib .  605 

Defecation  of  beet-root  juice ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  23, 67 

Deflassieux,  L.  Arbel  Bros.  &  Peillou’s  pressed  wheel  forgings ;  iv,  Steam  Engi¬ 
neering  .  40 

Degouss€e  and  Laurent,  boring  tools  of ;  iv,  Mining .  26-31 

Dehaynin’s  machine  for  making  agglomerated  coal ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 310,311 

De  Kaeppiiin,  M.,  treatise  on  dyeing ;  vi,  Wool .  39 

De  La  Roche-Tolay,  Mr.,  diamond  perforator  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  103 

iv,  Mining . ...  45 

Delaunay,  Mr.,  description  of  water-engine  at  Iluelgoat,  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  100 

Delaunay’s  hospital  car ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  29 

De  La  Rive’s  auroral  apparatus  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . , .  562 

Delaporte,  ammoniacal  gas-engine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  76 

Delcambre’s  composing  machine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  453 

machine  for  distributing  type  ;  ib . . .  455 

Deleuil, balances  exhibited  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  487 

free-piston  air-pump  of;  ib .  497 

Demidoff,  Paul,  exhibition  of  platinum  from  Russia,  by;  ii,  Precious  Metals.. .  190 

De  Milly’s  process  of  saponification,  &c. ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  122, 127, 128 

De  Motay’s  process  for  the  production  of  oxygen ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  67 

Densimeters;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.. .' .  482 

Denny  &  Brothers’  marine  engines;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 

Dental  surgery  and  the  materials  it  employs;  v,  Surgtcal  Beport .  13-28 

history  of  the  art ;  ib .  13 

colleges  and  societies ;  ib .  14 

artificial  palates  and  teeth;  ib .  25 

Departmental  committees,  organization  of ;  i,  Introduction .  21 

Deposits  of  gold  and  silver,  statement  of,  during  year  ending  June  30,  1868, 

(table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  336 

Derby,  J.  C.,  general  agency  in  New  York,  organization  of;  i,  Introduction _  5, 21 


20 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Derby,  J.  C.,  issue  of  pamphlets  and  notices;  ib .  27 

Dering,  G.  E.,  steel  clip  for  rail  joints;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  21 

Derricks  of  iron  for  mines;  iv,  Mining . . .  59 

Desgoffe  and  Ollivier’s  sterkydraulic  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  198-204 

Desbri&re’s  railway-spike  thimble;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  21 

Des  Farges,  M.,  on  the  peculiarities  of  the  French  merino;  vi,  Wool .  12 

Designers  of  Elbeuf,  peculiar  character  of  their  work;  vi,  Wool .  46 

Detomb  ay,  Auguste,  steam-hammer;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  39 

Detectors,  electrical,  applied  to  power  looms;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  267-270 

Devisseber’s  sugar-cutting  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  266 

Diamonds  and  diamond  cutting;  i,  General  Survey .  136 

Diamond-pointed  drill  of  Leschot;  i,  General  Survey .  173 

construction  of,  and  application  of  hydraulic  motor  to; 

iii,  Industrial  Arts .  104 

iv,  Mining .  44-49 

Diamagnetism,  large  electro-magnet  for  experiments  in;  iii }  Industrial  Arts . .  561 

Diehl,  Mr.,  contribution  on  the  Angora  goat ;  vi,  Wool .  90 

observations  by,  on  flocks  of  Angora  goats  in  the  southwestern 

States;  ib .  101 

Diffusion  process,  Roberts’s;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  26 

Distillation  of  alcohol  from  fermented  beet  juice ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  54 

plans  and  sections  of  a  distillery;  ib .  87 

Discovery  and  invention,  relation  of,  to  each  other ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  17 

Distributing  machines;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  454 

Dividing  instruments;  iii,  Industrial  Arts _ * .  613 

Diving  bells;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  334, 335 

Diving  apparatus ;  i,  Genei'al  Survey .  176 

of  the  New  York  Submarine  Company;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  336 

of  Rouquayrol  &  Denayrouze ;  ib . . .  338 

regulator  for  maintaining  equality  of  pressure ;  ib .  r _  339 

pressure  of  air  within  and  outside  of  the  regulator ;  ib....  341 

depth  to  wlijfih  a  diver  can  descend  ;  ib .  342 

pump  for  charging  reservoirs  with  compressed  air ;  ib .  343 

Division  of  labor,  effect  of,  in  stimulating  invention ;  iii,  Industrial  Aids .  3 

Dollfus,  M.  Engel,  report  on  the  production  of  cotton;  vi,  Cotton .  95 

Domestic  woolen  industry  identified  with  agricultural  prosperity;  vi,  Wool..  32 

Don  Pedro  North  Del  Rey,  situation  and  extent  of  mine ;  ii,  Precious  Metals  . .  69 

Door,  opening  both  ways;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 279 

with  mechanical  plinth  ;  ib .  280 

Doring’s  boring  machine  for  rocks  ;  iv,  Mining .  38 

Dorzee  &  Oudry’s  double  cylinder  hoisting  engine;  iv,  Mining .  57 

Doumoulin-Froment,  microscopic  engraving  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  620 

Dovetailing  machine,  Armstrong’s,  New  York;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  240 

Zimmerman’s,  Prussia ;  ib .  241 

Ganz’s,  Hungary ;  ib .  241 

Duboscq,  Mr.,  exhibition  of  spectroscopes  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  527 

Duboy’s  water-meter  ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  222 

Dujardin’s  printing  telegraph;  iv,  Telegraph  Apparatus .  30-33 

Dunlop’s  process  of  making  chlorine;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  56 

Dupuy  de  Lome,  M.  E. ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 

Durand’s  brick  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  252 

Dutartre’s  press  for  printing  colors ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  436 

Duvergier,  A.,  steam-engine;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  59 

Drasche,  Mr.  Henry,  exhibition  of  terra-cotta  objects,  by;  iii, Industrial  Arts..  359 


GENERAL  INDEX.  21 

Page. 

Drasche,  Mr.  Henry,  extent  of  production  of  brick ;  ib .  359 

Drawing  and  modeling  applications  of,  to  the  common  arts ;  i,  General  Survey.  44,  45 

Dredges  used  at  the  Suez  Canal;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  36-41 

Dress,  passion  for,  in  different  countries ;  vi,  Clothing .  8, 9 

style  of,  worn  in  France  in  olden  times ;  ib .  9 

in  the  fourteenth  century;  ib .  10 

in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth ;  ib . .  10 

different  from  costume;  ib .  16 

Drivet’s  process  for  photographic  engraving ;  v,  Photography .  11 

Drouyn  de  Lhuys,  Madame,  introduces  a  new  silk- worm  into  France ;  vi,  Silk.  23 
Dwellings  characterized  by  their  cheapness  combined  with  the  conditions  ne¬ 
cessary  for  health  and  comfort ;  iv,  Building .  61-93 

Dyeing  and  printing  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  187 

Dyeing,  discoveries  by  Vauquelin  ;  vi,  Wool .  39 

discoveries  by  Lassarque  ;  ib . .. .  39 

new  process  introduced  by  Lofifet ;  ib .  39 

colors  fixed  by  steam  ;  ib . . . . . . . .  40 

discovery  by  Mr.  Steiner;  ib .  40 

discovery  of  cheap  process  of  manufacturing  ultramarine  by  Guimet ;  ib .  40 

the  use  of  madder  and  colors  derived  from  it;  ib .  40 

advantages  resulting  from  the  recent  improvements  in  madder ;  _  41 

in  France,  and  the  contributions  of  modern  science  to  the  art ;  ib....  38 

Dyes  in  American  carpets;  vi,  Wool .  22 

Dyeing  of  silk ;  vi,  Silk .  19-35 

high  perfection  in ;  ib .  35 

surcharging  silk  threads  by,  reprobated;  ib .  36 

Dynamic  electricity ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  555 

Dynamo-electric  machine,  Ladd’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  427 

Dynamometers,  construction  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  162 

Prony’s  friction  dynamometer ;  ib .  163 

Taurine’s  ;  ib .  164 

Bourdon’s ;  ib . 165 

Hirn’s  pandynamometer ;  ib .  166 

E. 

Earle,  Mr.  Oscar  T.,  steam-pump  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 170 

East  Indies,  silk  industry  in  ;  vi,  Silk .  18 

East  Del  Rey  Company,  extent  and  character  of  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  70 

Excavating  machines  used  in  the  construction  of  the  Suez  canal ;  iv,  Civil  En¬ 
gineering . 42 

Enchantilleurs,  character  of  their  work;  vi,  Wool .  46 

Ecoles  d’Hydrographie  ;  vi,  Education .  176 

Imp^riales  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees ;  ib .  176 

Imp^riale  Navale ;  vi,  Education .  176 

ficole  Imperiale  Forestiere ;  vi,  Education .  155 

iScole  Imperiale  des  Mines ;  vi,  Education . . .  163 

£cole  Normale  Sup^rieure  at  Paris;  vi,  Education .  284 

Economic  Permanent  Way  Company’s  railway  sleeper;  iv,  Steam  Engineering.  19 

Edict  of  Nantes,  effect  of  revocating  on  France;  vi,  Silk .  6 

effect  of  revocating  on  Germany  and  Switzerland;  ib .  6 

effect  of  revocating  on  England ;  ib .  15 

Edoux,  Mr.  Leon,  elevator  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  204 

hydraulic  counterpoise,  system  of;  ib .  208 

Education  in  the  fine  arts;  i,  General  Survey .  23 


22 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Education  in  France,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey .  229-237 

Education,  elementary  day  schools  in  Great  Britain  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  182-183 

Education,  technical  and  scientific,  provision  for,  abroad ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel ....  55 

Education,  extent  of  the  representation ;  vi,  Education .  9-14 

present  condition  of,  in  various  countries  ;  ib .  15-55 

progress  of,  in  France ;  vi,  ib .  15-18 

Eggs;  i,  General  Survey .  211 

Ekman’s  gas  furnace ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  18 

Elastic  media,  relative  economy  of,  discussion  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  77-82 

tissues  for  belts,  garters,  and  bracelets;  vi,  Clothing .  78 

Elbceuf,  separate  establishments  of;  vi,  Wool . . .  47 

statistics  of  Chamber  of  Commerce  of;  ib . . .  47 

prices  of  food  in ;  ib . .  48 

low  tone  of  morality  of  workmen  of;  ib .  48 

center  of  card-wool  industry  of  France  ;  ib .  45 

population  and  value  of  production  of ;  ib .  45 

facilities  for  credit  in;  ib . .  46 

Elder,  Dr.,  statement  of,  in  regard  to  exportation  of  wool ;  vi,  Wool .  32 

Electric  brakes  for  rail  cars;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  273 

Electric  telegraph,  the  effect  of  the  invention  of,  on  the  moral  and  intellectual 

character  of  the  human  race;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  19 

Electric  telegraphs,  statistics  of,  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 

Ireland;  Telegraphic  Apparatus . 115-119 

in  India;  ib .  119 

in  France;  ib . 119-122 

in  Holland;  ib . 122-124 

in  Prussia ;  ib .  124-126 

in  Denmark  ;  ib .  126 

in  Sweden  ;  ib .  127-131 

in  Spain  ;  ib .  131 

in  Italy ;  ib .  132 

in  Egypt ;  ib .  133 

in  Turkey ;  ib . 134-138 

in  Australia ;  ib . . .  138-140 

in  Peru ;  ib .  140-142 

invention  of;  ib .  144-150 

tabular  statistics  of,  in  European  countries ;  ib .  152-160 

Electric  rifle ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  47 

Electric  light ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 415,  416-432 

automatic  regulators  of ;  ib .  417 

adaptation  of,  for  sea-coast  lights ;  ib .  418 

intensity  of,  compared  with  light  from  other  sources ;  ib .  421 

power  of  penetrating  fogs ;  ib .  422,  424 

power  of,  at  La  Heve  ;  ib . .  422,  423 

practicability  of  extending  the  system  of  electric  illumination 

to  coast  lights  generally ;  ib .  426 

economy  of,  compared  with  light  from  other  sources  ;  ib .  421,  425 

Electric  telemeters ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  587 

Electricity,  application  to  photography ;  v,  Photography .  18 

static  induction  apparatus,  Varleys;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  546* 

Topler’s;  ib .  549 

hydro-electric  batteries;  ib .  555 

engraving  by;  ib .  461 

Electrical  detectors  applied  to  power-looms;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  267-270 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


23 


Page. 

Electro-ballistic  pendulum  of  Captain  Navez  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  564 

Colonel  Benton  )  ib .  565 

Electro-chronoscopes  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  563 

Electro-clironoscope  of  Captain  Navez;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  564 

Electrograpb  of  M.  E.  Lenoir;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  36 

Electro-magnetic  engines,  advantages  of ;  Industrial  Arts .... . , .  125 

Cazal’s;  ib .  125 

Birmingham  Company’s  ;  ib .  126 

Kravogl’s,  (note  ; )  ib .  127 

Electro-magnetic  machine, in  the  British,  section;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  418 

Electro-magnets ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  561 

Electro-statical  apparatus ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  545 

Elevator,  hydraulic,  of  Mr.  fidoux ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  205 

Elliott,  Mr.  E.  B.,  on  the  metrical  unification  of  international  coinage  ;  ii, 

Precious  Metals .  304 

Embroidery ;  i,  General  Survey .  113 

industry  of,  in  different  countries ;  vi,  Clothing .  71 

Enamels,  Pleischl’s,  use  of,  for  various  purposes  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  327 

photograph;  ib . 467 

photographs  ;  v,  Photography .  6 

Endowed  school  of  Great  Britain  ;  vi,  Education .  47 

Endowment  fund  of  United  States  ;  vi,  Education .  53 

Endless  band-saw,  for  iron,  by  Colonel  Clerk ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  43 

Engines,  marine;  i y,  Steam  Engineering .  66-72 

exhibitors  of  models  of,  from  Great  Britain  ;  ib .  66 

of  the  Sappho;  ib .  66 

French  ;  ib .  65 

of  the  Friedland ;  ib .  68-72 

Engines,  portable,  and  traction ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  32 

Engines,  stationary ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  54-62 

Corliss’s  engine  ;  ib . 54 

Allen’s  engine;  ib .  55-57 

Hicks’s  engine ;  ib .  57 

Behren’s  engine  ;  ib .  58 

Shaw’s ;  ib.. .  59* 

English,  French,  and  Swiss  copies  of  Corliss’s  engine;  ib.  59 

Vandenkerchove’s  engine  ;  ib .  60 

Scribe’s  engine;  ib .  60 

rotary  and  gas  engines  ;  ib .  61 

Engines  and  steam  generator  for  the  manufacture  of  beet-root  sugar ;  v,  Beet¬ 
root  Sugar .  53 

Engineering,  schools  of ;  vi,  Education .  175-180,  216 

England,  number  of  sheep  per  acre ;  vi,  Wool .  6 

importation  of  wool  in  1830  ;  ib .  7 

importation  of  wool  in  1864  ;  ib .  7 

annual  production  of  wool  in  ;  ib .  13 

exportation  of  wool  at  present  time ;  ib .  110 

English  operatives,  inferiority  of  technical  education  of;  vi,  Wool .  64 

Engraving,  the  polypantograph;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  461 

by  electricity  ;  ib . 461 

Dulos’s  method ;  ib .  463 

heliography ;  ib..\ . 464 

Engraving  and  lithography;  i,  General  Survey .  34 

i,  Fine  Arts .  35-40 


24 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Engraving,  photographic ;  v,  Photography .  6,11 

Envelopes  ;  i,  General  Survey .  42 

Envelope-folding  machines ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  261 

Erhard  t’s  portable  scales  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . . .  23 

Ericsson,  bot-air  engines  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  34 

Esmeralda  County,  (Nevada,)  silver  mines  and  mining  districts  in ;  ii,  Prec¬ 
ious  Metals .  137-139 

Estivant  Brothers,  rolled  copper  plates ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  18 

tubes  ;  ib . 38 

Eureka  gold  mine,  character  of,  gross  yield  in  1866,  and  yield  of  gold  per  ton 

of  ore  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  9 

Evans,  Thomas  W.,  M.  D.,  report  on  instruments  and  apparatus  of  medicine ; 
in  volume  v. 

Evaporator  universal,  Chenailler’s ;  iii.  Industrial  Arts .  277 

Evaporation  under  diminished  pressure  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  364 

tendency  to,  at  all  temperatures  ;  ib .  363 

Evaporating  pans  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  73 

Evening  schools ;  vi,  Education .  .  69 

Evrards’s  lubricating  axle-boxes ;  iv,  Mining .  54 

Evrard  coal-pressing  machine  ;  v,  Pressed  Coal .  13 

Exhibitions,  international,  relative  importance  of;  i,  General  Survey .  13 

Exports  and  imports  of  coin  and  bullion  from  United  States  from  1821  to  1868, 

(table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  .  345 

Exports  of  gold  and  silver  bullion,  statement  of,  from  United  Kingdom, 

(table;)  iii,  Precious  Metals .  346 

Exports  of  treasure  from  San  Francisco  from  1848  to  1868,  (table  ;)  ii,  Precious 

Metals .  20 

Exposition  of  1867,  its  origin,  locality,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey .  11 

the  building  ;  ib . . .  13 

Evrard’s  rotary  compression  blower ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  193 

machine  for  compressing  coal  dust ;  ib .  310 

Evrard  &  Boyer’s  butt-making  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  250 

Expenditures,  estimates  of;  i,  Introduction . .  144 

report  of;  ib .  156 

Explosive  bullets;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  133 

F. 

Fabrics,  mixed  textile ;  vi,  Clothing .  34 

Factory  system  of  New  England ;  vi,  Wool .  28 

Faculty  des  Sciences ;  vi,  Education .  104 

Fagersta  Steel  Works,  Sweden;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  289 

Fagersta  steel,  results  of  experiments  on;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  Ill 

Fahrkunst,  or  man  engines;  iv,  Mining .  64-81 

Faience ;  i,  General  Survey .  66, 266 

Fancy  articles  in  leather,  &c.;  i,  General  Survey .  89-92 

Fans ;  i,  General  Survey . 120 

Fans,  manufacture  of;  vi,  Clothing .  .  71-75 

Farinaceous  preparations ;  v,Food .  11 

Farmer’s  cottage,  the  American ;  iv,  Building .  92 

Farmer,  Moses  G.,  thermo-electric  battery;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  52 

compound  telegraph  wire ;  ib .  60 

letter  to  Prof.  Morse,  in  relation  to  conductivity  of  compound 

.  telegraph  wire ;  ib .  60-73 

value  of  kerite  as  an  insulator ;  ib .  88 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


25 


Page. 

Fatty  substances  used  as  food,  &c.;  i,  General  Survey .  211 

Fashions,  changes  in ;  vi,  Clothing .  13 

Feathers,  ornamental ;  i,  General  Survey .  129 

Feeders  for  boilers ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  232-236 

Felt  for  roofing;  iv,  Building . . .  52 

Feldspar,  potash  from ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  32 

Fermented  drinks,  wine,  alcohol,  and  brandy;  i,  General  Survey .  220-307 

Fermentation,  control  of,  by  artificial  refrigeration ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  390 

of  beet  juice;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  50 

<of  grape  juice  ;  v,  Culture  and  Products  of  the  Fine .  11 

Ferris  gun ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  79 

Ferro-manganese ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  291 

used  in  the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  steel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel.  75 

Ferruginous  cement  of  Chenot’s  manufacture ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  12 

Ferstel,  exhibition  by,  of  a  model  and  plans  of  a  Gothic  church  ;  iv,  Building..  7 

Fibre,  character  of  wool;  vi,  Wool .  18 

Field-ordnance  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  51-86 

Files,  machine-cut ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . .  12 

Filtration  of  sugar  sirup  ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar . . .  72 

Fine  arts,  selection  of  suitable  objects  ;  i,  Introduction .  40 

i,  General  Survey .  19 

report  upon,  by  Frank  Leslie;  i,  in  volume  i. 

countries  represented  and  award ;  i,  Fine  Arts. .  6 

American  landscape  painting;  ib .  10 

the  French  gallery ;  ib .  16 

the  British  gallery ;  ib .  21 

general  observations  on  the  paintings;  ib .  31 

list  of  paintings,  sculptures,  &c. ;  ib .  38-40 

list  of  the  award .  41-43 

applied  to  the  useful  arts,  report  ou ;  in  volume  i. 

Fineness  of  gold  coins,  (table ;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  354 

Fine  wools,  need  of  them  in  the  United  States  ;  vi,  Wool .  115 

“  Fitting  sheep, ”  fraudulent  practice;  vi,  Wool .  77 

Fishing  implements;  i,  General  Survey .  176,284 

Fizeau’s  process  of  heliography ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  465 

Flagging  of  b<5ton;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  14 

Flames,  acoustic ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  509 

Flamm’s  typographic  compositor ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts  . .  449 

Flannels,  opera ;  vi,  Wool . . .  22 

Flashing  light  at  Wicklow  Head  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  409 

Flax,  production  of,  in  Italy;  vi,  Clothing .  33 

Flaxen  and  hempen  yarns,  &c.;  i,  General  Survey .  95 

“  Fleece  and  Loom,”  extract  from ;  vi,  Wool .  34 

Fleischman,  Mr.,  on  the  results  of  constantly  regenerating  with  the  pure-blooded 

Merino  ram  ;  vi,  Wool .  93 

Floors,  inlaid,  parquetry,  &c. ;  iv,  Building .  59 

Floors  of  b6ton  ;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  13 

Flowers,  artificial;  i,  General  Survey .  129 

vi,  Clothing .  58-59 

Flowers  and  ornamental  plants;  i,  General  Survey .  225 

Fluorine  and  fluosilicic  acid  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  62-64 

for  engraving  on  glass  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  64 

Fly-wheels,  accumulation  of  force  in;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  153-155 

Food,  fresh  or  preserved;  i,  General  Survey .  207,304 


26 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Food,  report  on  the  preparation  of,  by  W.  E.  Johnston ;  in  volume  v. 

Folding  machines  for  paper  and  for  envelopes ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  259, 261 

Fontaine’s  claw  parachute ;  iv,  Mining .  77 

Forest  products  and  industries ;  i,  General  Survey .  151, 174, 249, 277 

Forests  of  France;  i,  General  Survey .  153,  249,  231 

iv,  Building .  56 

Forestry,  schools  of ;  vi,  Education .  153-156,218,226 

Forging;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  38-42 

steam  hammers  ;  ib .  38 

pressed  forgings  ;  ib .  39 

Davis’s  universal  striker ;  ib .  40 

steam  Oliver ;  ib .  42 

Formis’s  wind-mill ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  120 

Fortifications;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  150 

Foucault’s  calcite  polarization  prism ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  526 

isochronal  regulator ;  ib .  531 

Foundations  of  b6ton;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  12 

for  machinery  of  b6ton  ;  iv,  B4ton-Coignet .  14 

Fowler,  John,  &  Co.,  improvement  in  gearing  engines;  iv,  Steam  Engineering..  34 

France,  principal  silver  mining  companies  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  175 

lead  and  silver  ores  of;  ib .  176 

production  of  silver  in;  ib . . .  176 

value  of  gold  coin  imported  into  and  exported  from,  (table;)  ib .  348 

production  of  gold  in,  from  1853  to  1859,  inclusive,  (table  ;)  ib .  100 

sheep  husbandry  in;  vi,  Wool .  11 

superiority  of  her  manufactures  of  wool ;  ib .  32 

exportation  of  woolen  goods  in  1855  and  in  1865 ;  ib .  33 

principal  centers  of  production  of  woolen  fabrics;  ib .  33 

products  of,  in  Class  29  ;  ib .  33 

products  of,  in  Class  30  ;  ib .  33 

exportation  of  card  fabrics  in  1865 ;  ib .  34 

annual  production  of  wool  in ;  ib .  18 

exportation  of  woolen  goods  in  1861  and  in  1863 ;  ib .  110 

progressive  development  of  silk  industry  in;  vi,  Silk .  14, 15 

Franchot,  hot-air  engine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  54 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  encourages  silk  industry  in  the  United  States ;  vi,  Silk...  8 

and  electrical  semaphores  ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  161 

Fraser  gun,  Great  Britain;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  106 

Freedmen’s  Bureau;  vi,  Education .  53 

Freedmen,  normal  school  for  ;  Education .  54 

Freezing  apparatus,  Carry’s  sulphuric  acid  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  367 

ammoniacal,  intermittent ;  ib .  370 

economy  of  Carry’s  ammoniacal,  cost  of  ice;  ib .  374 

continuous  freezing  apparatus  ;  ib .  375, 377 

Twining’s  invention  of;  ib .  376,395 

use  of,  for  extraction  of  potash  from  sea  water;  ib .  387 

continuous,  description  of  F.  Carry’s  continuous ;  ib .  377-382 

cost  of  ice  produced  by ;  ib .  383, 384 

first  experiments  with  Twining’s  ;  ib .  399 

economy  of  producing  ice  by  Twining’s  apparatus ;  ib....  400 

Freezing  mixtures,  cause  of  the  cold  produced  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  362 

French  merinoes,  character  of;  vi,  Wool .  11 

merinoes,  change  effected  in;  ib .  12 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


27 


Page. 

French  taste,  excellence  of ;  ib . - .  36 

Freight  of  articles  for  the  Exposition,  appropriation  for;  i,  Introduction . -  144 

Fresnel  lenses  for  light-houses  ;  i,  General  Survey .  201 

Friction  matches,  machines  for  making;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  263 

Frot,  Mr.,  ammoniacal  gas-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  73 

Fuel,  artificial ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  309 

Furnaces,  Siemens’s  regenerating  furnace ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  351-356 

Furniture  for  school-houses ;  v,  School-houses .  7 

tools  for  making ;  i,  General  Survey .  185, 297 

i,  Fine  Arts  applied — Plates. 

Furs;  i,  Gen&'al  Survey . . .  157-160,277 

G. 

Gabion,  iron-hand ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  13 

Galvanoplasty,  application  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  22 

Galvanic  batteries,  Daniels’s,  Smees’s,  Farmer’s,  and  others ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  555-559 

Thomsen’s  polarization  battery;  ib .  559 

Gang  &  Derno,  car  wheels ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  32 

Gas-engine,  forms  of ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  61 

Gas,  illuminating,  manufacture  of, from  coal;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  74-117 

materials  used  in  its  manufacture ;  ib .  76 

retorts  and  furnaces;  ib .  77 

pipes  for  distributing ;  ib .  80,81 

exhaustors  of ;  ib .  82 

meters ;  ib .  82 

number  of  tons  of  coal  annually  used  for  the  manufacture 

of,  in  London ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  45 

purification  of,  by  iron  oxide ;  ib .  88 

utilization  of  the  waste  product  of ;  ib .  89 

Gas-light  for  light-houses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . . •. .  404 

relative  cost  of  gas  and  oil;  ib .  409, 414 

estimate  of  cost  of  introducing ;  ib .  413 

Gas-meters;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  .  229 

Gatling’s  improved  battery  gun ;  i,  General  Survey .  273 

v,  Munitions  of  War .  71,213 

Gauge  lathe,  Whitney’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  242 

Gautier’s  telemetrical  telescope;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  592-594 

Gay-Lussac’s  process  for  the  condensation  of  nitrous  vapors ;  ii,  Industrial  Chem¬ 
istry  . : .  15 

Gay-Lussac  &  Chevreul,  patent  of,  for  the  preparation  of  fatty  acids ;  ii,  In¬ 
dustrial  Chemistry . , .  120, 12^ 

Gay-Lussac,  law  of,  discussion  of,  (note  ;)  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  146 

Gayot,  M.,  notice  by,  on  Merino  ovine  races  exhibited  at  Billancourt ;  vi,  Wool.  11 

Gaveaux,  Mr.  A.  Y.,  of  Paris,  printing  press  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  433 

Geissler,  air-pump  of,  without  valves ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  490 

tubes  of;  ib .  560 

Geological  maps;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  49 

George  III,  his  mother’s  robe  of  South  Carolina  silk;  vi,  Silk .  7 

Gerbert,  hydraulic  organ  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  631 

calculating  machines  of;  ib .  632 

Germania  Mills,  goods  of;  vi,  Wool . _ .  23 

exhibition  by;  ib .  24 

Germany,  the  woolen  manufacture  of  the  Zollverein;  vi,  Wool .  61 

annual  production  of  wool  in  ;  ib .  18 


28 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Gerstenhoffer’s  furnace ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  12 

Giessen,  University  of;  vi,  Education . . .  345 

Giffard’s  process  for  tlie  production  of  hydrogen  gas ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry. .  69. 

Gilding  and  bronzing  of  printed  characters ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  440 

Gillot  process  of  engraving ;  i,  Fine  Arts .  36 

Girard’s  turbine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  114 

hydraulic  pivot ;  ib .  118 

turbine  elevator;  ib .  189,190 

“ palier  glissant,”  or  frictionless  support;  ib .  208,211 

Girders,  rolled  and  riveted;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  1-4 

Glass  from  cryolite ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  64 

Glass,  production  of,  in  the  Siemens  furnace  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  353 

Feil’s  exhibition  of  the  silico-borate  of  lead ;  ib .  521 

for  optical  purposes  ;  ib' .  520-521 

large  plates  of,  exhibited  by  the  St.  Gobain  Company;  ib .  521 

Glassware  and  stained  glass  ;  i,  General  Survey .  61 

manufacture  of,  in  France ;  ib .  63, 266 

Gloves,  manufacture  of,  in  various  countries;  vi,  Clothing .  75-78 

Gluten  bread ;  v,  Food . . .  12 

Glaze  for  casks,  Werner’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  328 

Gold  and  silver  plate ;  i,  General  Survey .  76, 266 

Gold  yield  for  1867,  approximate  value  of,  (table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals . •  108 

Gold  Hill,  yield  of ;  net  profit  from  Watt  vein;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  9 

Gold  product  of  California,  (table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  17 

Golden  Rule  mine,  amount  of  gold  extracted  in  1866  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  7 

Gold  coins,  (table  of  weights,  fineness,  and  value  ;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  358 

Gold  foil  for  the  use  of  dentists;  v,  Surgical  Eejwrt .  20 

Gorrie,  Dr.  John,  note  on  papers  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  402 

Gossage’s  process  of  condensing  hydrochloric  acid ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry ....  53 

Gothic  architecture ;  iv,  Building . -  9,21 

Gouin  &  Co.,  use  of  water  under  pressure  in  tunneling;  iii,  Industrial  Arts..  151 

Gouin  &  Co.,  locomotive  “Titan ; ”  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  12 

Gould  and  Curry  mine,  statement  of  the  product  of,  for  1862,  1863,  1864,  1865 ; 

ii,  Precious  Metals .  115 

operations  and  expenses  of,  (table ;)  ii,  Precious  Metals.  117 
costs  at  mill  of,  for  year  1866,  (table ;)  ii.  Precious  Metals .  118,119 
quantity  and  value  of  ore  amalgamated  at  mill  of,  and 
value  of  bullion  produced  in  year  ending  November 

30,  1866,  (table;)  il) . * .  120 

production  of,  to  December,  1866 ;  ib .  121 

Grain  weigher,  automatic,  Pooley’s  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  276 

Grammar-school  fund  of  Upper  Canada;  vi,  Education .  50 

Grandperrin  fuel  economizer ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  50 

Granaries  of  b6ton;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  .  12 

Grant  Locomotive  Works ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  .  12 

Granites,  porphyries,  jaspers,  and  marbles  for  building ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering..  7, 10 

Graphotype  process ;  i,  Fine  Arts .  36 

Grass  Valley  district,  production  of  gold  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  9 

Great  Britain,  influence  of  the  early  possession  of  the  steam-engine  on  the  wealth 

and  power  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  15 

woolen  manufacture  in;  vi,  Wool . . .  62 

annual  production  of  wool  in;  ib . .  18 

rise  and  progress  of  silk  industry  in ;  vi,  Silk .  15, 16 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


29 


Page. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  auriferous  localities  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  101 

returns  from  the  Welsh  mines  from  1860  to  1836;  ib  101 

Great  Northern  railway,  duration  of  rails  on;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  131 

Gebriider  Sulzer,  steam-engines  of ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  59 

Green,  Edward,  &.  Son,  steam-boiler;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  47 

fuel  economizer;  ib .  52 

Gregg’s  brick-pressing  machine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  252 

Griffen’s  patent  cast-iron  railway  sleeper ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  29 

Grindstones,  artificial,  made  by  Ransome’s  process;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  307 

Grillet,  construction  of  a  calculating  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  634 

Grove,  Henry,  importation  of  Saxon  merino  sheep  by  ;  vi,  Wool .  69 

Guerin-Meneville  introduces  a  new  silk-worm  into  France;  vi,  Silk .  23 

Gun-cotton  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  132 

Gunnell,  William  C.,  chief  civil  engineer  and  architect,  special  acknowledg¬ 
ments  to ;  i,  Introduction .  5 

Gun-shot  wounds,  sound  for  probing;  v,  Surgical  Report .  7 

Guns  of  cast  steel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  8,9 

Gunter’s  logarithmic  scale ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  635 

Gwynne  &  Co.,  Messrs.,  centrifugal  pump  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  177-183 

Gymnasium,  instruction  in  the ;  vi,  Education .  78 

Gymnasiums;  v,  School-houses . 9 

H. 

Hair-work;  i,  General  Survey .  132 

Halifax,  manufacturers  of ;  vi,  Wool .  63 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute ;  vi,  Education .  55 

Hanrez’s  gearing  of  rods  of  the  man-engine  ;  iv,  Mining .  73 

Hardy’s  miero-pantographic  instruments ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  617 

Harness  and  saddlery,  &c. ;  i,  General  Surv&y .  190,299 

Harpending  claim,  Placer  County,  methods  of  working  and  reducing  the  ore ; 

ii,  Precious  Metals . .  12 

Hartnack’s  polarization  prism ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  525 

Hartwich  system  for  permanent  way  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  20 

Harvard  College;  vi,  Education .  374 

Haswell,  T.,  hydraulic  press  for  forging;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . . .  39 

Hats  and  caps  for  men;  i,  Genwal  Survey .  130 

manufacture  of ;  vi,  Clothing .  •  54 

Haupt’s  drilling-engine  for  rocks ;  iv,  Mining . .  40 

Haute,  Yiveaux  &  Co.’s  single-pivot  crane ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  35 

Havenhill,  Hodgson  &  Co.,  marine  engines  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 

Hayes,  John  L.,  report  upon  wool  and  manufactures  of  wool ;  in  volume  vi. 

Hayward’s  gold  mine,  Sutter  Creek,  depth  of  main  shaft  and  thickness  of 

veins;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  8 

yield  of  the  mine,  and  richness  of  ore  per  ton  ;  ib .  9 

Hazard,  George  S.,  the  quality  and  characteristics  of  the  cereal  products ;  in 
volume  v. 

Head-dresses  for  ladies ;  vi,  Clothing .  58 

Heat,  transportation  of,  for  economical  purposes;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  346 

improvements  in  the  application  of ;  ib .  346 

unit  of  reference  for  quantities  transferred  from  one  body  to  another ;  ib.  369 

Heating  apparatus,  Joly  de  Marval’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  346 

Heating  and  lighting  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  86, 267 

Heidelberg,  University  of;  vi,  Education .  344 

Heliography ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . • .  464 


30 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION 


Page. 

Hellenic  school ;  vi,  Education .  35 

Helmholtz,  Prof.  H.,  double  siren  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  501 

resonator  of ;  ih .  502, 503 

Hemp,  production  of,  in  Italy  ;  vi,  Clothing .  33 

Henry,  Prof.  Joseph,  researches  of,  in  science  of  electro-magnetism ;  iv,  Telegra¬ 
phic  Apparatus .  10 

apparatus  for  recording  the  velocity  of  projectiles;  iii, 

Indus*rial  Arts .  564 

Henry  rifle ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  36 

Henry  VIII,  act  in  regard  to  city  of  York;  vi,  Wool .  63 

Hertel’s  plastic-clay  brick  machine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  253 

Hewitt,  Abram  S.,  report  upon  iron  and  steel ;  in  volume  ii. 

Hicks  engine ;  i,  General  Survey .  280 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  57 

Hick,  Hargraves  &  Co.,  steam-engine  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  59 

Hinge-making  machine,  Evrard  &  Boyer’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  250 

Hirn’s  telodynamic  cable  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . v .  63 

Hirn,  C.  F.,  telodynamic  cable  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  129-134, 149 

construction  of  pulleys  for  the  support  of  the  cable  of ;  ih .  131 

applications  of  cable  of;  ib .  131 

loss  of  power  attendant  upon  use  of  cable  of;  ih .  133 

Hirn,  G.  A.,  pandynamometer  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  166 

methods  employed  by,  for  measuring  force  ;  ib .  166 

importance  of  invention  of,  to  mechanical  engineer  ;  ih .  168 

Hjorth,  S.,  magneto-electric  battery  of;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  54 

Hoe’s  printing  presses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  436 

Hoffman’s  annular  brick  furnace ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  357 

number  in  Germany  and  England ;  ih .  359 

Hoffman,  Professor,  report  on  coal  colors;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  75, 141-146 

Hoglen  &  Graffin’s  tobacco-cutting  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Hoisting  engines  and  machinery  for  mines ;  iv,  Mining . .  56-59 

Holtz, E., railway  dynamometer;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  24 

Holtz’s  electrostatic  induction  machine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  551 

Honnegger,  G.,  silk- thread,  sorting  apparatus  of ;  vi,  Silk .  30 

Hops;  i,  General  Survey .  162,278 

Hosiery,  underclothing,  &c.;  i,  General  Survey .  115, 124 

Hospital  tents  ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  40 

Hot-air  engines,  advantages  and  disadvantages  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  26 

theoretic  limit  of  the  economy  of ;  ih .  27 

regenerators  in ;  ih .  33 

Ericsson’s ;  ih .  34 

relative  motion  of  pistons  of;  ih .  39 

Shaw’s ;  ih .  41 

Belou’s;  ih . 45 

Roper’s ;  ih .  48 

experiments  of  Messrs.  Tresca  and  Alcan ;  ih .  46 

Lauberau’s ;  ih . .  50 

Wilcox’s ;  ih . 53 

Franchot’s  ;  ib .  54 

Houget  &  Teston’s  boiler  feeder ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  233, 236 

Houses  combining  cheapness,  health,  and  comfort ;  i,  Introduction .  33 

iv,  Buildings .  61-95 

Howard  &  Belleville,  steam  boiler ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  44-47 

Hoyt,  J.  W.,  M.  D.,  report  upon  education ;  in  volume  vi. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


31 


Page. 

Huddersfield,  manufactures  of;  yi,  Wool .  63 

Huelgoat,  example  of  transmission  of  force  at ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  129 

Hugon,  Mr.,  inflammable  gas-engine  of ;  iii.  Industrial  Arts .  66 

Hugon,  gas-engine  of  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering. .  .  61 

Huet  &  Geyler’s  machine  for  ore-dressing  ;  iv,  Mining .  84, 92, 95 

Huet  &  Geyler’s  chain  pump ;  iv,  Mining .  61 

Hughes,  D.  E.,  printing  telegraph ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  20-29 

Humboldt,  estimated  average  supply  of  precious  metals  from  1492  to  1500,  by ; 

ii,  Precious  Metals .  201 

Humboldt  County,  (Nevada,)  silver  mines  and  mining  districts  in;  ii,  Prec.  Met.  139, 140 

Humphrey  &.  Tennant’s  marine  engines;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 

Humphries,  Colonel,  merino  sheep  of;  vi,  Wool .  67 

Hunt,  Dr.  T.  Sterry,  report  on  the  gold  fields  of  Nova  Scotia  by ;  ii, Precious  Metals.  50 

Huskisson,  Mr.,  on  woolen  manufactures  of  Great  Britain ;  vi,  Wool .  62 

Hydraulic  presses  for  expressing  the  juice  of  beets ;  v,  Beet  Sugar .  65 

Hydraulic  hoist  of  Leon  Edoux ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  38 

Hydraulic  limes  and  cements,  composition  of;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  17 

action  of  sea-water  on  hydraulic  mortars ;  ib .  17 

experiments  of  M.  Coignet  in  relation  to  action  of  sea-water  on  arti¬ 
ficial  stone  of  varying  composition ;  ib .  18-20 

experiments  at  Marseilles  and  Cherbourg ;  ib .  20-21 

Hydraulic  cements,  &c.;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  10-12 

Hydraulic  press  for  forgings ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  39-40 

Hydraulic  elevators ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  169 

display  of,  at  the  Exposition  ;  ib .  169 

“ascenseur  Edoux;”  ib .  204 

advantages  of,  for  dwellings ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  207 

Hydraulic  engines,  construction  and  application  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  99 

description  of,  at  Huelgoat,  by  Mr.  Delaunay;  ib .  100 

Carrett,  Marshall  &  Co.’s  water-engine ;  ib .  101 

Perret’s  water-engine ;  ib .  102 

Coque’s  water-engine ;  ib .  105 

Ramsbottom’s  water-engine  ;  ib .  106 

Hydraulic  presses,  recent  improvements  in;  iii, Industrial  Arts .  196 

Chollet-Champion’s  ;  ib .  196 

Desgoffe  and  Oflivier’s  sterhydraulic  apparatus;  ib .  198 

Hydro-aero-dynamic  wheel,  invention  of,  by  Mr.  Calles ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts  . . .  134 

construction  and  advantages  of ;  ib .  135 

mechanical  principle  involved  in ;  ib .  135 

Hydro-electric  batteries ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  555 

Hydrochloric  acid ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  53-55 

Hydrogen  gas,  its  preparation  and  uses;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  69 

Hyposulphite  of  soda ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  31 

I. 

Ice,  artificial  production  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  366 

artificial  production  of,  at  the  Exposition  ;  ib .  368 

cost  of,  produced  in  F.  Carry’s  continuous  freezing  apparatus ;  ib .  384 

economical  production  of,  by  Twining’s  apparatus;  ib .  401 

Ice-apparatus  of  Mr.  E.  Carrd,  description  of;  ib . .  367 

cost  of;  ib .  368 

Twining’s  American ;  ib .  395 

Idaho,  yield  of  the  principal  gold  and  silver  veins  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals.. ..  147 

list  of  quartz  mills  in,  (table;)  ib . e .  149 


32 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 


Idaho  and  Washington  Territories,  gold  discoveries  in,  and  gold  region  of;  il, 

Precious  Metals .  38 

Idiots,  schools  for ;  vi,  Education .  72 

Illinois  school  -house ;  vi,  Education .  58 

Illuminating  gas,  manufacture  of,  from  coal ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . . . .  74-117 

use  of,  in  light-houses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  404 

Imbert  &  Co/s  horizontal  tubular  boiler ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  48 

Immigration,  influence  of  the  Exposition  upon ;  i,  Introduction .  27 

Imperial  Brazilian  mining  association,  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  68 

School  of  Charts ;  vi,  Education .  106 

School  of  Living  Oriental  Languages  ;  ib .  94 

and  Royal  Agricultural  School  of  Hungary ;  ib . .  137 

Importation  of  wool  into  Great  Britain  in  1830,  1862,  and  1864 ;  vi,  Wool .  110 

Industrial  Society  of  Mulhouse,  publications  by ;  vi,  Wool .  39 

Influence  of  Anglo-French  treaty  on  French  artists  ;  vi,  Wool .  65 

Independence  mine,  character  and  thickness  of  the  veins  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  10 

India,  auriferous  districts  and  gold  production  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  105 

Induction  coils  exhibited  by  Ruhmkorff;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  561 


Industrial  arts,  report  upon,  and  upon  apparatus  of  the  exact  sciences,  by 
Fred.  A.  P.  Barnard,  LL.D.;  in  volume  iii. 

Industrial  chemistry,  the  progress  and  condition  of  several  departments  of, 
report  on,  by  J.  Lawrence  Smith ;  in  volume  ii. 


Industrial  Dwellings  Company;  iv,  Building .  .  87 

Industrial  partnerships ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  128 

Inflammable  gas-engines,  principle  of  construction  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  56 

early  efforts  in  construction  of ;  ib .  57 

Lebou’s ;  ib .  58 

Johnson’s ;  ib .  59 

number  of,  at  Exposition ;  ib .  60 

Otto  and  Langen’s ;  ib .  60 

experiments  in  regard  to,  by  Professor  Karl  Jenny, 

of  Vienna ;  ib .  62 

Lenoir’s ;  ib .  63 

experiments  in  regard  to,  by  Mr.  Tresca ;  ib .  65 

Hugon’s ;  ib .  66 

disadvantages  of ;  ib .  70 

Institute  of  Arts  at  Berlin ;  vi,  Education .  125 

Instruction,  apparatus  and  methods  used  in ;  i,  General  Survey .  229, 308 

public,  in  Holland ;  vi,  Education .  19 

Insulators  and  insulation;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  82 

Intermediate  education  in  Russia,  Italy,  and  United  States;  vi,  Education _  81-89 

International  associations  for  the  development  of  commerce  and  of  expositions ; 

i,  Bibliography .  4 

jury  and  the  awards ;  i,  Introduction .  107, 184 

i,  General  Survey . . : . . .  5 

exhibitions,  their  importance  and  value ;  i,  Introduction .  3 

they  have  become  national  necessities ;  ib .  3 

International  monetary  conference,  proceedings  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals _ ....  259 

reports  and  documents  of ;  ib .  245 

report  of  delegates  from  Great  Britain ;  ib  269 

Iodine ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  73 

Inventions,  classification  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  20 

Iron  and  steel ;  i,  General  Survey .  150 

production  of,  in  its  economic  and  social  relations,  report  on, 
by  Abram  S.  Hewitt ;  in  volume  ii. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


33 


Page. 

Iron  beams  and  girders,  of  large  size ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  2-4 

large  masses  of,  bandied  abroad ;  ib .  4, 6 

of  low  quality,  for  rails;  ib .  13 

weldless,  bands  of;  ib .  6 

different  qualities  of  merchant ;  ib .  13 

the  production  of,  in  1866 ;  ib .  42 

Iron  ores  of  Sweden,  of  Elba,  and  Algiers  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  14 

table  showing  the  analyses  of  the  most  important  irons  and  iron  ores 

of  Sweden ;  ib .  85-90 

table  showing  several  marks  of  Swedish  irons  ;  ib .  91-101 

of  the  United  States,  exhibition  of;  ib .  1,2,46 

of  Sweden  and  other  countries ;  ib .  43 

of  the  United  States,  vast  extent  of ;  ib .  46, 47 

Iron  and  steel  works  abroad,  great  extent  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  36, 37, 38 


Italy,  mineral  collections  from,  at  the  Exposition ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  98 

character  of  gold  veins  of,  and  number  of  mines  worked ;  ib .  98 

character  of  the  silver  ores  of;  ib .  178 

most  important  deposits  of  silver  in ;  ib . .  178 

total  yield  of  gold  mines  of,  for  1866 ;  ib .  100 

annual  production  of  silver  from  1859  to  1885,  inclusive ;  ib . .  179 

number  of  workmen  employed  in,  and  cost  of  production  ;  ib .  179 

Italian  universities ;  vi,  Education . 1 .  106-108 

Izba,  the  Russian  ;  iv,  Building . 1 .  22 


Jacob,  analysis  of  his  estimates ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  204 

estimates  of,  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  gold  and  silver  in  existence ;  ib.  201 

estimates  by,  of  amount  of  precious  metals  used  in  the  arts;  ib .  228 

Jacquard,  M.,  looms  of;  vi,  Silk . *_  38 

Jamin,  measuring  difference  of  phase  in  undulations ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts _  526 

Japan,  gold  trade  with  Dutch  in.;  ii,  Precious  Metals . .  103 

export  of  precious  metals  from  1540  to  1740  ;  ib .  104 

discovery  and  use  of  gold  in  ;  ib .  104 

silver  veins  in ;  ib .  189 

estimated  amount  of  silver  exported  from  1611  to  1706;  ib .  189 

Jardin  des  Plantes,  model  and  source  of  societies  of  natural  history ;  vi,  Wool..  81 

Jarvis,  Mr.  William,  merino  sheep  imported  by;  vi,  Wool .  68 

Jenny,  Prof.  Karl,  experiments  of,  in  regard  to  gas-engines ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  62 

Jetties,  principal  marine  jetties  executed  in  Europe ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  45 

Jewelry  and  orpaments ;  i,  General  Survey .  133-136 

Jevons,  Professor,  observations  on  variation  of  prices  and  value  of  currency; 

ii,  Precious  Metals .  232 

effect  of  the  increased  production  of  gold  on  prices  ;  ib..  235 

Jigging  machinery  for  ore  dressing  ;  iv,  Mining. .  88-93 

Joe  Walker  ndne,  width  of  veiu  and  character  of  ore  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals. . .  4 

Johnson,  Mathey  &  Co.,  Messrs.,  medals  awarded  to;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  195 

display  of  rare  metals  by ;  ib .  194 

platinum  apparatus  of ;  ib .  192 

Johnson,  James,  inflammable  gas-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  59 

Johnson’s  deep-sea  pressure  gauge;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  608 

Johnston,  W.  E.,  report  on  the  preparation  of  food;  in  volume  v. 

3 


34 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Johnson  &  Matthey,  platinum  apparatus  for  the  concentration  of  sulphuric 

acid ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . 

ii,  Precious  Metals . 

Jolly,  Mr.,  system  for  car  intercommunication ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . 

Jones  and  Levick’s  coal-cutting  machine;  iv,  Mining . . . 

Joret,  Mr.  H.,  of  Paris,  patent  bridges  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 

Joy,  Professor  Charles  A.,  promotion  of  the  Exposition;  i,  Introduction . 

on  importance  of  a  scientific  commission;  ib . 

Joyot,  jr.,  loom  of,  for  weaving  ribbons;  vi,  Silk . 

Jubert  Brothers,  bolts  for  armor  plates;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . 

Jurors,  appointment  of,  to  the  United  States;  i,  Introduction . 

prizes  for  reaping  and  mowing  machines ;  ib . 

Jury,  International;  i,  Introduction . 

i,  General  Survey . 

i,  Bibliography . . . % . 1 . ; 


Page. 


16-17 
139-140 
31 
49 
294 
5, 84 
84 
39 
42 
115 
122 
184 
5 
13 


K. 

Kelley,  Hon.  W.  D.,  bill  to  promote  monetary  unification ;  ii,  Precious  Metals..  303 
Kennedy,  Hon .  J.  P.,  resolution  of,  adopted  by  monetary  committee ;  ii,  Prec.  Met.  257 

Kensington  Museum,  science  and  art  department  of;  i,  General  Survey .  44 

Kerite,  its  value  as  an  insulator ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  88 

Keyes,  Mr.  W.  L.,  on  mineral  resources  of  the  Territory  of  Montana ;  ii,  Prec.  Met.  40 

Keystone  mine,  monthly  yield  of,  in  1866 ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  11 

Kid  gloves ;  i,  General  Survey .  118 

Kind,  boring  apparatus  of,  for  shafts  and  wells  ;  iv,  Mining .  7-31 

Kiosk  of  the  Sultan  ;  iv,  Buildings .  16 

Kirkaldy,  experiments  by,  upon  bars  of  iron  and  steel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel _  35,  80, 105 

Kitson  &  Co.,  locomotive  of;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  12 

u  Klangfarbe,”  or  sound  color;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  502 

Knee-joint  press,  Samain’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  216 

Kneading'machine ;  v,  Food .  7 

Knit  goods,  manufacture  of;  vi,  Wool .  23 

Knitting  machines  ;  vi,  Wool .  23 

Koenig,  Mr.  Rudolph,  of  Paris,  exhibition  of  acoustic  apparatus;  iii,  Ind.  Arts.  49 

nodal  point  manometric  flames ;  ib.  - .  512 

clang- analyzer  of;  ib . - .  513 

Krauss  &  Co.,  locomotive  of ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  15 

Kravogl,  M.,  electro-magnetic  engine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  126, 127 

mercurial  air-pump  of;  ib .  492 

Kreuseman,&  Vanden  Wall  Bake,  car  wheels  of;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  32 

Krupp,  Frederick,  exhibition  of  steel  by;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  6 

extent  of  his  steel  works  ;  ib .  7 

cast  steel  rails  of ;  ib .  10 

steel  guns  of;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  66,117 

exhibition  of  large  ingots  and  forgings  of  cast  steel ;  iii, 

Industrial  Arts .  283 

L. 

Labor,  history  of  human,  gallery  of,  at  the  Exposition ;  i,  General  Survey .  17 

prices  of,  in  the  United  States  and  abroad;  vi,  Wool .  31 

condition  of  the  laboring  classes  abroad  in  respect  to  education  and 

wages;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  52-62 

women  and  children  employed;  ib .  52 

Laboring  classes,  society  for  improving  the  condition  of;  iv,  Buildings .  86 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


35 


Page. 

Lace  makers,  education  of;  vi,  Clothing .  63 

Lace,  net,  embroidery  and  trimmings  ;  i,  General  Survey . 109-115 

Laces,  manufacture  of ;  vi,  Clothing .  61-71 

vi,  Silk . .  38 

black,  of  Bargeux,  Valenciennes,  machine  ;  vi,  Clothing . .  62-63 

Lacolonge,  M.  Ordinaire  de,  Perret’s  water-engine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  103 

Lacy’s  door  opening  both  ways ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  280 

Ladd’s  dynamo-magneto-electric  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  426,  427 

La  Hhve,  sea-coast  lights  at ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . • .  422 

electric  light  at ;  ib .  422 

Ladd’s  dynamo-electric  apparatus;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  55 

Lake  Superior,  silver  from,  deposited  in  United  States  Mint ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  154 

Lamb,  J.  W.,  knitting  machine  of,  (note  1 ;)  vi,  Silk .  42 

Lander  County,  Nevada,  discovery  of  silver  in  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  129 

list  of  districts  in  ;  ib .  130 

mines  and  production  of  districts  of;  ib .  132,133 

La  Place,  needle  system  or  electric  semaphore  ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  10 

La  Plata,  fine  wool  of;  vi,  Wool .  Ill 

Larmanjat’s  road  engine  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  34 

Lathes  for  turning  the  legs  of  chairs,  &,c. ;  i,  General  Survey .  185 

Latent  heat ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  363 

Latent  heat  of  water ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  370 

Lawrence  scientific  school;  vi,  Education .  102, 103 

Law,  schools  of ;  vi,  Education . * .  258-267 

Lawrence  &  Houseworth,  exhibition  of  photographic  views  by,  and  donation 

to  various  societies ;  v,  Photography .  7 

Lead  chambers  for  sulphuric  acid  works  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  10 

Leather  belting,  specimens  of,  exhibited;  iv,  Steam. Engineering .  62 

Leather  and  skins ;  i,  General  Survey .  166 

Leblanc’s  process  for  the  manufacture  of  soda  from  salt ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry.  18, 24 

Lebou,  gas-engine  invented  by,  in  1799  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  58 

Leclanch^’s  improved  carbon  battery  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts  . . r . . . .  559 

battery ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  54 

Le  Creusot,  average  rate  of  wages  at ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  48 

Leeds,  manufactures  of;  vi,  Wool.. .  63 

Leibnitz,  efforts  to  construct  a  calculating  machine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  635 

Leicester  sheep,  price  of,  in  England  and  United  States ;  vi,  Wool .  121 

Leipsic,  University  of ;  vi,  Education .  21 

Lemonnier  and  Nouvion’s  portable  press;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  214 

Lenoir,  Mr.,  inflammable  gas-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  63 

experimental  results  with  engine  of;  ib . .  €5 

iv,  Steam  Engineering. .  61 

Lenses  for  photographic  apparatus ;  v,  Photography . . .  15 

Leroy  &  Durand’s  new  still,  or  ‘‘autoclave”  for  fats;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry.  129 

Leschot,  diamond-pointed  drill  of;  i,  General  Survey .  173 

iv,  Mining .  44,47-49 

Leslie,  Frank,  report  upon  the  fine  arts  ;  in  volume  i. 

Letheby,  Dr.,  extract  from  the  lectures  of,  on  coal  gas  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry.  74, 89 

Leyden,  University  of ;  vi,  Education .  108 

Le  Yerrier,  M. ;  vi,  Education .  1C  6 

Leveling  instruments ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  597 

Levi,  Mr.  Leone,  note  by,  on  decimal  system  of  weights,  measures,  and  coins; 
ii,  Precious  Metals .  246 


36  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Page. 

Liebig’s  chemical  school  at  Giessen ;  vi,  Education . .  133 

extract  of  meat ;  v,  Food . j .  13 

artificial  milk  for  children ;  ib .  17 

Life-saving  respiratory  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  344 

Light-houses ;  i,  General  Survey .  201 

exhibition  of,  at  Paris;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  403 

use  of  gas-light  for;  ib . .  404 

Dublin  Ballast  Board ;  ib .  405 

Bailey  light-house ;  ib . .  405 

Light,  electric,  for  light-houses;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  418 

Light-house  illumination;  iii,  Industnal  Arts .  415 

Lilleshall  Company,  locomotives  of ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  12 

Lime,  spent  or  refuse,  of  gas  works;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  101 

Limekiln  for  the  protection  of  carbonic  acid  gas;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar . . .  82 

Liqueurs;  i,  General  Survey .  218 

Linen,  manufacture  in  various  countries;  vi,  Clothing .  30 

extent  of  the  industry  ;  ib .  30-31 

Lisbet  and  Jacquet’s  drilling  engine;  iv,  Mining .  42 

Lissajou’s  comparator;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  508 

Lithography;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  456 

Lithographic  printing  rollers ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  460 

Litters,  wheeled ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  157 

Live  stock  and  farm  buildings ;  i,  General  Survey .  223, 225 

Livrets  of  workmen,  law  of  livret  in  France;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  142-149 

Lloyd’s  noiseless  fan;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  191, 192 

Location  of  schools ,  vi,  Education .  . .  59 

Locke,  Professor,  electro-chronograph  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  563 

Locomotives,  notice  of  those  exhibited;  i,  General  Survey .  191,  300 

tabular  statement  of  the  relative  dimensions  and  proportions  of, 

in  different  countries;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  8-12 

the  locomotive  “America;”  ib .  12 

Stephens  &  Co.’s  locomotives ;  ib .  12 

#  the  tank-engine  “  Titan ;”  ib .  13 

Graffenstaden  engine;  ib .  14 

smoke-burning  engines ;  ib . . .  14 

Austrian  locomotives ;  ib . 15 

Fairlie’s  double  engine ;  ib .  17 

Meyer’s  locomotive ;  ib .  18 

Lo-kao,  Chinese  green,  introduction  of;  vi,  Wool .  42 

Long  Tom  gold  mine;  situation,  size  of  vein,  and  yield;  ii,  Precious  Metals -  4 

Lorieux’s  binocular  telemetric  marine-glasses:  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  578 

Lotte’s  portable  wine  press;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  214 

Lowe,  Mr.  T.  C.  S.,  patent  ice  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  397 

Low  Moor  Works,  England,  weldless  bands  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  6 

Lucien  &  Co.,  steam-hammer;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  39 

Lnndin’s  arrangement  for  cooling  Siemens  furnace  gases;  iii,  Industrial  Arts..  353 

Lundin’s  furnace;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . 18, 102-104 

Lyons,  the  great  center  of  silk  manufacture;  vi,  Silk .  14, 15 

looms  in;  ib .  14 

brilliant  character  of  products  of;  ib .  38 

exports  of,  to  the  United  States  in  1865  and  1866 ;  ib .  15 

author’s  thanks  to  Chamber  of  Commerce  of,  ib .  46 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


37 


M. 

Page. 

Macaroni;  v,  Food . .  11, 12 

Machines,  necessity  for  the  early  installation  of;  i,  Introduction .  54 

Machine-tools;  i,  General  Survey .  178,290 

effect  of  invention  of  the  steam-engine  on;  iii,  Industrial  Arts..  14 

Machines  and  mechanical  apparatus  in  general;  i,  General  Survey .  286 

Maceration  of  beet-roots ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  44 

Cliampennois  process ;  ib .  46 

Mackay  gun;  v,  Munitions  of  War . .  84 

Magneto-electricity,  use  for  illumination ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  416-432 

automatic  regulators  for  the  electric  light;  ib .  417 

adaptation  to  sea-coast  lights ;  ib .  418 

Magneto-electric  machines,  exhibition  of,  at  Paris;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  418 

description  of;  ib .  419 

machines  at  La  Heve;  ib .  422 

probable  reduction  in  cost  of;  ib .  .426 

Ladd’s  machine;  ib .  426 

Wilde’s  machine;  ib .  429 

Magueto-electric  battery  of  S.  Hjorth;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  54 

Magnesia  and  magnesian  salts;  ii,  Industrial  Chernistrif .  48 

Mahoiulou’s  windmill;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  120 

Maliovos,  the,  a  contrivance  to  promote  economy  in  railway  transportation ; 

i,  General  Survey .  192 

iii,  Industrial  Arts .  .  153 

construction  of,  described;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  155 

advantages  to  be  derived  from  its  use ;  ib . 156-159, 160 

employed  as  a  brake ;  ib .  159-160 

model  of,  at  Exposition;  ib . - .  161 

Malady  among  silk  worms,  great  ravages  of;  vi,  Silk .  24 

theories  as  to  its  cause ;  ib .  24 

proposed  remedies,  theories  of;  ib .  24 

M.  Pasteur’s  theory  of ;  ib .  25 

M.  B6champ’s  theory  of;  ib . .  25 

facts  ascertained  concerning;  ib .  25 

M.  Quatrefage’s  opinion  upon ;  ib .  45 

Andrew  Murray  upon ;  ib . . .  44 

exemption  of  United  States  from  ;  ib .  44,  45 

Manchester  Cotton  Supply  Association,  samples  from;  vi,  Cotton .  3,  90 

Man-engines,  “  Waroque’s”  or  “Falirkunst ;”  iv,  Mining .  64-81 

Manganate  of  potash  used  in  bleaching  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . . .  65 

Manganese,  binoxideof;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  55 

Manganese  compounds;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  65 

Manometers  of  Shaffer  &  Budenburg ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  52 

Manometric  flames — tubes  in  unison;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  513 

Manufacture  of  cotton  in  United  States  and  other  countries;  vi,  Clothing .  28 

Manures,  mineral  and  organic,  for  cotton;  vi,  Cotton .  19 

Maps  and  geographical  and  cosmographical  apparatus  ;  i,  General  Survey..  54,170,264 

Marble  for  building  and  decoration;  iv,  Building .  33 

workers  in  marble  in  Paris  ;  ib .  33 

Marcinelle-Couillet  Company’s  wrought-iron  sleepers;  iv,  Steam  Engineering..  20 

Marcus,  Professor  S.,  thermo-electric  battery  of;  iv,  Industrial  Arts .  560 

Marezzo  marble;  iv,  Building .  45 

Marine-glasses,  binocular  telemetric;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  578 


38 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Marine  structures  of  concrete;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  16 

Mariotte,  law  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . - .  146 

Mariquita  and  New  Granada  Mining  Company  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  74 

Martello  tower  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  160 

Martin’s  process  of  making  steel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  32-35 

Marval’s,  Joly  de,  heating  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  346 

Massey,  B.  &  S.,  steam  Oliver ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  42 

Matches,  production  and  consumption  of ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  70 

friction,  machines  for  making;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  263 

Mathematical  instruments ;  i,  General  Survey .  53,264 

Maudslay  Sons  &  Field,  marine  engines ;  ,iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 

engines  for  twin  screw  launches ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 

Mazamet,  workshop  nurseries  of;  vi,  Wool .  62 

Mazeline’s  machine  for  makiug  agglomerated  coal ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  310 

v,  Pressed  Coal .  12 

McCulloch,  of  amount  of  precious  metals  used  in  the  arts ;  ii,  Precious  Metals..  228 

Measuring  rules ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  613 

Meat,  fish,  and  vegetables ;  i,  General  Survey .  212 

Meats,  concentrated;  v,  Food .  1** 

Mechanical  presses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  212 

calculation;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  629 

broom  for  sweeping  streets  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  275 

preparation  of  ores ;  iv,  Mining .  84-104 

Medicine,  surgery,  &c.,  instruments  and  apparatus  of,  by  Thomas  W.  Evans ; 
in  volume  v. 

Medicine  chest,  British  field  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  146 

Medical  and  surgical  instruments ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  1-28 

schools ;  vi,  Education .  237-258, 383 

Medoc,  soil  of;  v,  Culture  and  Products  of  the  Vine .  7 

Menelaus,  puddling  machine  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  26 

Mdneville-Guerin,  M.,  introduces  a  new  silk-worm  into  France  ;  vi,  Silk .  23 

Merle’s  improvement  of  Balard’s  process  for  the  production  of  potash  ;  ii,  In¬ 
dustrial  Chemistry .  34 

process  of  condensing  hydrochloric  acid  ;  ih .  54 

Merino  combing  wools  ;  vi,  Wools .  10 

Negretti,  race  of ;  ih .  13 

Merrill,  Dr.  A.  P. ;  remarks  upon  the  hygienic  influence  of  woolen  clothing  ; 

vi,  Clothing . 

Metallography;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  459 

Meteorograph,  by  Father  Secchi ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  571 

Meteorological  registering  apparatus  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  569, 570, 575 

Meters,  for  liquids ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  219 

for  gas;  ih . 228 

constant-level  gas-meter ;  ih .  229-232 

for  illuminating  gas;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  82 

iii,  Industrial  Arts .  228 

Metric  weights  and  their  equivalents,  table  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  359 

system  of  the  United  States;  i,  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins .  8 

tables  for  conversion  into  other  measures ;  ih .  11 

Metrology  and  mechanical  calculation;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  613 

Metropolitan  Association  ;  iv,  Building .  85 

Meyer’s  locomotive;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . .  18 

Mexico,  production  of  silver  at  time  of  invasion  by  Cortez  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  155 


GENERAL  INDEX.  39 

Page. 

Mexico,  production  of  silver  at  close  of  18th  century  ;  ib .  155 

for  1867  )  ib .  156 

gold  aud  silver  in  Mexico  from  1804  to  1846,  (table;)  ib.  156 

estimated  present  and  annual  production ;  ib .  156 

coinage  of  the  mint  of,  since  1856  ;  ib . 151 

present  condition  of  mining  for  gold  and  silver  in ;  ib .  315 

gold  and  silver  coinage  of  mints  of, from  1858 to  1867,  inclusive;  ib.  315 

coinage  of  mints  of,  from  1822  to  1856,  inclusive  ;  ib .  316 

average  annual  production  of  gold  in,  for  the  present  century ;  ib....  56 

total  production  of  gold  to  1847,  as  calculated  by  Mr.  Danson ;  ib...  56 

Michat’s  parachute  ;  iv,  Mining .  79 

Michigan,  University  of ;  vi,  Education .  382 

Micrometric  apparatus,  Whitworth’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  12 

Micrometry ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  613 

Micrometers,  substitute  for  spider  lines  in ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  531 

Micro-pantographs ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  617 

Microscopes  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  532 

Hoffman’s  polarization;  ib .  523 

exaltation  of  resolving  power ;  ib .  533 

objectives  of  Powell  and  Lealand ;  ib .  533 

Hartnack’s  objectives ;  ib . .  533, 536 

improvements  in  the  form  and  accessories  of ;  ib .  534 

cheapness  of,  made  by  Lebrun  ;  ib .  535 

Lister’s  “  double  correction  ”  objectives ;  ib .  536 

immersion  lenses  ;  ib . . .  537 

objectives  of  Messrs.  Tolies  and  Wales  ;  ib .  537, 544 

binocular  microscope  by  Nachet ;  ib . .  539 

stereotomic;  ib .  541 

Smith’s  catadioptric  binocular  ;  ib .  542 

double,  for  two  observers ;  ib . .  543 

triple,  for  three  observers ;  ib .  543 

stands  of ;  ib . * .  544 

Microscope  objectives,  Toll es’s  ;  in,  Industrial  Arts .  471 

Microscopic  drawings  and  designs  on  glass ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  619 

Milk,  artificial  for  children ;  v,  Food. .  17 

and  cheese  ;  i,  General  Survey .  210 

Military  medicine  and  pharmacy,  schools  of;  vi,  Education .  244 

Millstones,  machines  for  dressing ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  251 

Aubin’s  improved  ;  ib .  279 

Minchin,  Mr.,  exhibition  of  samples  of  sugar  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  325 

Miners,  cottages  for,  at  Blanzy ;  iv,  Buildings . .  84 

Minerals,  collections  of,  distributed  ;  i,  Introduction .  134-139 

and  ores ;  i,  General  Survey .  147-151, 249, 273 

collections  of,  made  in  schools  in  Europe ;  v,  School-houses .  12 

Mining  and  metallurgical  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  169, 281 

the  mechanical  preparation  of  ores  ;  report  on,  by  Henry  F.  Q. 

D’Aligny  and  others ;  in  volume  iv. 

Mining  schools  ;  vi,  Education .  160-174 

engineers,  importance  of  establishing  a  corps  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals ....  241 

Mint  of  United  States,  deposits  of  gold  and  silver  at ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  336 

total  coinage  at,  for  1868  ;  ib .  337 

silver  coinage  at ;  ib . ! .  341 

total  coinage  of,  from  1792  to  1868,  (table;)  ib .  342 


40 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Minton  &  Co.,  production  of  encaustic  tiles  by  ;  iv,  Buildings .  46 

Mitchell’s  composing  machine  j  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  452 

Mission  Woolen  Mills  in  California  ^  i,  General  Survey .  102, 269 

Mills,  San  Francisco,  exhibition  of  goods  of ;  vi,  Wool .  24 

Military  academies  in  various  countries ;  vi,  Education .  198-204 

Royal  Academy  at  Woolwich,  report  of  commission  on ;  ib .  199 

telegraph,  Austrian ;  iv,  Telegraphic  apparatus .  17-20 

Moerath,  Mr.,  construction  and  advantages  of  windmill  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  122 

Mohair,  use  of,  in  the  manufacture  of  Utrecht  velvets  ;  vi,  Wool .  103 

shawls  ;  ib .  103 

Listings,  cloakiugs,  dress  goods,  &c. ;  ib.  103 

annual  export  of,  from  Turkey  ;  ib .  104 

price  of,  per  pound;  ib .  104 

application  of,  in  the  manufacture  of  fabrics  ;  ib... .  102 

Molard,  A.,  disk  engine;  iv,  Steam  Engineering. .  61 

Monetary  unity,  importance  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  245 

treaty,  translation  of;,  ib .  248 

report  of  committee  in  regard  to ;  ib .  250 

observations  by  Mr.  Beckwith  in  regard  to ;  ib .  253 

unification,  plan  of,  agreed  to  by  monetary  conference;  ib .  260 

report  of  Senator  Sherman  on ;  ib .  283 

report  of  Senator  Morgan  on  ;  ib .  292 

comparison  of  the  different  systems  of  proposed;  ib .  308 

Monitors  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  202-206 

Montana  Territory,  principal  centers  of  mining  in  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  39 

total  production  of  the  mines  of,  in  1868;  ib .  40 

total  production  of  the  mines  of,  up  to  1868 ;  ib .  40 

mineral  resources  of,  by  Mr.  W.  L.  Keyes ;  ib .  40 

estimated  yield  of,  in  1867 .  41 

Morgan,  Senator,  report  of,  on  monetary  unification  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  292 

Morin,  General,  illustration  of  the  laws  of  falling  bodies ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  488 

Moro  Velho  mine,  account  of,  by  Mr.  J.  ^Phillips  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  64 

total  value  of  precious  metals  extracted  from;  ib .  65 

average  yield  of  gold  per  ton  since  1847  ;  ib .  65 

character  of  machinery,  and  number  of  hands  employed ;  ib.  67 

work  performed  by  stamps,  &c.,  (table  ;)  ib .  68 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  LL.  D.,  examination  of  the  telegraphic  apparatus  and 
the  processes  in  telegraphy  ;  in  volume  iv. 

telegraphic  system  ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  .  11 

introduction  of,  in  Europe ;  ib .  13 

stopping  apparatus ;  ib .  114 

letter  on  invention  of  the  telegraph ;  ib .  144-150 

Morse’s  organ  pipe  sounder;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  41 

Morse,  Messrs.  Sydney  E.  and  G.  Livingston,  bathometer  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  609 

Morus  multicaulis,  furor  about,  in  the  United  States;  vi,  Silk .  8 

Mosaic  work  ;  i,  General  Survey .  31 

Moselle,  mining  shafts  in  the  department  of ;  iv,  Mining .  8 

Mosque,  Turkish,  in  the  park  ;  iv,  Building .  15 

Motard  and  De  Milly,  process  of  saponification  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  121, 122 

Motay,  Tessin  de,  specimens  of  heliographic  engraving;  iii,  Industrial  Arts -  46C 

manufacture  of  oxygen  gas ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  67 

Motors,  classification  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  26 

Motive  power,  the  supply  of ;  i,  Introduction .  55-65 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


41 


Page. 

Mount  Cenis  tunnel;  i,  General  Survey .  201 

rock  drilling  at  tlie ;  iv,  Mining . .  34, 46 

use  of  compressed  air  at;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 137,142,143 

Mousselines  de  laine,  manufacture  of ;  vi,  Wool .  25 

Mulhouse  society  of  “  cit6s  ouvrieres ;”  iv,  Buildings .  69, 74 

Mungo,  origin  of  the  word ;  vi,  Wool .  112 

introduction  and  use  of ;  ib .  135 

Mulberry  tree,  condition  of  its  cultivation ;  vi,  Silk .  9 

Munitions  of  war ;  i,  Introduction .  67 

Munitions  of  war  exhibited  at  the  Exposition,  report  on,  by  Charles  B.  Norton 
and  W.  J.  Valentine  ;  in  volume  v. 

Murdock,  William,  practical  application  of  coal  gas  to  artificial  illumination, 

by;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  76 

Murray,  Andrew,  on  silk-worm  malady  ;  vi,  Silk  ... .  44 

Mus6e  d’Histoire  Naturelle  ;  vi,  Education .  105 

Museum  of  Irish  Industry  ;  vi,  Education . 49 

Mushrooms  and  truffles  ;  v,  Food . ? .  15 

Music,  taught  in  schools  in  Europe ;  v,  School-Houses .  12 

Musical  instruments  ;  i,  General  Survey .  48, 261 

Musical  instruments,  report  upon,  by  Paran  Stevens ;  in  volume  v. 

Musical  instruments,  extent  of  the  exhibition  of ;  v,  Music . .  3 

number  of  manufacturers  of,  in  various  countries ;  ib.. .  5 

awards,  list  of;  ib . .  17 

notice  of,  at  the  Exposition ;  ib .  13 

Musical  education  in  the  United  States;  v,  Music .  9 

Musina,  Opprandino,  pocket  machine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  637 

N. 

Nachet’s  binocular  microscope  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  .  538 

triple  microscope  ;  ib .  545 

Nails,  cut,  monopoly  of  manufacture  by  the  United  States  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel..  2 

Nail-making  machine,  Wickersham’s  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  248 

Naphtha;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry _ : .  95-97 

Napier's  rods  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . i .  633 

Napoleon’s  cottages  for  workmen  ;  iv,  Building .  66 

Nautical  compasses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  603, 604 

National  association  of  wool  manufacturers,  extract  from  report  of;  vi,  Wool.  22 

report  of;  ib .  79 

National  mining  college,  importance  of  establishing  a;  ii,  Precious  Metals -  240 

Naval  and  military  schools ;  vi,  Education .  197-204 

Navigation,  life-boats,  yachts,  and  pleasure-boats  ;  i,  General  Survey .  303 

Navigation,  schools  of ;  vi,  Education .  181-183 

Needle-gun,  cartridge  of;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  12 

description  of  the;  ib .  15-19 

Negretti’s  sheep,  weight  of  fleece  of;  vi,  Wool .  70 

Neut  &  Dumont,  Messrs.,  centrifugal  pump  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  183 

Neustadt,  C.,  crane;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  35 

Nevada  County, (California,)  number  of  mines  in,  in  year  1865 ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  10 

aggregate  yield  of  nineteen  mines  of;  ib .  10 

Nevada,  gold  districts  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals . .  42 

gold  products  of,  for  1867  ;  ib . . .  42 

discovery  and  development  of  silver  mines  in ;  ib .  109, 110 

total  bullion  product  of;  ib .  110 

reduction  works  in,  in  1866;  ib .  142 


42 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Nevada,  quartz  mills  in,  in  1866,  (table ;)  ib .  143, 144 

cost  of  materials  for  working  mines  and  ores  in;  ib .  116 

recent  discovery  of  silver  in,  at  White  Pine  district;  ib .  329 

New  Almaden  mine,  amount  of  quicksilver  produced  by;  ii ,  Precious  Metals.  197 

New  Grenada,  mines  and  productions  of  gold  in;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  73 

New  Hampshire,  discovery  and  production  of  gold  in  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  49 

New  Idria  mine,  (California,)  amount  of  quicksilver  produced  by;  ii,  Prec.  Met.  197 

New  Mexico,  discovery  and  extent  of  gold-field  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  43 

placers  of;  ib .  44 

estimated  gold  production  of,  for  1867  ;  ib .  44 

New  South  Wales,  exports  of  gold  from,  (table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  87 

New  Zealand,  exports  of  gold  from,  (table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  89 

Niagara  Falls,  waste  of  power  at;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  129 

Nicoll’s  wall-slabs;  iv,  Building .  45 

Nitrate  of  potash;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  41 

Nitric  acid,  efforts  to  produce  sulphuric  acid  without;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry.  14 

Normal  schools ;  vi,  Education .  .«* .  276-297 

ficole  Normale  Superieure  at  Paris ;  ib . .  284 

Normal  School  instruction  in  the  United  States;  vi,  Education .  293 

Normand’s  improvement  for  producing  reciprocating  motion  in  presses;  iii, 

Industrial  Arts . 434 

Northern  Mexico  and  Sonora,  observations  on  silver  mines  of,  by  Mr.  R6mond ; 

ii,  Precious  Metals .  160, 162 

position  and  character  of  the  principal  mines  of;  ib.  163, 165 

North  Star  mine,  profits  realized  from,  during  last  five  years  ;  ii,  Prec.  Met -  9 

Norton,  Charles  B.,  report  on  munitions  of  war,  &c. ;  in  volume.x. 

Norway,  silver  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  183 

silver  mines  of  Kongsberg ;  ib .  184 

specimens  of  ores  from,  exhibited;  ib .  185 

Nourse,  B.  F.,  report  upon  the  production  of  cotton ;  in  volume  vi. 

Nova  Scotia,  exhibition  by  the  gold  commission  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  49 

character  and  quality  of  the  gold  of;  ib .  50 

report  on  the  gold  region  of,  by  Dr.  T.  Sterry  Hunt,  F.  R.  S. ;  ib.  52 

value  of  total  gold  production  of;  ib . .  54 

production  of  mining  districts  of,  for  one  year,  (table;)  ib .  56 

Nurseries  for  silk-worm  rearing;  vi,  Silk .  26 

Nye  County,  (Nevada,)  collection  of  ores  from,  at  the  Exposition;  ii,  Prec.  Met.  133 

list  of  mining  districts  in  ;  ib .  134 


O. 


Ohm,  law  of  conductibility  of  electric  current ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus - 

Oils,  extraction  of,  by  means  of  sulphide  of  carbon;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 

removal  of,  from  wool ;  ib . 

Oil  and  gas,  relative  cost  of,  for  light-liouse ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 

Oleic  acid  from  the  manufacture  of  candles ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . 

Olive  oil;  i,  General  Survey . 

Olmsted,  Prof.  Denison,  advocacy  of  normal  schools ;  vi,  Education . 

Opening  of  the  Exposition;  i,  Introduction . 

Ophir  mine,  yield  of,  from  1852  to  1864 ;  ii,  Precious  Metals . 

Opper,  M.,  loom  of,  (note  1 ;)  vi,  Silk . 

Optical  glass ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts . 

Ordnance  survey  of  Great  Britain,  maps  of;  i,  General  Survey . 


9 

317 

317 

410,414 

129 

160 

293 

71 

9 

42 

520, 521 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


43 


Page. 

Ordnance,  heavy,  of  Germany  and  Sweden ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  119 

field,  of  France;  ib . - . r _  64 

naval,  of  France;  ib .  92 

heavy,  of  Great  Britain  ;  ib .  104 

Oregon,  reported  yield  of  gold  in,  in  1864 ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  37 

notices  of  the  gold  districts  of;  ib .  37 

gold  quartz  mills  in,  in  1866,  (table ;)  ib .  38 

Ores,  mechanical  preparation  of;  iv,  Mining .  83-104 

Organs,  exhibition  of,  at  Paris;  v,  Music .  16-17 

Otto  &  Langen,  inflammable  gas-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  60 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  61 

Ouzouf’s  process  for  the  manufacture  of  carbonic  acid ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry.  66 

Ovens,  heating  of,  by  Marval’s  heating  apparatus;  ii,  Industrial  Arts .  349 

for  bread-baking ;  v,  Food .  8 

Oxford,  University  of;  vi,  Education .  93 

Oxychloride  of  magnesium;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  49 

cement;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  12 

Oxgen  gas  and  its  preparation  on  a  large  scale;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  67-69 

P. 

Pachuca,  (Mexico,)  statement  of  ores  worked,  and  results  obtained  at,  in  1864, 

(table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  317 

Pacific  Mills,  success  of  co-operative  organization;  vi,  Wool .  130 

wages  of  work  people  in ;  ib .  130 

medal  awarded  to;  ib .  25 

Paintings  in  oil ;  i,  General  Surrey . .  19,254 

i,  Fine  Arts  Report .  5-33 

“Palier  glissant,”  or  frictionless  support;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  208 

Panicography ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  456 

Pandynamometer,  Hirn’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  165-168 

Paper,  materials  for  the  manufacture  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  312 

beautiful  samples  from  Japan ;  ib .  313 

machine  for  making  wood  pulp  ;  ib .  314 

chemical  treatment  of  materials  for  ;  ib .  315 

Racket  &  Mackard’s  process;  ib .  316 

machine  for  making,  from  wood ;  i,  General  Survey .  43 

materials  for ;  ib .  43 

Paper,  stationery,  drawing  materials,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey .  39,259 

Paper-hangings;  i,  General  Survey .  72,266 

Paper-making  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  187,'  298 

Paper-folding  machines;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  259 

Papier-mache  for  stereotype  molds;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  442 

Palliser  shot ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  122 

Palliser  &  Whitworth  7-inch  shot ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  124 

Pannier’s,  Count  Breda’s  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  145 

Pantaenus,  fouuder  of  the  first  Christian  school  of  theology;  vi,  Education. ..  267 

Pantoscopic  camera ;  v,  Photography .  16, 17 

Pantelegraphs ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  33-36 

Parachutes  for  arresting  the  fall  of  mining  cages ;  iv,  Mining . .  76-81 

Parachute  light  ball ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  130 

Paris,  gas-works  of ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  87 

buildings  in,  materials,  &c. ;  iv,  Building .  32 

methods  of  building  in ;  ib . : .  34 

Park  of  the  Exposition  of  1867;  i,  General  Survey .  11,243 


44 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Park  of  the  Exposition,  buildings  in;  iv,  Buildings .  5,10-30 

chalet  of  the  Commissioner  General ;  ib .  14 

Japanese  and  Chinese  buildings  ;  ib .  30 

Park  Brothers  &  Co.,  exhibition  of  steel  by;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  2 

Parkesine  and  its  uses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  330 

Parliamentary  grants ;  vi,  Education .  48 

Parry,  process  of  making  steel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  32 

Pascal,  calculating  machine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  634 

Pasteboard;  i,  General  Survey .  40 

Pasteboard  and  paper,  use  of  in  construction  ;  iv,  Building .  53 

Pasteur,  M.,  on  silk-worm  malady;  vi,  SilJc .  25 

treatment  of  wine  to  destroy  the  germs  of  disease ;  v,  Culture  and 

Products  of  the  Vine .  13 

Pate  de  Foie  Gras,  of  Strasbourg  ;  v,  Food .  15 

Pauperism  abrbad ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . ■. . 57, 171-181 

Pavilion  of  the  Emperor;  iv,  Building .  11 

of  the  Empress;  ib .  12 

Payton’s  meter  for  liquids ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  224 

Peabody  rifle;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  30 

Penn,  John,  &  Sons,  marine  engines;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  66 

Pencil-making  machine;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts . .  247 

Penon'Blanco  claim,  character  and  course  of  vein  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  6 

Perfumery;  i,  General  Survey .  87,268 

Perforated  metal  plates ;  iv,  Mining . . . . . . : .  88 

Perkin,  Mr.  W.  H.,  aniline  dyes  discovered  by  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  142 

Perkins,  Jacob,  first  arrangement  for  economical  production  of  ice  ;  iii,  Indus¬ 
trial  Arts .  395 

Perret,  Mr.  F.  E.,  water-engine  of;  ii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  102 

paper  on  water-engine  of,  by  M.  Ordinaire  de  Lacolonge ;  ib.  103 

Perm’s  hand  saw;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  245 

Perreaux,  Mr.,  valve  pump  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  171 

Perreaux’s  circular  dividing  machines ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  613 

Persia,  state  of  silk  industry  in  ;  vi,  Silk .  18 

Peru,  silver  mines  and  production  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  171 

report  of  Lieutenant  Herndon  on  Cerro  Pasco  mines  of;  ib .  171, 173 

total  production  of  silver  mines  of,  from  1804  to  1814  ;  ib .  173 

present  total  annual  production  of  mines  of;  ib .  173 

Pestarena  Gold  Mining  Company,  (Italy,)  yield  of  for  1866  and  1867  ;  ii,  Pre¬ 
cious  Metals .  99 

Pestalozzi,  labors  of,  for  vagabond  children  ;  vi,  Education .  70 

Peter  the  Great  introduces  the  mulberry  into  Russia,  (note;)  vi,  Silk .  12 

Peters’s  micro-pantograph ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  618 

Petin,  Gaudet  &  Co.,  iron-rolling  mill  of ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  3 

cast-steel  gun  by;  ib . 9 

Pettereau,  P.,  display  of  belts  and  leather  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  62 

Pyrites,  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  from  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  8, 11 

furnaces  for  burning;  ib .  135 

Pharmacy,  schools  of;  vi,  Education .  304 

Pharmaceutical  products ;  i,  General  Survey - : .  164,279 

Phillips,  table  by,  of  production  of  silver;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  357 

estimates  by,  of  production  of  precious  metals  in  America  in  1800 ;  ib.  207 

table  by,  of  production  of  gold;  ib .  356 

Phonautograph,  Scott  &  Koenig’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  506 

Phosphates  for  fertilizing ;  vi,  Cotton.. .  20,71 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


45 


Page. 

Phosphates  of  potash  and  soda;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  71 

Phosphorus  and  its  compounds;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  70 

Phosphorescence,  phosphorescent  powders;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  527 

Photographs  and  photographic  apparatus,  report  on,  by  H.  F.  Q.  D’Aligny  ;  in 
volume  v. 

Photography  and  photographic  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  47,260 

Photographs,  extent  and  character  of  the  exhibition  of;  v,  Photography .  5 

Photography,  improvements  in  the  art ;  v,  Photography .  7 

applications  of  the  arts  ;  ib . , .  11-14 

Photographic  apparatus ;  v,  Photography .  15 

portable  for  tourists  ;  ib .  18 

Photographs,  Rutherford’s  photograph  of  the  spectrum;  iii,  Industrial  Arts...  529 

Photograph  enamels;  iii.  Industrial  Arts . r .  467 

Plioto-lithograpliy;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  466 

Photometric  gas-measuring  apparatus;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  229 

Piano-fortes;  i,  General  Survey .  50,  26 L 

Piano,  history  of  the  invention  of ;  v,  Music .  6 

the  Erard  piano  ;  ib .  7 

metallic  bracing  of ;  ib .  8 

manufacture  of,  in  France;  ib . . .  9 

manufacture  of,  in  United  States;  ib .  10-15 

Pickering’s  governors  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  58 

Pig  iron ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . 19, 42-51 

production  of,  in  1866  ;  ib .  42 

cost  of  producing,  in  the  United  States  ;  ib .  47 

cost  of  producing,  in  Great  Britain;  ib . 48-51,56,58 

analyses  of  Swedish  and  English;  ib .  140 

Pillner  &  Hill,  rotary  steam-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  85 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  61 

Pine  Tree  and  Josephine  veins,  average  yield  of  gold  per  ton ;  ii,  Prec.  Met. ..  5 

processes  employed  in  working  the  ore  ;  ib .  6 

Pistor  and  Marten’s  circle ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  598 

Pis€  walls,  iv,  Building . .  44 

Pivot  bridges  of  Chapin  &  Wells,  of  Chicago;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  48 

Placers,  extent  and  character  of,  in  California;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  13 

Placer-mining,  vein-mining  compared  with  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  234 

Planetarium,  Barlow’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  471 

Plauimeter,  Oppikoffer’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  620,621 

Amsler’s;  ib . . . . .*  623,624 

Amsler’s,  theory  of ;  ib . . .  625-629 

Plaster  of  Paris,  gypsum,  used  in  building;  iv,  Building .  35 

Platinum,  amount  coined  in  Russia  from  1826  to  1844;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  191 

from  Oregon,  analysis  of;  ib .  192 

Platinum  stills  for  the  concentration  of  sulphuric  acid ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  16, 139 

Player  stoves  for  heating  the  blast  for  iron  furnaces;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  21,23 

Player’s  blooming  process  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  27 

Playing  cards ;  i,  General  Survey . . .  41 

Pleischl’s  enamels  and  calking  pitch;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  328 

Plows,  American,  at  the  Exposition;  i,  General  Survey .  283 

Porcelain,  earthenware,  and  fancy  pottery ;  i,  Genei'al  Survey .  65,266 

Porcelain  teeth;  v,  Surgical  Report . 13, 17-19 

Portland  cement ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  11 

Poirier’s  match-box-making  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  265 

Pooley’s  automatic  grain- weigher ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  276 


46 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Poisson,  equations  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  146 

Polaristrobometer ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  525 

Polarization  apparatus ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  523 

Hoffman’s  polarization  microscope ;  ib .  523 

Hartnack-Prazmowski  polarization  prism;  ib .  525 

Poly  pantograph  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  461 

Polytechnic  schools ;  vi,  Education . .  203-236 

in  the  United  States  ;  ib .  234 

Poorman  lode,  (Idaho,)  silver  ore  from,  and  results;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  148 

amount  of  rock  produced  by,  and  sent  to  mill ;  ib....  148, 149 

Portugal,  production  of  silver  in  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  181 

Portugal,  annual  production  of  wool  in  ;  vi,  Wool .  18 

Potash  and  its  compounds ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  32-44 

Potash,  extraction  of,  from  sea- water  by  refrigeration ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts. ....  387 

Potosi,  discovery  of  the  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  202 

Poullain  Brothers’  method  of  joining  belting;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  62 

Power,  transmission  of ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering ...* .  62-65 

iii,  Industrial  Arts .  128 

“  Practical  Shepherd,”  principles  of  breeding  discussed  in ;  vi,  Wool .  92 

Pratt,  Henry  D.  J.,  in  charge  of  the  preliminary  correspondence,  special  ac¬ 
knowledgments  to  ;  i,  Introduction .  5 

Precious  metals,  production  of,  from  1492  to  1803,  (table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals..  208 

aggregate  production  of,  from  1803  to  1848;  ib .  210 

estimated  stock  of,  at  the  end  of  1599 ;  ib .  202 

Preece,  William  H.,  system  of  electric  signals  for  car  intercommunication ;  iv, 

Steam  Engineei'ing .  30 

Prehistoric  period,  objects  exhibited  of  the;  i,  General  Survey .  17 

Pressed  or  agglomerated  coal;  i,  General  Survey .  171 

report  upon,  by  H.  F.  Q.  D’Aligny ;  in  volume  v. 
development  of  the  industry  of ;  v,  Pressed  Coal.  5 

materials  used  in  the  manufacture ;  ib .  6 

trade  in  France ;  ib .  15 

Presses  for  expressing  the  juice  of  beets ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  64 

hydraulic  and  sterhydraulic  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  196 

mechanical ;  ib .  212 

printing  presses  ;  ib .  433-438 

Pressure  gauge  for  deep-sea  sounding,  Johnson’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  608 

Price  Company  candle  manufactory;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  119 

Primary  schools  of  Prussia,  branches  taught  there;  vi,  Education .  60-61 

Primary  education,  differences  in  United  States  and  Europe ;  v,  School-Houses.  11 

Princeton  gold  vein,  aggregate  yield  of,  and  character;  ii,  Precious  Metals _  5 

Printing  presses,  display  of,  at  the  Exposition;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  433 

Alauzet’s  improved  press;  ib .  433 

Normand’s  improved  reciprocating  motion  ;  ib .  434 

for  printing  in  colors ;  ib . . .  436 

rotacry  presses;  ib .  436 

Bullock’s  rotary  press;  ib .  437 

for  numbering  bank  notes ;  ib . . .  438 

effect  of  the  invention  of ;  ib .  18 

Printing  and  books ;  i,  General  Survey .  35,258 

Printing  Telegraphs;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  20-33 

Prisms,  exhibition  of,  by  various  makers ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  522 

Foucault’s  polarization  ;  ib .  526 

Silbermann’s,  of  variable  angle  for  fluids  ;i& .  522 


GENERAL  INDEX.  47 

Page. 

Prism  telemeters ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  589 

single  telescopes ;  ib .  592 

Prizes,  new  class  of;  i,  Introduction . . . *. .  113 

the  distribution  of;  ib . 119 

honorary  distinctions ;  ib .  119 

Production  of  the  precious  metals,  aggregate,  from  1848  to  1868,  (table;)  ii, 

Precious  Metals .  216 

summary  to  1868;  ib .  217 

table  by  Birkmyre ;  ib .  362 

table  of,  for  year  1853;  ib .  211 

.  approximate,  statement  of,  in  1867 ;  ib _  212 

ratio  of,  to  each  other,  (table;)  ib .  214 

aggregate  production  of,  up  to  1868 ;  ib. ..  219 

Production  of  gold,  decrease  of,  statistics  of  California;  ii,  Precious  Metals _  233 

decrease  of,  in  Australia ;  ib . . .  233 

uniformity  of,  in  Russia;  ib .  233 

table  from  Phillips ;  ib .  360 

Production  of  silver;  table  from  Phillips;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  361 

Profit  in  keeping  combing- wool  sheep ;  table  by  Mr.  Winnie;  vi,  Wool .  120 

Projectiles,  new  and  interesting  forms ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  122, 177 

Projectiles,  velocity  of,  recorded  by  electro-chronograpliy. .  564 

Prony,  Mr.,  friction  dynamometer  of .  163 

Protte’s  turbines . 113 

Protective  duties  on  iron;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  61, 62 

Prudhonime,  Messrs.,  electrical  apparatus  for  car  intercommunication ;  iv, 

Steam  Engineering .  30 

Prussia,  silver  mines  of,  and  production;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  180 

Prussia,  state  of  silk  industry  in;  vi,  Silk .  17 

Prussia,  fabrics  of;  vi,  Wool .  19 

Prussian  military  sanitary  institutions ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  46 

Publications  concerning  the  Exposition ;  i,  Bibliography .  6 

Puddled  steel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  28 

Puddling  machines;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  26 

Puddled  steel  rails;  ib .  135,139 

Puddle  balls,  gigantic  specimens  exhibited  by  Borsig,  of  Berlin;  ii,  Iron  and 

<  Steel . 6 

Puddling  iron  and  steel  in  the  Siemens  furnace  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  356 

Pumping  and  draining  machinery  for  mines;  iv,  Mining .  59-63 

iv,  Civil  Engineering .  44 

Pumps,  Earle’s  steam  pump;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  170 

Schabaver  &  Foures’s  “  pompe  castraise;”  ib .  170  ' 

Perreaux’s ;  ib . - .  . .  171 

centrifugal;  ib .  177-190 

Punching  steel  rails  by  hydraulic  pressure  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  212 

Pyrometers,  Wedge  wood’s  and  others ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  518 

Becquerel’s  thermo-electric  ;  ib .  519 

Pyrostereotypy  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  456 


Q. 

Quartz  mills,  number  of,  in  California  in  1866,  (table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  22 

Quatrefages,  M.  de,  on  the  silk- worm  malady ;  vi,  Silk .  45 

discussion  by,  on  the  formation  of  races  ;  vi,  Wool .  91 

Queensland,  gold  production  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals  . . .  89 


48 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


R. 

Page. 

Racket  &  Machard’s  process  for  manufacture  of  paper  ;  iii.  Industrial  Arts _  316 

Radiation,  a  cause  of  depression  of  temperature  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  365 

Rails,  manufacture  and  wear  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  129 

Railroad  iron  and  steel  rails  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  128-141 

best  method  of  manufacturing  rails  from  common  iron  ;  ib .  129 

disposal  of  iron  rails  when  worn  out ;  ib .  133 

use  of  steel  rails  in  England  ;  ib .  134 

solid  Bessemer  steel  rails ;  ib .  135 

comparison  of  durability  of  iron  and  of  steel  rails  ;  ib .  136-138 

tenacity  and  elongation  influenced  by  the  amount  of  carbon ;  ib.  138 

iron  and  steel  rails  strongest  at  low  temperatures  ;  ib .  140 

Railroad  iron  rails,  advisability  of  re-rolling ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  28 

Railway  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  191-198. 299 

signals  to  guards ;  ib .  193 

Railway  carriages  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  25-32 

Vidard’s  two-story  railway  carriage ;  ib .  25 

comparative  table  of ;  ib .  27 

iron  frames  for;  ib .  28 

Bessemer  steel  panels  for  ;  ib .  29 

American  hospital  car ;  ib .  29 

Delaunay’s  hospital  car  ;  ib .  29 

street  car  exhibited  by  John  Stephenson,  of  New  York ;  ib.  29 

Freight  cars  ;  ib . . .  29 

Bournique  &  Vidard’s  construction  of  freight  cars;  ib.. .  30 

intercommunication  of ;  ib - • .  30 

springs  for;  ib .  31 

wheels  of ;  ib .  32 

Railway  dynamometer  of  E.  Holtz  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  24 

Railway  plank  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  19-22 

Railway  post  offices  ;  i,  General  Survey .  194 

materials;  ib . 197 

provident  and  benevolent  institutions  ;  ib .  198 

Railway  signals  invented  by  Mr.  Wolf  Bender  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  22 

of  E.  Masson  ;  ib .  23 

of  Messrs.  Leon  Luchaine  &  Co. ;  ib .  23 

Messrs.  Saxby  &  Farmer’s  system  ;  ib .  23 

Railway-sleeper,  of  cast  iron  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  19 

Griffin’s  patent ;  ib .  19 

of  Economic  Permanent  Way  Company  of  London  ;  ib .  19 

system  of  J.  Vautherim  ;  ib .  20 

system  of  Marcinelle  Conflict  Company  ;  ib . . .  20 

Hardwick  system  ;  ib .  20 

Railway  scales,  invented  by  Mr.  Erhardt ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  23 

Rambottom’s  steam-hammer  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  38 

Ramsbottom  &  Co.,  Messrs.,  water-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  106 

advantages  of  water-engine  of;  ib .  108 

Rambouillet,  flock  of  Angora  goats  at;  vi,  Wool .  100 

Randall,  Dr.,  observations  on  the  principles  of  breeding;  vi,  Wool .  92 

Randonig,  M.,  treatise  by, on  woolen  industry  of  France;  vi,  Wool .  44 

Ransome  artificial  stone  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 303,  304-308 

application  of ;  ib . i.  •. .  306 

grindstones  made  of ;  ib .  307 

iv,  Building . 45 

iv,  Civil  Engineering .  13 


GENERAL  INDEX.  49 

Page. 

Ransomes  &  Sims’s  engine,  description  of;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  33 

Rasping  machines  for  beet-roots  ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  62 

Raw-liide  Ranch  mine,  character  of  the  vein  and  yield  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals -  7 

Raw  silk,  production  and  characteristics  of ;  vi,  Silk .  11-13 

tabular  statement  of  the  value  of  the  products  of ;  ib .  12, 13 

price  of,  at  various  times;  ib .  14 

implements  for  transforming  cocoons  into;  ib .  26 

methods  of  transformation  ;  ib .  28 

apparatus  to  sort  and  prove  threads  of;  ib .  29 

G.  Honegger’s  apparatus  ;  ib . . .  30 

Professor  Alcan’s  apparatus;  ib .  30 

Reeling  and  throwing  simultaneously ;  ib .  32,  33 

Ready-made  clothing ;  vi ,  Clothing .  46,47 

for  women  ;  ib .  50-52 

Reaping  and  mowing  machines;  i,  Introduction .  106 

i,  General  Survey . 282 

Real  del  Monte  Mining  Company,  (Mexico;)  results  of  mining  operations  of 

1860;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  157 

stores  consumed  at,  in  1860 ;  ib  ..  158 

silver  ores  reduced  by ;  ib .  159 

produce  of,  for  17  years ;)  ib. . . .  160 

Receipts  of  treasure  at  San  Francisco  during  1854,  1865,  1866,  1867,  (table;)  ib.  16 

Recompenses,  the  new  Order  of;  vi,  Education .  9 

Redington  Quicksilver  Company,  production  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  198 

Remond,  Mr.,  observations  and  tables  by,  on  the  silver  mines  of  Northern  Mex¬ 
ico  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  160, 165 

Refining  iron  in  Sweden ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . . .  17 

Reflecting  instruments  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  598 

Reform  schools;  vi,  Education .  70 

Regenerative  gas  furnaces,  Siemens’s ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  15 

Regenerators,  construction  of,  in  hot-air  engines ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .... .  33 

Regenerating  furnace,  Siemens’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  351 

Region  du  Midi,  center  of  card-wool  industry  of  France ;  vi,  Wool .  50 

towns  which  it  comprises  ;  ib .  51 

production  of  peculiar  fabrics  for  the  Levant ;  vi,  Wool .  51 

workshop  nurseries  of ;  ib .  52 

peculiar  customs  at  Villeneuvette ;  ib .  52 

wages  of  workmen  in  ;  ib .  53 

Relay-magnet;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  10 

Relief  societies  for  the  wounded  ;  v,  Surgical  lieport .  47-70 

Remington  rifle ;  v,  Munitions  of  War . .  26,29 

Rennie,  J.  &  G.,  marine  engines;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 

Reports,  publication  of,  &c. ;  i,  Introduction .  159 

list  of,  by  their  titles ;  ib .  160 

i,  Bibliography .  7,37 

on  the  progress  of  letters  and  science ;  i,  Bibliography .  25 

Repousse  work ;  i,  General  Survey . .  18,79 

Respiratory  apparatus,  life-saving  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  344 

Revollier’s  machine  for  pressing  coal ;  v,  Pressed  Coal .  11 

Revolutionary  war,  destructive  effect  on  silk  husbandry;  vi,  Silk .  8 

Reybaud,  Louis,  his  works,  and  thanks  of  author  to  ;  vi,  Silk .  45 

Reynolds,  Mr.  Edward,  water-jet  elevator  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  175 

Rheims,  center  of  combing- wool  industry  of  France  ;  vi,  Wool .  53 

production  of  merino  fabrics ;  ib .  53 

4 


50  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Page. 

Rlieims,  improvements  in  combing  wool;  ib .  53 

power-loom  applied  to  manufacture  of  merino  fabrics  ;  ib .  54 

the  United  States  the  outlet  for  its  goods  ;  ib .  55 

importance  of  manufacturing  merino  fabrics  in  United  States;  ib....  55 

wages  and  condition  of  workmen  of;  ib .  55 

Richard’s  air-pump  without  valves ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  493 

Ribbons,  manufacture  of;  vi,  Clothing .  41 

in  other  countries  than  France ;  ib . .  43,  44 

the  weaving  of;  vi,  Sillc .  39 

Joyot,  jr.’s,  loom  for ;  ib . r .  39 

chief  localities  of  the  manufacture  of;  ib .  39 

were  chiefly  sold ;  ib . . : . . . .  39 

purchases  of,  by  the  United  States  ;  ib .  39 

manufacture  of,  in  the  United  States  ;  ib . . . . .  43 

Rieter’s  turbine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  114 

Riedel’s  boiler-feeder;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  232 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  59 

Rifles  of  various  kinds;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  15-50 

competition  at  Vienna  ;  ib .  25 

Rimailho  Brothers,  of  Paris,  machine  for  making  friction  matches  ;  iii,  Indus¬ 
trial  Arts .  263 

Resins;  i,  General  Survey .  155 

Ritchie,  E.  S.,  of  Boston,  mode  of  winding  induction  coils  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts. .  561 

Rittinger’s  machines  for  ore-dressing ;  iv,  Mining .  83, 92, 94, 98-104 

Rivers  Aire  and  Calder,  pollution  of  water  of;  vi,  Wool .  131 

Roberts’s  diffusion  process  for  extraction  of  sugar  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  322 

v ,  Beet-root  Sugar .  29 

Roberts’s,  breech-loading  rifle ;  i,  General  Survey .  271 

v,  Munitions  of  War .  308 

Roberts,  E.  F.,  esq.,  letter  from,  on  light-house  illumination ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  411 

Roches  Douvres,  liglit-house  for,  at  the  Exposition ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  403 

Rochon’s  double-image  telescope;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  577 

Rock-salt  mines  of  Prussia,  a  source  of  potash;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  36-40 

Rodman  gun;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  100 

Rogers,  Professor  William  B.,  revolving  gas-jet  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  510 

Rolled  girders,  absence  of  American,  from  the  Exposition;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel. ..  2 

Rollers  for  lithography ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  460 

Rolling-mills  abroad  for  iron;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  2-5 

Rolling-mills,  simplicity  of  the  machinery  in  new  works ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel _  24 

Roofs  of  beton ;  iv,  Belon-Coignet .  13 

Roofing  materials  ;  iv,  Building .  51-53 

Root,  Mr.,  double-piston  square  engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  96 

rotary  compression  blower  of;  ib .  193 

Root-cutters;  v ,  Beet-root  Sugar .  42 

Roper,  hot-air  engine  of  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  48 

Rossa  Grande  Gold  Mining  Company,  Brazil,  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  69 

Rotary  pumps,  advantages  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  179 

Rotary  printing  presses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  436 

Rotary  steam-engines,  advantages  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  82 

difficulties  of  construction  of ;  ib .  82 

Behrens’s .  83 

Pilluer  &  Hill’s;  ib .  85 

Thompson’s  ;  ib .  87, 649 

Selieutz’s ;  ib .  93 


GENERAL  INDEX.  51 

Tage. 

Rotary  steam-engines,  Breval’s;  ib .  95 

Root’s  double-piston  square  engine  ;  ib.  . .  96 

Roubaix  the  rival  of  Bradford ;  vi,  Wool .  57 

history  of  its  growth ;  ib .  57 

public  sentiment  of,  opposed  to  Anglo-French  treaty;  ib .  58 

excellent  character  of  its  fabrics ;  ib .  58 

fabrics  of,  for  women  and  children ;  ib .  59 

amount  of  wool  consumed  in  1843;  amount  of  goods  produced;  ib..  59 

wages  of  workmen  in;  ib . - .  59 

Rouquayrol  &  Denayrouze,  diving  apparatus  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  338 

Roumania,  gold  mines  and  placer  deposits  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  100 

chapel  of  the  Greek  monastery  of  Kurtea  d’Argis ;  iv,  Building.. . .  28 

Royal  College  of  Science ;  vi,  Education .  119 

Royal  Grammar  School  of  Toronto;  vi,  Education .  51 

Royal  School  of  Mines;  vi,  Education .  109 

Ruelle,  imperial  arsenal  at,  France ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  88 

Ruggles,  Samuel  B.,  designated  to  take  charge  of  the  representation  relating 
to  the  question  of  a  uniform  system  of  weights,  meas¬ 
ures,  and  coins;  i ,  Introduction .  96 

report  upon  the  cereals  of  the  Exposition  ;  in  volume  v. 

reports  of,  on  monetary  conference ;  ii,  Precious  Metals ....  261 

argument  of,  in  favor  of  the  25-franc  piece ;  ib .  264 

argument  of,  at  International  Monetary  Conference;  ib..  225 

Ruhmkorff’s  electro-magnet ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  561 

induction  coils;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  561 

Russell,  Geo.,  &  Co.’s  crane ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  36 

Russery  &  Larcombe — hydraulic  press  for  forging  locomotive  crank-axles ;  iv, 

Steam  Engineering .  40 

Russia,  annual  production  of  fine  gold  in  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  92 

total  production  in,  from  1847  to  1855 ;  ib .  93 

mines  of,  represented  at  the  Exposition ;  ib .  94, 95 

observations  on  gold  fields  of;  ib .  95,96 

tax  on  mining  operations  in ;  ib . . . .  97 

exhibition  of  native  platinum  from ;  ib .  190 

platinum  districts  of ;  ib .  191 

discovery  and  production  of  gold  in ;  ib .  90 

principal  silver  mines  of,  and  their  discovery;  ib . .  182 

annual  silver  production  of;  ib .  182 

ores  from  mines  of,  at  the  Exposition ;  ib .  183 

value  of  gold  coin  imported  into  and  exported  from,  (table;)  ib .  348 

fabrics  of ;  vi,  Wool . 20 

European,  annual  production  of  wool  in ;  ib . , .  18 

vast  scale  of  sheep  husbandry  in ;  ib .  16 

state  of  silk  industry  in ;  vi,  Silk .  12 

established  universities  of ;  vi,  Education .  39 

Russian  buildings  in  the  park ;  iv.  Building .  22, 23 

pump  for  raising  water  ;  iv,  Mining . .  63 

School  of  Arts  and  Trades ;  vi,  Education .  121 

Rutherford,  L.  M.,  of  New  York,  photograph  of  the  moon  and  of  the  solar 

spectrum ;  i,  General  Survey .  47, 260 

photograph  of  the  solar  spectrum;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  529 

photographic  view  of  the  moon;  ib .  529 


52 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


S. 

Page. 

Sacc,  M.,  opinion  of,  on  crossing  Angora  witli  common  goat;  vi,  Wool .  89 

Saccharimeter,  the  Hoffman-Wild;  in,  Industrial  Arts .  525 

Sadowa,  the  Prussian  Relief  Society  during  tlie  battle  of;  v,  Surgical  Report ..  52 

Safety-brakes  for  rail  cars ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  272 

Safety-lamps ;  i,  General  Survey .  173 

Saint  Cyr,  military  school  at ;  vi,  Education .  203 

Saint  Etienne,  ribbon  manufacture  of ;  vi,  Clothing .  42 

Salemlik,  Egyptian  ;  iv,  Building .  7 

Salernum,  home  of  medical  science  in  thirteenth  century ;  vi,  Education .  237 

Salt,  quantity  used  in  England  for  the  manufacture  of  soda  and  chlorine ;  ii, 

Industrial  Chemistry .  62 

Samain’s  knee-joint  press ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  216 

use  of  press  as  a  dynamometer ;  ih .  217 

Sandberg,  C.  P.,  on  the  manufacture  aud  wear  of  rails ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  129-141 

Sandhurst,  Royal  Military  College  at;  vi,  Education .  199 

San  Francisco,  deposits  of  gold  and  coinage  at,  for  1867,  (tables;)  ii,  Prec.  Met.  61, 62 

Sanitary  apparatus ;  i,  General  Survey .  311 

v,  Munitions  of  War .  142 

Sanitary  supplies ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  37 

Sanitary  institutions  in  Europe  ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  47-70 

Saponification  by  sulphuric  acid;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  123,128 

by  water  and  distillation ;  ih .  124 

by  water  under  high  pressure  ;  ih .  125 

the  De  Milly  and  Motard  process ;  ih . .  122 

Tilghmann’s  process ;  ih .  126 

Sawdust  or  peat  for  fuel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  19 

Sawdust  furnace  at  Munkfors;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  102 

Saxon  Academy  of  Mines ;  vi,  Education .  160 

Saxon  merino  sheep,  introduction  of;  vi,  Wool . .  69 

Saxony  wool,  importance  of  the  growth  of,  in  this  country;  vi,  Wool .  108, 109 

Saxony,  processes  employed  in  reducing  silver  in  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  180 

mining  districts  of;  ih . . - .  180 

total  yield  of  silver  in,  from  1524  to  1850  ;  ib .  180 

Schabaver  &  Foures’s  “  pompe  castraise ;  ”  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  170 

Schaffgotsch,  singing  flames,  apparatus  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  511 

Scheutz,  rotary  steam-engine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  93 

Scheibler’s  tonometer;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  504 

Schiele’s  turbine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  114 

compound  blowing-fan ;  ih .  192 

Schlickeysen’s  brick  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Schlosser’s  brick  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Schmerbor  Brothers’  brick  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Schmidt,  Mr.  G.,  of  Paris,  machine  for  dipping  friction  matches;  iii,  Industrial 

Arts . 263 

Schools,  classification  of ;  vi,  Education .  16 

lower  grade  of;  ih .  73-77 

in  German  and  Scandinavian  states  ;  ih .  73,74 

in  France,  England,  and  United  States;  ih .  75-77 

School  systems  in  various  countries;  vi,  Education .  19-55 

School-rooms  and  buildings ;  v,  School-Houses .  5-7 

School-houses  and  the  means  of  promoting  popular  education.  By  Jacob  R. 

Freese;  in  volume  v . . 

Schlcesing’s  proposed  method  of  making  chlorine  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  57 

Schneider  &  Co.’s  marine  engines  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  67 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


53 


Page. 

Schneider  &  Co.,  locomotives  of;  iv,  Steam  Engineer  ing .  15 

Schultze-Delitsch,  co-operative  system  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  40 

Schultz’s  electro-clironoscope  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  567 

Schuberszky,  Captain  Carl  Yon,  invention  of  the  Mahovos  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts  153 

Science  and  letters  in  France,  reports  upon  ;  i,  Introduction .  78 

i,  Bibliography .  25 

Scientific  commission ;  i,  Introduction . 77-79 

upon  weights,  measures,  and  coins  ;  ib .  90 

Scotland,  number  of  furnaces  in  blast  reduced  ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  39 

Sclibe,  Gustave,  steam-engine ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  60 

Shrapnel  and  segment  shell ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  128 

Screws  for  fastening  the  soles  of  shoes;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  256 

Sculpture;  i,  Fine  Arts .  33 

Sculpture,  die-sinking,  and  stone  engraving  ;  i,  General  Survey .  32,257 

i,  Fine  Arts .  40 

Sea  weed,  manufacture  of  iodine  from  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  70 

extraction  of  potash  salts  from  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  42 

Seal  presses  made  by  Desgoffe  &  Ollivier  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  202 

Seamstresses  in  Paris ;  vi,  Clothing . .  52, 53 

Secclii,  Rev.  Father,  sustaining  battery  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  558 

meteorograph;  ib . : .  571 

balance  barometer;  ib . •. _  572 

Sedan,  manufacturers  in  ;  vi,  Wool .  49 

superiority  of  the  moral  tone  of  workmen  in  ;  ib .  49 

wages  of  workmen  in ;  ib . • .  50 

Seed,  flax,  hemp,  and  wool;  i,  General  Survey .  160 

Sellers,  William,  &  Co.,  machine  tools;  i,  General  Survey .  291 

iii,  Industrial  Arts .  238, 239 

Selwyn,  Mr.,  opinion  of,  quartz  veins  of  Victoria;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  77 

observations  by,  on  Australian  placers  ;  ib .  78 

Semaphore,  distinction  between  telegraph  and  semaphore;  iv,  Telegraphic 

Apparatus .  7 

dial  or  cadran  systems  ;  ib .  37 

sounders  or  acoustic  semaphores  ;  ib .  37-42 

signal  semaphores ;  ib .  42-43 

Sericulture  iu  France  ;  vi,  Clothing .  38 

Seward,  Hon.  William  Henry,  introduction  to  the  series  of  reports  by;  in 
volume  i. 

Sewers  of  baton  ;  iv,  Beton-Coignet . . . •. _  14 

dimensions  and  cost  of  principal  sewers  in  Paris ;  ib .  15 

composition  of  beton  for,  in  Paris  ;  ib . .  15 

Sewing  silk,  large  production  of,  in  the  United  States ;  vi,  Silk .  44 

Sewing  machines,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey . 184,293-297 

Sevres,  porcelain  ;  i,  General  Survey .  69 

Sextants;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . -• .  598 

Pistor  &.  Marten’s ;  ib .  598 

Laurent’s,  for  stellar  observations ;  ib .  599 

Davidson’s  spirit  levels  ;  ib .  600 

Shaking  tables  and  circular  buddies;  iv,  Mining .  99 

Shanks,  Alexander,  &  Sons,  crane;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  36 

Shaw’s  hot-air  engine;  i,  General  Survey .  289 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  59 

iii,  Industrial  Arts .  41 

Shawls;  i,  General  Survey .  106,270 


54 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


l’a'ji*. 

Shawls,  excellence  of  American  ;  vi,  Wool . .  71) 

Sheffield  Scientific  School ;  vi,  Education .  98-102 

Sherman,  Senator,  report  of,  on  monetary  unification  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  283 

Shoddy,  manufacture  of;  vi,  Wool .  19 

amount  of,  manufactured  ;  ib .  112 

introduction  and  use  of ;  ib .  135, 136 

Shoe-making;  i,  General  Survey .  185 

machines;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  255 

Siberia,  gold  washings  in,  in  1863,  (table;)  ii ,fPrecious  Metals .  91 

Sierra  Buttes  mine,  location  and  thickness  of  the  veins  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  10 

yield  and  profits  of,  from  1857  to  1865;  ib .  11 

Sidewalks  of  betoii ;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  14 

Silesian  sheet-zinc  ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  14 

Siemens,  Charles  William,  regenerating  furnace  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . 5, 15, 25 

application  of,  to  puddling ;  ib .  25 

description  and  principle  of; 

iii,  Industrial  Arts .  351 

modified  for  the  production  of 

Hint  glass;  ib .  356 

used  for  reheating  blooms  and 

forgings  ;  ib .  356 

conversion  of  pig-iron  into 

steel  in;  ib .  354 


Lundin’s modification;  ib . 

Siemens-Martin,  process  for  steel  rails;  iv,. Civil  Engineering...  . 

Siemens,  Messrs.,  engine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 

Siemens,  Dr.  Werner,  observations  upon  the  conversion  of  mechanical  effect 
into  electric  currents  without  the  employment  of  permanent  magnets ;  iv, 

Telegraphic  Apparatus . 

Siemens’s  electro-chronoscope ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 

Siemens  &  Halske,  modification  of  Morse  apparatus ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . 

inking  apparatus;  ib . 

modification  of  ink  writer;  ib . 

Signal  apparatus,  Austrian  field;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . 

Silberman,  Mr.  J.  C.,  opinion  expressed  of  balances  from  the  United  States ; 

iii,  Industrial  Arts . . . 

Silicate  of  soda;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . 

for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  stone ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .. . 

Silliman,  B.,  note  upon  insulation  and  kerite;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . 

Silk  and  silk  manufactures ;  i,  General  Survey . 

Silk,  leading  characteristics  of;  vi,  Silk . 

name  of,  in  various  languages;  ib . 

origin  of,  in  China;  ib . 

introduction  into  Persia,  Greece,  and  Italy ;  ib . 

introduction  of,  into  Constantinople,  ib . 

introduction  of  manufacture  into  Europe;  ib . 

rise  and  progress  of  silk  industry  in  the  United  States;  ib . 

Silk  industry,  the  seven  branches  of;  vi,  Silk . 

breeding  of  silk- worms  ;  ib . 

reeling  from  cocoons;  ib . 

throwing  off  the  silk  ;  ib . 

dyeing;  ib . . 

preparations  of  threads  for  the  loom ;  ib . 

weaving;  ib . . 


353 

16 

70 


57-59 

567 

14-15 

15 

17 

43 


485 
54 
304 
.  88 
103, 269 
5 
5 

5 

6 
6 

6-14 

6 

18 

18 

19 

19 

35 
19 

36 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


55 


Page. 

Silk  industry,  working  of  waste  ;  ib .  34 

Silk,  rise  and  progress  of  silk  industry  in  Virginia;  vi,  Silk. .  6 

in  Georgia ;  ib .  7 

in  South  Carolina;  ib .  7 

in  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  ;  ib..  8 

in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut;  ib.  8 

in  California ;  ib .  9 

in  South  America  ;  ib .  10 

in  Ecuador  ;  ib . .  10 

Silk-worms,  breeding  of;  vi,  Silk . .  10-25 

habits  of;  ib .  22 

necessity  of  good  eggs  for ;  ib .  22 

nurseries  for ;  ib .  21 

mode  of  selecting  eggs  for  ;  ib .  21 

male  and  female  cocoons ;  ib .  21 

double  cocoons ;  ib .  21 

apparatus  to  prevent  doubles  ;  ib .  21 

cost  of  breeding,  in  detail ;  ib .  26 

malady  among;  ib .  44 

different  species  of  worms ;  ib .  22 

the  common  species  most  in  use  ;  ib .  22 

its  characteristics  and  habits;  ib . . .  22 

the  castor- oil  species;  ib .  22 

the  ailanthus  species  ;  ib .  23 

the  tusseh  species;  ib .  23 

the  Japan  species  ;  ib .  23 

the  bomybx  secropia  ;  ib . . .  23 

mode  in  which  the  worm  produces  silk  ;  ib .  22 

eggs,  importance  of;  ib .  20 

scarcity  of  good;  ib .  20 

countries  where  mostly  produced ;  ib .  20 

mode  of  selecting  good;  ib .  20 

Silk-mixed  goods,  use  of;  vi,  Wool . .  23 

origin  of;  ib .  49 

Siren  of  Professor  Helmholtz  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  501 

Slade,  Frederick  J.,  report  of,  on  Bessemer  steel ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  31, 35, 62-84 

Slater,  Mr.,  goods  exhibited  by ;  vi,  Wool ... .  8 

Smith,  Professor  H.  L.,  catadioptric  binocular  microscope  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  542 
Smith,  Professor  J.  Lawrence,  report  upon  the  progress  of  industrial  chemistry ; 
in  volume  ii. 

Snider  rifle;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  22 

Soap,  its  manufacture  and  consumption;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  130, 131 

Social  science,  department  of;  vi,  Education .  9 

Society  of  Providence,  wrought-iron  car-wheel  centers;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  32 

Society  of  mines  and  steelworks,  Prussia,  car-wheels;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . ..  32 

Soda-water,  sulphur  from ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  4 

Soda  and  salts  of  soda;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . . .  18-31 

Sodium,  preparation  of  pure  soda  from  ;  .ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  30 

Soda-water  at  the  American  restaurant ;  v,  Food .  6 

Solar  spectrum,  Rutlierfurd’s  photograph  of ;  v,  Photography .  14 

Soleil,  exhibition  of  polarization  apparatus  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  523,526 

Sommeiller,  boring  apparatus  of;  iv,  Mining .  35-38 

Sorbonne,  Academie  de  Paris  at ;  vi,  Education .  93 

Sorel,  M.,  manufacture  of  oxychloride  of  magnesium  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry.  49 


56  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Page- 

Sorensen’s  machine  for  distributing  type ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  455 

Sortais’s  controlling  apparatus;  iv,  Telegraph  Apparatus .  111-113 

Soulsby  mine,  character  of  the  vein,  and  yield  of  the  mine ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  7 

Sounds,  visible  illustration  of  interference  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  512 

Sounding,  deep-sea ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  605 

Trowbridge’s  apparatus  for ;  ib .  605 

without  a  line  ;  ib .  607 

the  bathometer ;  ib .  609 

South  America,  annual  production  of  wool  in;  vi,  Wool .  IS 

South  Australia,  exports  of  gold  from,  (table;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  88 

South  Carolina  claim ;  ii,  Precious  Metals . . .  8 

phosphates  ;  vi,  Cotton . .  20,71 

Space  occupied  in  the  Exposition  by  various  countries  ;  i,  General  Survey .  16 

Spain,  antiquity  of  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  98 

present  annual  production  of;  ib .  98 

antiquity  of  the  silver  mines  of,  and  character  of  veins  ;  ib .  177 

annual  production  of  wool  in  ;  vi,  Wool .  18 

state  of  silk  industry  in;  vi,  Silk .  17 

public  works  of ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  7 

Spanish  merino  sheep,  importation  of,  by  John  T.  Rich,  Francis  Rotch,  and 

Henry  D.  Grove;  vi,  Wool .  70 

weight  of  wool  of;  ib .  71 

table  of  measurement  of;  ib .  72 

faults  and  merits  of;  ib .  69,70 

Spectroscopes,  exhibition  of,  by  Mr.  Duboscq;  iii,  Industrial  Arts... .  527 

Hoffmann’s  direct  vision  ;  ib .  528 

Spectrum,  Rutherfurd’s  photograph  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  529 

Spherometers  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  614 

Spirit  meter  of  Siemens  &  Halske  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  219 

Spencer  rifle;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  19 

Spinning  of  silk ;  vi,  Clothing .  39 

waste ;  vi,  Silk .  20 

Spinning  and  rope-making  ;  i,  General  Survey .  181,293 

Spitalfields,  the  silk -weavers  of ;  vi ,  Silk .  15 

Sporting  implements  ;  i,  General  Survey .  176 

Stadimeter,  Peaucellier  &  Wagners;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  579 

theory  of ;  ib .  581-583 

Staflel,  calculating  machine  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  644 

Stamp  mills  for  ore-dressing;  iv,  Mining . .  86 

Stassfurt,  production  of  bromine  at;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  12 

deposits  of  potash  compounds ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  36-40 

Star  candles;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  122 

Statistics  of  wearing  apparel  produced  in  the  United  States;  vi,  Clothing .  85 

Statistical  summary;  i,  Introduction .  102 

i,  Bibliography .  3 

Steam-brakes  for  mining  machinery;  iv,  Mining .  57 

Steam  generators  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  44-49 

new  boilers;  ib . 44 

Howard  &  Belleville’s  new  boiler ;  ib .  44-47 

boiler  of  Edward  Green  &  Son  ;  ib .  47 

Imbert’s  horizontal  tubular  boiler ;  ib .  48 

boiler  for  Exposition  supply ;  ib .  48 

Steam  hammer;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  39 

designed  by  Mr.  Ramsbottom ;  ib .  38 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


57 


Page. 

Steam  hammer  exhibited  by  Auguste  Detombay ;  ib.-. .  39 

of  Lucien  &  Co. ;  ib . .  39 

of  Varrall,  Elwell  &  Poulot ;  ib .  39 

Steam-looms ;  vi,  Silk ... .  36 

Steam-engine,  industrial  revolutions. resulting  from;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  7 

increase  of  power  of  constructive  art  by  invention  of;  ib .  14 

influence  of,  on  the  wealth  and  power  of  Great  Britain ;  it> .  15 

Steam-pump,  Earle’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  169 

Steam,  latent  heat  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  364 

Steamer  Friedland,  engines  for;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  68-72 

Stearine,  and  the  industry  of  stearic  acid;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  118-131 

Steel,  exhibition  of,  by  Park  Brothers  &  Co.;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  2 

tendency  to  make  large  and  difficult  shapes ;  ib . - .  6 

exhibition  of,  by  Krupp,  of  Prussia ;  ib .  6 

large  ingots  of,  exhibited  by  Krupp ;  ib .  6 

cast-steel  tires  and  rails  ;  ib .  10,  30, 69-74 

steel-headed  rails  ;  ib .  11, 28 

exhibition  of,  by  the  Bochum  Company ;  ib .  12 

processes  for  its  manufacture  ;  ib . . .  29, 63 

by  the  Bessemer  process  for  tires  ;  ib .  30 

Parry,  Berard,  and  other  processes;  ib .  32 

notice  of  some  of  the  principal  establishments  in  Europe;  ib .  36 

the  Bessemer  process  in  various  countries ;  ib .  63 

manufacture  of  steel  rails  ;  ib .  69 

plates  of  crucible  steel ;  ib .  76 

experiments  on  the  strength  of  Bessemer  ;  ib .  105 

steel  and  iron  rails  compared ;  ib .  135-138 

containing  different  amounts  of  carbon,  strength  of;  ib .  81 

the  production  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  281 

magnitude  of  later  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of ;  ib .  281 

origin  and  progress  of  the  manufacture  of;  ib .  282 

natural,  of  Corsica  and  Catalonia ;  ib .  282 

Huntsman’s  improvement  of,  in  1740  ;  ib.... .  282 

puddled  ;  ib . 283 

production  of  large  masses,  by  Krupp  ;  ib . .  283 

Bessemer’s  process  ;  ib .  284 

production  of,  from  the  ore,  by  Siemens’s  process ;  ib .  297 

production  of,  in  the  Siemens  furnace ;  ib .  355 

direct  from  pig-iron ;  ib .  353 

Steel  plates,  for  ship-building  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  289 

Steel  rails,  Bessemer,  use  of,  in  Austria  and  France  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  293 

Steel  guns ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  8-9 

Krupp’s;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  66- 

Steel  rail  mill  of  John  Brown  &  Co.,  at  Sheffield ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  24 

Steel  rails,  the  manufacture  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  69-72, 129 

Steel-lieaded  rails  at  Swindon ;  ib .  28 

Steel  for  rails,  Mr.  Hewitt  upon  the  use  of ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  15 

Steel  tires ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  7, 10, 29, 73, 74 

Stephenson,  R.,  cast-iron  sleeper  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  19 

Steinlieil,  of  Munich,  exhibition  of  glass  prisms  by;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  522 

Steinheil,  Professor,  sounder  ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  40 

Stenallactic  telescope, Porro’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  580 

Stephenson,  Messrs.  Robert  &  Co.,  locomotives  of ;  i  v,  Steam  Engineering .  12 

Stephenson,  John,  street  cars ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . .  29 


58  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Page. 

Stereotyping,  substitution  of  cliches  for  movable  type  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  441 

Sterhydraulic  apparatus,  construction  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  198 

formula  of  power  of;  ib . .  202 

various  applications  of;  ib. . .  203 

Stevens,  Paran,  report  upon  musical  instruments;  in  volume  v. 

report  upon  clothing  and  woven  fabrics  ;  in  volume  vi. 

St.  Hilaire  Geoffrey,  assent  of,  to  opinions  of  M.  Brandt  and  M.  Sacc  ;  vi,  Wool.  86 

St.  John  del  Rey  Company,  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  64 

Stone,  artificial,  Ransome’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  303 

Stockholm,  royal  polytechnic  school  at ;  vi,  Education .  162 

Stone  implements  and  relics  of  man  ;  i,  General  Survey .  17, 18 

Stossheerd,  Bittinger’s  continuously  working ;  iv,  Mining .  99-102 

Stothert  &  Pitt,  self-propelling  crane ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  37 

Strabo,  no  mention  of  Angora  goat  by ;  vi,  Wool .  87 

Striae  detector,  Topler’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  522 

Sturgeon,  first  electro-magnet ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  10 

Stursberg,  Mr.  H.,  medal  awarded  to  ;  vi,  Wool . .  24 

Submarine  armor,  Klingert’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.. .  332 

Tonkin’s;  ib .  332 

and  breathing  apparatus ;  ib.. .  337 

Submarine  Company,  of  New  York,  apparatus  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  336 

Submarine  lamp ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  338 

Suez  maritime  canal ;  i,  General  Survey . .  57, 202 

notice  and  description  of;  iv,  Civil  Engineei'ing .  31 

Sugar  and  confectionery;  i,  General  Survey .  215,217 

Sugar ;  v,  Food . .  17 

Sugar  from  the  beet ;  history  of  its  production  ;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  7 

price  of,  in  France ;  ib .  13 

processes  of  the  manufacture ;  ib .  22, 60 

extraction  of  the  j  uice ;  ib .  .  62 

refining  the  juice;  ib .  66 

defecation  and  carbonation  ;  ib .  67-72 

crystallization;  ib .  76 

purifying  and  decolorizing ;  ib .  81 

Sugar  factory,  engines  and  boilers  of;  v,  Beet-root  Sugar .  60 

descriptive  references  to  plans  and  sections  of ;  ib .  87 

Sugar,  Robert’s  diffusion  process  for  the  extraction  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  322 

Sugar-cutting  machine,  Devisseber’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  265 

Sugg’s  photometric  gas-measuring  apparatus  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  229 

Suint  or  potassic  sudorate  in  sheep’s  wool;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  42-44 

Sulphate  of  alumina ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  57 

Sulphate  of  magnesia  battery  ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  59 

Sulphate  of  soda ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  19-20 

Sulphate  of  potash  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  40 

Sulphur,  sources  of,  and  use  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid;  ii, Industrial 

Chemistry .  2-9, 61 

■Sulphuric  acid,  saponification  by ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  123 

its  applications  and  manufacture  ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  1-9 

concentration  of ;  ib .  16 

elevations  and  sections  in  detail  of  works  for  making ;  ii,  In¬ 
dustrial  Chemistry .  132-140 

Sulphuric  acid  apparatus  for  freezing  water  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  366 

Support,  frictionless,  Girard’s;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  208 

Superior  Institute  of  Commerce  at  Anvers  ;  vi,  Education .  195 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


59 


Page. 

Surgical  instruments;  i,  General  Survey . . .  51,  262 

Surveying  by  photography  ;  v,  Photography .  11 

Suspenders,  manufacture  of ;  vi,  Clothing .  .  78 

Swan’s  photographic  process;  v,  Photography .  8 

Swansea,  in  Wales,  exportation  of  Colorado  ores  to  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  45 

yield  of  gold  and  copper  by  processes  employed  at ;  ib -  46 

Sweden,  iron  ores  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  14,42 

exhibition  of  ores  and  iron  ;  ib .  17 

consumption  of  iron  of,  in  the  United  States  ;  ib .  18 

names  and  marks  of  the  various  irons  of;  ib .  18, 91 

use  of  steel  rails  in  ;  ib .  134,  138, 140 

Sweden,  principal  silver  mines  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  186 

Sweden  and  Norway,  buildings  of ;  iv,  Building .  24 

Sweet’s  stereotype  matrix  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  443 

Swing  bridges  ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering . . . .  48,  49 

Swiss  chalet  in  the  Park ;  iv,  Building .  .  26 

Switzerland,  state  of  silk  industry  in  ;  vi,  Silk .  36 

its  importance  next  to  that  of  France  and  England  ;  ib .  17 

large  manufacture  of  ribbons  in  ;  ib .  36 

variety  of  its  apparatus  for  throwing  ;  ib .  31 

variety  of  its  looms  ;  ib...'. .  34 

Switzerland,  argentiferous  ores  of ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  181 

Syinonds,  Mr.,  statement  of,  in  regard  to  woolen  manufacture  of  the  United 

Kingdom;  vi,  Wool .  63 

Syria,  product  of  silk  in  ;  vi,  Silk .  18 

T. 

Tailors,  Parisian  ;  vi,  Clothing .  48-50 

Tailfer’s  mechanical  broom;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  275 

Tail’s  apparatus  for  building  concrete  walls ;  iv,  Building .  43 

Tanks  of  b6ton ;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  15 

Tanning  bark ;  i,  General  Survey .  155 

Tarapaca,  production  of  niter  and  iodine,  at ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  73 

Tarragona,  model  of  the  port  of ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  47 

Tariff  legislation,  importance  of ;  vi,  Wool .  31 

Taurine,  Mr.,  dynamometer  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  163, 164 

method  of  registering  used  by  ;  ib .  164 

Taylor  &  Co.,  self-propelling  cranes  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  37 

Tax  on  mines  and  bullion,  proposed  abolition  of,  in  Mexico  ;  ii,  Prec.  Met .  318 

effect  of,  on  production  of  gold  in  Russia ;  ib .  97 

remarks  by  Mr.  Castillo  on  proposed  abolition  of ;  ib .  326 

Tchihatclieff,  M.,  memoir  on  Angora  goat ;  vi,  Wool .  86 

Teachers,  normal  schools  for  the  education  of;  vi,  Education .  281 

Teeth,  artificial ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  13, 17 

Technical  education,  school  for  watchmaking  at  Geneva  ;  i,  General  Survey . . .  85 

Technical  instruction  schools  of;  vi,  Education .  120 

Technological  Institute  at  Stockholm  ;  vi,  Educa  tion .  232 

St.  Petersburg  ;  ib . . .  232 

in  Massachusetts  ;  ib .  234 

Telegraph  cables,  marine  ;  v,  Atlantic  Cables .  1-13 

Telegraphic  apparatus  and  processes  ;  i,  General  Surrey , .  198,  301 

v,  Munitions  of  liar .  140 

report  upon,  by  Professor  Morse;  in  vol¬ 
ume  iv. 

Telegraphy,  army  telegraphy  and  signals  ;  v.  Munitions  of  War .  140 


60 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Telegraphic  materials  and  apparatus  exhibited;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus _  163-166 

Telegraphy,  catalogue  of  works  on;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  162 

Telegraph,  definition  of;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  .  7 

distinction  between,  and  semaphore  ;  ib .  7 

first  electro-magnetic  ;  ib .  10 

Telegraph  wire,  Farmer’s  compound ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  60 

Bedson’s  machine  for  making ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel . . .  5 

Telemetrical  apparatus  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  576 

Telemeters,  electric  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . . .  587 

prismatic;  ib . 589 

Telemetric  double  telescopes  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  584-587 

Telemetric  binocular  marine  glasses  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  578 

Telescopes ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  529 

reflecting,  by  Secfetan,  of  Paris  ;  ib .  531 

compact  pocket ;  ib .  530 

telemetric  double ;  ib .  584 

Tellier,  Mr.  Charles,  refrigerating  apparatus  for  breweries  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts  393 

Telodynamic  cable,  invention  of,  by  Mr.  Hirn ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  130 

construction  and  advantages  of ;  ib . .  132 

percentage  of  the  power  delivered  by  ;  ib .  133 

Tensile  strength  of  wire,  apparatus  for  testing  ;  ib .  203 

Tenbrinck’s  smoke-consuming  apparatus  ;  iv  * Steam  'Engineering .  14 

Tents;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  137 

Terra-cotta;  i,  General  Survey . 67 

tiles  from  Spain  ;  iv,  Building .  47 

its  use  in  construction  and  for  ornament ;  ib .  ...  4^ 

the  revival  of  the  manufacture  ;  ib .  49 

Hoffman’s  brick  furnace  for  baking  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  358 

Terraces  of  b6ton;  iv,  Beton-Coignet .  13 

Textile  fabrics,  machinery  for  working  ;  i,  General  Survey .  182, 293 

Theil  hydraulic  cement ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  11 

Theodolites;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 595 

Dabbadie’s ;  ib .  596 

Theology,  schools  of ;  vi,  Education .  267-275 

number  of  faculties  and  professors  of,  in  Europe  ;  ib .  269 

number  of  schools  of,  in  United  States  ;  ib .  271 

Thermometers;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  516 

mercurial  minimum,  Casella’s  ;  ib . . .  517 

self-registering ;  ib . 573 

Thermo-electric  batteries  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  559 

Thibet,  production  of  gold  in,  in  1831 ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  105 

Thirion’s  windmill ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  120 

hydraulic  pressure  blower ;  ib .  193-195 

Thierry,  fuel  economizer  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  50 

Thomas’s  arithmometer ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  638 

solution  of  problem  of  calculating  machine  ;  ib .  636 

Thomas,  calculating  machine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  636 

Thomsen’s  polarization  battery;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  559 

Thompson,  Mr.,  rotary  steam-engine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  87, 649 

iv,  Steam  Engineering .  37, 61 

turbine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  117 

Thompson,  R.  W.,  crane  and  boiler  of ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  36 

Thouin,  foundation  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes;  vi,  Education .  136 

Thorney croft  bars;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  157 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


61 


Page. 

Thrown  silk,  various  kinds  of  threads  of;  vi,  Silk .  19 

Throwing  of  silk,  method  of ;  vi,  Silk .  31 

apparatus  for ;  ib .  31 

simultaneous  reeling  and  ;  ib .  32 

Tiles  for  floors  and  walls  ;  iv,  Building .  46 

encaustic,  of  Messrs.  Minton  &  Co. ;  ib .  46 

Tilebert,  M.,  flock  of;  vi,  Wool .  16 

Tillman’s  tonometer;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . 471 

proposed  chemical  nomenclature;  ib .  478-481 

Tobacco  and  hops  ;  i,  General  Survey .  162, 278 

Tobacco-cutting  machine ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  254 

Toluole;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry . 95 

Tolies,  Mr.  R.  B.,  microscope  on  the  stereotomic  principle  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts.  541 

Tolies’ s  microscope  objectives;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  471-537 

Tolies  &  Wales’s  microscope  objectives  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  537 

Tonometer,  Scheibler’s ;  Hi,  Industrial  Arts .  504 

Tillman’s  ;  ib .  471 

Tools  for  working  wood  for  furniture,  &e. ;  i,  General  Survey .  185, 297 

Topler’s  striae  detector ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  522 

electrostatic  induction  machine  ;  ib .  549 

Toppa  Gold  Mining  Company,  (Italy,)  yield  of,  since  1863 ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  99 

Tours,  perfection  of  the  products  of;  vi ,  Silk .  38 

Torpedoes  and  subaqueous  projectiles ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  177 

Tour  d’Aigues,  M.  De  La,  observations  on  breeding  the  Angora  goat ;  vi ,Wool.  93 

Toumefort,  M.,  description  of  the  ancient  city  of  Ancyra  and  the  goats  of 

Angora;  vi,  Wool .  94 

Toys  ;  i,  General  Survey .  145, 273 

Trades  Union  Commission,  evidence  given  before  the,  by  A.  S.  Hewitt,  esq. ; 

ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  150-170 

Tramming,  and  other  means  of  transporting  ores  underground  ;  iv,  Mining.. .  53-59 

Transmission  of  force  to  great  distances  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  128, 129 

by  compressed  air  ;  ib .  135, 133 

Transmission,  telegraphic,  automatic;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus .  96-98 

embossed  paper  process  of;  ib . .  97 

Siemens  and  Halske’s  apparatus  for ;  ib .  98 

speed  of,  by  different  processes  ;  ib .  99-111 

Trask,  Dr.,  discovery  of  fossils  of  the  carboniferous  period  in  California  by ; 

ii,  Precious  Metals .  2 

Traveling  schoolmaster  ;  vi,  Education .  38 

Travel,  Society  of  International ;  i,  Introduction .  69 

Treasure  shipment  from  California  during  the  year  ending  1867,  (table;)  ii, 

Precious  Metals .  18 

Trepans  for  boring  large  shafts ;  iv,  Mining .  10-30 

Tresca  &  Alcan,  Messrs.,  experiments  of,  in  regard  to  hot-air  engines  ;  iii,  In¬ 
dustrial  Arts .  46 

Tresca,  Mr.,  experiments  of,  in  regard  to  inflammable  gas-engines;  ib .  65 

comparator  of ;  ib .  615 

Trimmings,  silk,  large  production  of,  in  the  United  States  ;  vi,  Silk .  41 

Trommels  for  classifying  crushed  ores;  iv,  Mining .  87-88 

Trouillet’s  excavator ;  iv,  Mining .  33,45 

Trowbridge’s  deep-sea  sounding  apparatus  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  607 

Truffles  and  mushrooms  ;  v,  Food .  15 

Trunks  and  portmanteaus  ;  i,  General  Survey .  143 

Tubbing  of  mining  shafts  and  artesian  wells;  iv,  Mining .  12-21,28 


62 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Tubingen,  University  of;  vi,  Education .  28 

Tucker’s  bronzed  iron  ;  iii  Industrial  Arts .  329 

Tulpin’s  machines  for  drying  cloths,  yarns,  &t\;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  271 

Tunis,  palace  of  the  Bey  of;  iv,  Building .  18 

Turbines,  Euler’s  investigation  of  the  theory  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  109 

construction  of  Mr.  Fourneyron’s ;  ib .  110,650 

Girard’s  free  turbine ;  ib .  Ill 

Fontaine’s  turbines ;  ib . 112 

Brault  &  Bethouard’s;  ib .  112 

Protte’s ;  ib .  113 

for  freeing  sugar  from  sirup;  v,  Beet-root  sugar .  79 

Turbine  elevator,  for  water,  Girard’s ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  189, 190 

Turkey,  exhibition  of  silver  ores  from;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  186 

fabrics  of;  vi,  Wool . .  19 

Turret  ships;  v ,  Munitions  of  War .  203 

Twenty-five-franc  piece,  argument  in  favor  of,  as  basis  of  international  coin¬ 
age  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  264 

Twining,  Professor,  continuous  freezing  apparatus  of;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  376,395 

ice-apparatus  of,  economy  of;  ib .  401 

Twist,  silk,  large  production  of,  in  the  United  States ;  vi,  Silk .  44 

Type,  machine  for  dressing ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . . .  439 

improvements  in  movable ;  ib . . . . .  451 

machine  for  distributing ;  ib .  455 

U. 

Umbrellas  and  parasols  ;  i,  General  Survey .  121 

United  States  section,  its  character  and  condition,  &c.;  i,  General  Survey .  245-324 

space  occupied  by  the,  and  awards ;  ib .  247 

condition  of,  at  the  oj)ening;  i,  Introduction .  74 

United  States,  adaptation  of,  to  silk  industry;  vi,  Silk . . .  9 

production  of  sewing  silk  and  twist  in;  ib .  44 

production  of  Pongee  handkerchiefs  in ;  ib .  44 

production  of  ribbons,  braids,  trimmings,  &c.,  in ;  ib .  43 

chief  seats  of  silk  industry  in;  ib .  40 

product  of  silks  in,  1840,  1844,  1850,  1860,  and  since ;  ib .  9 

morns  nmlticaulus  furor  in ;  ib . : .  8 

species  of  silk-worms  indigenous  in ;  ib .  23 

exemption  of  the  country  from  the  silk-worm  malady ;  ib .  45 

number  of  sheep  x^er  acre;  vi,  Wool .  6 

annual  production  of  wool ;  ib .  18 

future  sheep  husbandry ;  ib .  15, 16 

total  bullion  production  of,  from  1847  to  1868;  ii,  Precious  Met.  59 

revenue  tax  on  gold  collected  in  1867,  (table;)  ib .  59 

character  of  silver  mines  in  Atlantic  portion  of;  ib .  154 

estimates  of  gold  and  silver  in,  at  different  periods,  (table  ;)  ib.  220 

United  Kingdom,  amount  of  silver  produced  in,  for  10  years ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  181 

exports  of  gold  and  silver  bullion  from  ;  ib .  346 

University  education  ;  vi,  Education .  299-398 

present  condition  of ;  ib .  299-388 

leading  tendencies  of;  ib .  389-398 

in  France ;  ib .  300 

in  Italy ;  ib .  308 

British  universities ;  ib . i . .  317 

Spanish  and  Portuguese ;  ib . 325 

German  universities;  ib .  327 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


63 


Page. 

University  education  in  Switzerland ;  ib .  357 

in  Holland;  ib .  359 

of  Belgium  ;  ib .  362 

of  Scandinavia ;  ib .  365 

in  Russia ;  ib .  370 

in  America ;  ib . . 373 

University  of  France  ;  vi,  Education .  16 

Upholstering  and  decorative  work ;  i,  General  Survey .  59,265 

Ure,  Dr.,  on  the  habits  of  the  silk  weavers  of  Lyons ;  vi,  Wool .  37 

Utrecht  velvets,  manufacture  of,  in  France;  vi,  Wool .  103 

Uruguay,  gold  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  72 

V. 

Valentine,  W.  J.,  report  on  munitions  of  war ;  in  volume  v. 

Value  of  woolen  goods  manufactured  in  the  United  States  in  1884  ;  vi,  Wool  . .  123 

of  the  gold  production  of  the  State  of  California;  ii,  Precious  Metals. ..  21 

relative,  of  gold  and  silver  among  Greeks  and  Romans ;  ib .  330 

table  of,  at  various  periods  from  1344  to  1863 ;  ib .  331 

table  of,  of  gold  and  silver  in  London,  from  1760  to  1829,  and  from  1841 

to  1866 ;  ib . . . . .  332 

of  alloys,  rules  for  calculation  of ;  ib .  333 

Valve  pumps;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . .  .  169 

Varley’s  static  induction  apparatus ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . .  546 

Vandenkerchove,  Prosper,  steam-engine;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  60 

Varrall,  Elwell  &  Poulot,  steam-hammer;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  39 

Vaults  of  b6ton :  i v ,  Beton-Coignet .  13. 

Vautherin,  J. ;  system  for  railway  sleepers  ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  20 

Vein  mining,  average  yield  of  the  most  profitable  mines  of  California ;  ii, 

Precious  Metals . 235 

importance  of  encouraging ;  ib .  238 

success  of,  in  California;  ib . - .  238 

Australia  ;  ib .  238 

necessity  of  government  protection  for ;  ib .  239 

Venezuela,  exhibition  of  gold  from  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  72- 

Ventilation  of  school-houses ;  vi,  Education . . . .- .  58 

the  Exposition  building ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering .  46 

v,  Surgical  Beport .  8 

Chicago  Lake  water  tunnel ;  ib .  27 

by  aid  of  refrigerating  apparatus  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  391 

Verdie  &  Co.,  visit  to  steel  works  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  35 

Verviers,  production  of ;  vi,  Wool .  69 

wages  of  workmen  in  ;  ib .  61 

Vesey,  Mr.,  facts  by,  on  the  production  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  vi,  Wool .  61 

Veterinary  schools ;  vi,  Education .  156-159,259 

Vibrations,  graphic  representation  of ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  506,597,508 

Vibroscope,  Wesselhoft’s  universal ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  515 

Vicat  cement;  iv,  Civil  Engineering . .  11 

Victoria,  (Australia,)  number  of  quartz  miners  employed  in  different  districts 

of:  ii,  Precious  Metals. . .  .  82 

yield  of  gold  from,  in  1866;  ib .  83 

production  of  gold  in,  since  1863,  (table;)  ib . . .  81 

character  of  the  veins  of;  ib . ; .  76 

specimens  of  gold  at  the  Exposition  from  ;  ib . . . . . .  77 

opinion  of  Mr.  Selwyn  in  regard  to  quartz  veins  of ;  ib .  77 


64 


PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 


Page. 

Vidard,  J.  B.,  two-story  railway  carriage ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  25 

Villeneuvette,  peculiar  customs  in  ;  vi,  Wool .  52 

Vine,  culture  and  product  of;  report  on,  by  Commissioners  Wilder,  Thompson, 

Flagg,  and  Barry;  in  volume  v. 

Vine  culture  in  Europe;  v,  Culture  and  Products  of  the  Vine .  7 

Virginia  district,  method  of  working  the  silver  veins  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals...  Ill,  112 

Voelter,  Henry,  machine  for  making  wood  pulp  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  313 

Volumeter  of  Siemens  &  Halske  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  219 

Vulcanized  caoutchouc,  use  of,  in  surgery ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  6,9,22 

Vulture  mine,  width  of  vein,  richness  of  ore,  and  product ;  ii,  Precious  Metals.  43 

W. 

Wages  of  stone  masons  in  Paris  ;  iv,  Building .  37 

average  rate  of,  at  Le  Creusot  and  other  places ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  48-62 

lace-makers;  vi,  Clothing .  63 

Walls  of  b6ton  ;  i x,  Beton-Coignet .  .  13 

Walshaert’s  system  of  operating  valves  on  locomotives ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering .  15 

Walworth,  Mr.  Joseph,  letter  of;  vi,  Wool .  118 

Ward  well’s  channeling  and  quarrying  machine;  i,  General  Survey .  173,281 

Warehouses  of  b6ton ;  iv,  Beton-Coignet. . .  12 

Warrior  target,  perforation  of,  by  15-inch  shot ;  v,  Munitions  of  War .  3 

and  the  Rodman  gun ;  ib . . . .  102 

armor ;  ib .  164 

Washoe  mining  companies,  assessments  of,  (table ;)  ii,  Precious  Metals .  122, 123 

Waste  silk,  utility,  varieties,  and  production  of;  vi,  Silk .  33 

methods  of  utilizing ;  ib .  34 

manufacture  of,  in  Paris;  ib .  41 

France;  ib . 41 

Washington  Mills,  medal  awarded  to ;  vi,  Wool .  24 

Water-color  paintings  and  drawings;  i,  General  Survey .  28 

Water-wheels,  display  of,  at  Exposition ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  108 

Mr.  Sagebien’s  ;  ib .  109 

Mr.  Colladon’s  floating ;  ib .  109 

Water-meter  of  Mr.  E.  Duboys;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . '..  222 

J.  A.  Clement ;  ib.  . .  224 

Cochrane,  United  States ;  ib .  225-228 

Water-gauge  for  boilers ;  iv,  Steam  Engineering . . .  49 

Watkins,  C.  E.,  exhibition  of  photographs  of  Yosemite;  i,  General  Survey _  47,260 

beauty  of  photographs  of ;  v,  Photography .  7 

Wax  models,  anatomical ;  v,  Surgical  Report .  12 

Wear  of  precious  metals,  estimated  loss  by ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  202, 229 

Weaving  of  silk  stuffs ;  vi,  Silk .  36 

French  and  Swiss  looms;  ib .  36-38 

English  looms  ;  ib .  38 

two  classes  of  automatic  looms ;  ib .  36 

ribbons;  ib .  36 

Webster  woolen  mills,  S.  Slater  &  Sons,  medal  awarded  to ;  vi,  Wool .  24 

Weights,  measures,  and  coins,  scientific  commissiou  upon  ;  i,  Introduction  ....  90-101 

international  exhibition  of ;  ib .  94 

the  pavilion  for  the  exhibition  of;  i,  Weights , 

Measures ,  and  Coins .  5 

the  metric  system  in  the  United  States  ;  ib .  8 

tables  of  various  countries;  ib .  14 


GENERAL  INDEX.  65 

Page. 

Weights,  measures,  and  coins,  advantages  of  a  universal  system  of;  ii,  Pre¬ 
cious  Metals .  242 

fineness,  and  value,  table  of,  of  foreign  and  do¬ 
mestic  coins ;  ib .  354 

i,  Weights,  Measures,  and  Coins .  15-47 

Werner’s  patent  glaze  for  casks  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  328 

Wesselhoft’s  universal  vibroscope ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  515 

West  of  England,  fabrics  of;  vi,  Wool .  19 

Riding  of  Yorkshire,  advantages  of,  for  woolen  manufacture;  ib .  62 

manufactures  of;  ib .  62 

cost  of  living  and  wages  in  ;  ib .  64 

Westman’s  roasting  furnace ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  15, 16 

Wicklow  Head,  gas-lighting  at ;  Hi,  Industrial  Arts .  412 

Wickersham’s  nail  machine  ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts . . . . .  248 

Wigham’s  gas-light  for  light-houses ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  404-412 

•  Wilde’s  magneto-electric  machine;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  429 

Wilcox,  hot-air  engine  of ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  35 

Wilder,  Marshall  P.,  culture  and  products  of  the  vine ;  in  volume  v. 

Wheatstone,  Professor,  experiments  upon  the  power  of  one  magneto-electrical 

machine  to  excite  magnetism  in  another;  iii,  Industrial  Arts..  431 

apparatus  of,  for  recording  velocity  of  projectiles;  ib .  564 

Wilson  furnace  in  operation  at  Bolton;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  26 

Wimmers’s  continuously-working  jig ;  iv,  Mining .  89 

Winding  engines  and  drums  for  mines;  iv,  Mining . . .  58 

and  spooling  silk ;  vi,  Clothing .  40 

Windmills;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  120-125 

Wind  register’s,  Beck’s,  of  London;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  571 

Wine,  alcohol,  and  brandy ;  i,  General  Survey .  220,  252,  307 

effect  of  different  upon  the  system  ;  v,  Food . . .  10 

observations  upon  American  and  foreign  wines;  v,  Culture  of  the  Vine..  1 

manufacture  of ;  ib .  10 

ripening  by  aeration ;  ib. .  14 

notes  upon  the  principal  wine  districts  of  Switzerland  and  Germany ;  ibr  16 

treatment  of  the  vine  at  Johannisberg ;  ib .  17 

white  wines  of  the  Rhine  ;  ib .  18 

production  of,  in  California ;  ib .  20-28 

press,  Lotte’s  portable ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  214 

Wood  ashes,  extraction  of  i>otasli  from;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  41 

Wood  puli>  for  the  manufacture  of  paper ;  Industrial  Arts .  313 

woods  best  adapted  to  the  production  of;  ib.  . .  315 

Wood  working  tools,  excellence  of,  from  the  United  States;  ib .  245 

Wire  for  telegraphic  and  other  purposes ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  5 

rods,  manufacture  of ;  ib .  28 

Woodbury’s  colored  gelatine  process;  vi,  Photography .  6, 10 

Wool  and  manufactures  of  wool,  report  upon;  by  John  L.  Hayes  and  E.  R. 

Mudgo ;  in  volume  vi. 

extraction  of  potash  salts  from ;  ii,  Industrial  Chemistry .  42-43 

removal  of  oils  from ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  318 

Moisson’s  apparatus  for  removal  of  oil  from ;  ib .  317 

annual  production  of,  in  France ;  vi,  Wool .  18 

•  Great  Britain ;  'ib .  18 

Spain,  Italy,  and  Portugal ;  ib . . .  18 

Germany;  ib .  18 

European  Russia  ;  ib . 18 

5 


66  PARIS  UNIVERSAL  EXPOSITION. 

Page. 

Wool,  annual  production  of,  in  Australia,  South  America,  and  South  Africa ;  ib.  18 

United  States ;  ib . . .  18 

British  North  American  Provinces ;  ib .  18 

Asia;  ib .  18 

Northern  Africa ;  ib .  18 

French  card  wool  production ;  ib .  34 

manufacture  of,  and  worsted;  vi,  Clothing .  32 

and  worsted  yarns  and  fabrics;  i,  General  Survey .  98,269 

Woolen  clothing;  its  influence  on  health;  vi,  Clothing .  79-84 

industry  of  Europe ;  vi,  Wool... . .  32 

manufacture  in  Europe ;  ib .  17 

Woolwich,  military  academy  at ;  vi,  Education .  201 

Wheat,  production  of,  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  compared ;  v,  Cereals.  12 

Wheatstone,  Prof.,  chronoscope  and  chronograph  ;  iv,  Telegraphic  Apparatus . .  8 

Whips,  canes,  &c. ;  i,  General  Survey .  122 

Whitney’s  gauge  lathe ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  242 

machine  for  working  in  wood ;  ib .  244 

Whitworth,  Mr.,  micrometric  apparatus  of ;  iii ,  Industrial  Arts .  12 

Whitworth’s  apparatus  for  subjecting  steel  to  pressure  during  casting;  iii,  In¬ 
dustrial  Arts .  .  212 

Whitworth  guns ;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  9 

Whitworth  and  Armstrong  guns  ;  v,  Munitions  of  War . . . 51-66, 114 

White  Pine  district,  notice  of  discovery;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  329 

Whitney,  Mr.  J.  P.,  ores  of  Colorado  exhibited  by  ;  ii,  Precious  Metals .  44 

estimate  of  production  of  gold  in  Colorado  by;  ib .  46 

publication  by,  on  the  silver  ores  of  Colorado  ;  ib .  150, 151 

Whitney’s  invention  of  the  cotton  gin ;  vi,  Cotton .  27 

Working  men,  intellectual  and  moral  education  of;  ii,  Iron  and  Steel .  52-62 

legislation  with  respect  to ;  ib .  60, 61 

Working  population  of  Europe,  dwellings  of;  iv,  Building .  62-66 

society  for  improving  the  condition  of ;  ib .  86 

Worsted  wools,  where  grown ;  vi,  Wool .  119 

manufactures  of  England;  ib .  118 

manufactures  of  United  States;  ib .  119 

“  Wrinkles  on”  merino  sheep,  objections  to ;  vi,  Wool .  77 

Wrought-iron  work,  ornamental ;  iv,  Building .  50 

X. 

Xochicalco,  temple  of,  in  the  Park  ;  iv,  Building . . . . .  27 

Y. 

Yachts  and  pleasure  boats ;  i,  General  Survey .  204, 303 

Yale  College;  vi,  Education .  377 

Yesso  and  Sado,  (Japan,)  richness  of  the  gold  mines  of;  ii,  Precious  Metals ....  105 

Yolk,  development  of ;  vi,  Wool .  10 

increase  of,  in  American  merino ;  ib .  76 

Youatt,  Mr.,  observations  of,  in  regard  to  the  breeding  of  horses;  vi,  Wool.. .  92 

Z. 

Zinc  as  used  for  construction  ;  iv,  Civil  Engineering . 1J 

Zollner’s  astrophotometer ;  iii,  Industrial  Arts .  530 

Zollverein,  wages  of  workmen  in ;  vi,  Wool .  61 

Zurich  University  and  polytechnic  schools;  vi,  Education . i .  32,224 

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